Abū Rayhān al-Bīrūnī 271975 225167994 2008-07-12T06:54:15Z Jagged 85 468111 /* Comparative religion */ linked <!--Beginning of the [[Template:Infobox Muslim scholars]]--> {{Infobox Muslim scholars | <!-- Scroll down to edit this page --> <!-- Philosopher Category --> era = [[Matthew Deal]] | <!-- Images --> image_name = Abu-Rayhan Biruni 1973 Afghanistan post stamp.jpg| image_caption = Biruni on a 1973 post stamp commemorating his one thousandth anniversary| signature = | <!-- Information --> name = '''Abū Rayhān Muhammad ibn Ahmad Bīrunī '''| title= '''Abu-Rayhan Biruni'''| birth = [[September 15]] [[973]] AD| death = [[December 13]] [[1048]] AD| Maddhab = [[Sunni Islam|Sunni]] or [[Shia Islam|Shia]]| school tradition= [[Ash'ari]] or [[Theology of Twelvers|Imami]]| Ethnicity = [[Persian people|Persian]]| Region = | notable idea= Father of [[anthropology]], [[geodesy]] and [[Indology]]. Founder of [[experiment]]al [[mechanics]] and experimental [[astronomy]]. Pioneer of [[experimental psychology]]. Contributed to many other fields of knowledge.| main_interests = [[Anthropology]], [[Islamic astrology|astrology]], [[Islamic astronomy|astronomy]], [[Alchemy (Islam)|chemistry]], [[geodesy]], [[geology]], [[history]], [[Islamic mathematics|mathematics]], [[Islamic medicine|medicine]], [[Early Islamic philosophy|philosophy]], [[pharmacology]], [[Islamic physics|physics]], [[Islamic psychology|psychology]], [[Islamic science|science]] | influences = [[Aristotle]], [[Ptolemy]], [[Aryabhata]], [[Muhammad]], [[Brahmagupta]], [[Rhazes]], [[al-Sijzi]], [[Abu Nasr Mansur]], [[Avicenna]] | influenced = [[Al-Sijzi]], [[Avicenna]], [[Omar Khayyam]], [[al-Khazini]], [[Zakariya al-Qazwini]], [[Maragha observatory]], [[Islamic science]], [[Islamic philosophy]] | works = ''Ta'rikh al-Hind'', ''The Mas'udi Canon'', ''Understanding Astrology'', and many other books | }} <!--End of the template--> {{redirect|Al-Biruni|the lunar crater|Al-Biruni (crater)}} '''{{transl|ar|ALA|Abū Rayḥān Muḥammad ibn Aḥmad al-Bīrūnī}}''' ([[September 15]] [[973]] in Kath, [[Khwarezm]] &ndash; [[December 13]] [[1048]] in [[Ghazni]]) was a [[Persian people|Persian]]<!--Please Read the talkpage [[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Talk:Ab%C5%AB_Rayh%C4%81n_al-B%C4%ABr%C5%ABn%C4%AB#On_Biruni.27s_Ancestry.2FBackground]] Biruni is explicitly clear that his native language is the Iranian [[Khwarezmian_language|Chorasmian Language]]. --><ref name=Habib>Rahman Habib, ''A Chronology of Islamic History, 570-1000 CE'', Mansell Publishing, p. 167: <br>{{quote|"A Persian by birth, Biruni produced his writings in Arabic, though he knew, besides Persian, no less than four other languages."}}</ref><ref>[http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9015394 Biruni] (2007). [[Encyclopædia Britannica]]. Retrieved April 22, 2007.</ref><ref>David C. Lindberg, ''Science in the Middle Ages'', [[University of Chicago Press]], p. 18: <br>{{quote|"A Persian by birth, a rationalist in disposition, this contemporary of Avicenna and Alhazen not only studied history, philosophy, and geography in depth, but wrote one of the most comprehensive of Muslim astronomical treatises, the Qanun Al-Masu'di."}}</ref> [[polymath]]<ref>Mr Koïchiro Matsuura. [http://unesdoc.unesco.org/images/0012/001206/120699E.pdf United Nations: Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization], [[UNESCO]]. {{quote|"Biruni, a scholar in many disciplines - from [[linguistics]] to [[mineralogy]] - and perhaps medieval [[Uzbekistan]]'s most universal genius."}}</ref> [[scholar]] of the 11th century. He was a [[Islamic science|scientist]] and [[Islamic physics|physicist]], an [[Anthropology|anthropologist]] and [[Islamic psychology|psychologist]], an [[Islamic astronomy|astronomer]], a [[chemist]], a critic of [[Alchemy (Islam)|alchemy]] and [[Islamic astrology|astrology]], an [[encyclopedist]] and [[Historiography of early Islam|historian]], a [[Islamic geography|geographer]] and [[traveller]], a [[Geodesy|geodesist]] and [[Geology|geologist]], a [[Islamic mathematics|mathematician]], a [[Islamic medicine|pharmacist and physician]], an [[Early Islamic philosophy|Islamic philosopher]] and [[Shia]] [[Kalam|theologian]], and a [[scholar]] and [[teacher]], and he contributed greatly to all of these fields. He was the first [[Muslim]] scholar to study [[History of India|India]] and the [[Brahmin]]ical tradition,<ref name=Dyczkowski1988>{{cite book | author = Dyczkowski, M.S.G. | year = 1988 | title = The Canon of the Saivagama and the Kubjika Tantras of the Western Kaula Tradition | publisher = State University of New York Press | isbn = }}</ref> and has been described as the father of [[Indology]],<ref name=Khan2>Zafarul-Islam Khan, [http://milligazette.com/Archives/15-1-2000/Art5.htm At The Threshold Of A New Millennium – II], ''The Milli Gazette''.</ref> the father of [[geodesy]], and "the first [[anthropology|anthropologist]]".<ref name=Ahmed/> He was also one of the earliest leading exponents of the experimental [[scientific method]],<ref name=MacTutor>{{MacTutor|id=Al-Biruni|title=Al-Biruni}}</ref> and was responsible for introducing the [[experiment]]al method into [[mechanics]]<ref name=Rozhanskaya-642/> and [[mineralogy]], a pioneer of [[comparative sociology]]<ref name=Sardar/> and [[experimental psychology]],<ref name=Iqbal/> and the first to conduct elaborate experiments related to [[astronomical]] phenomena.<ref name=Zahoor/> [[George Sarton]], the father of the history of science, described Biruni as "one of the very greatest [[scientist]]s of Islam, and, all considered, one of the greatest of all times."<ref>[[George Sarton]], ''Introduction to the History of Science'', Vol. 1, p. 707.</ref> [[A. I. Sabra]] desribed Biruni as "one of the great scientific minds in all history."<ref>[[A. I. Sabra]], [http://www.harvardmagazine.com/on-line/090351.html Ibn al-Haytham], ''[[Harvard Magazine]]'', September-October 2003.</ref> The [[Al-Biruni (crater)|Al-Biruni crater]], on the [[Moon]], is named after Biruni. [[Tashkent]] Technical University (formerly Tashkent Polytechnic Institute) is also named after Abu Rayhan al-Biruni. ==Biography== He was born in [[Khwarazm]] formerly north-eastern part of the presently in [[Khiva]], [[Uzbekistan]]. He studied [[mathematics]] and [[astronomy]] under [[Abu Nasr Mansur]]. He was a colleague of the fellow philosopher and physician [[Abū Alī ibn Sīnā]] (Avicenna), the historian, philosopher and ethicist [[Ibn Miskawayh]], in a university and science center established by prince Abu al-Abbas Ma'mun Khawarazmshah. He also travelled to [[South Asia]] or Central Asia (Modern Day Afghanistan) with [[Mahmud of Ghazni]] (whose son and successor Masud was, however, his major patron), and accompanied him on his campaigns in [[India]] (in 1030), learning [[Languages of India|Indian languages]], and studying the religion and philosophy of its people. There, he also wrote his ''Ta'rikh al-Hind'' ("Chronicles of India"). Biruni wrote his books in [[Arabic language|Arabic]] and his native language [[Persian language|Persian]], though he knew no less than four other languages: [[Greek language|Greek]], [[Sanskrit]], [[Syriac]], and possibly [[Berber languages|Berber]].<ref name=Habib/> He was buried in [[Ghazni]] in [[Afghanistan]].{{Fact|date=September 2007}} ==Works== [[Image:Laleh park jonub.jpg|thumb|right|250px|A statue of Biruni adorns the southwest entrance of [[Laleh Park]] in [[Tehran]], [[Iran]].]] Biruni's works number 146 in total. These include 35 books on [[Islamic astronomy|astronomy]], 4 on [[astrolabe]]s, 23 on [[Islamic astrology|astrology]], 5 on [[chronology]], 2 on [[time measurement]], 9 on [[geography]], 10 on [[geodesy]] and [[map]]ping theory, 15 on [[Islamic mathematics|mathematics]] (8 on [[arithmetic]], 5 on [[geometry]], 2 on [[trigonometry]]), 2 on [[mechanics]], 2 on [[Islamic medicine|medicine]] and [[pharmacology]], 1 on [[meteorology]], 2 on [[mineralogy]] and [[gem]]s, 4 on [[history]], 2 on [[India (disambiguation)|India]], 3 on [[religion]] and [[Early Islamic philosophy|philosophy]], 16 [[Islamic literature|literary works]], 2 books on [[Magic (paranormal)|magic]], and 9 unclassified books. Among these works, only 22 have survived, and only 13 of these works have been published.<ref>{{DSB|first=E. S.|last=Kennedy|title=Bīrūnī, {{IAST|Abū Rayḥān}} al-|volume=II|pages=152}}</ref> 6 of his surviving works are on astronomy.<ref>[http://www.muslimheritage.com/topics/default.cfm?ArticleID=232 An overview of Muslim Astronomers], Foundation for Science Technology and Civilisation.</ref> His extant works include: * ''Critical study of what India says, whether accepted by reason or refused'' (Arabic تحقيق ما للهند من مقولة معقولة في العقل أم مرذولة) - a compendium of India's religion and philosophy * ''[[The Remaining Signs of Past Centuries]]'' (Arabic الآثار الباقية عن القرون الخالية) - a comparative study of calendars of different cultures and civilizations, interlaced with mathematical, astronomical, and historical information. * ''The Mas'udi Canon'' (Persian قانون مسعودي) - an extensive [[encyclopedia]] on astronomy, geography, and engineering, named after Mas'ud, son of [[Mahmud of Ghazni]], to whom he dedicated * ''Understanding Astrology'' (Arabic التفهيم لصناعة التنجيم) - a question and answer style book about mathematics and astronomy, in Arabic and Persian * ''Pharmacy'' - about drugs and medicines * ''Gems'' (Arabic الجماهر في معرفة الجواهر) about geology, minerals, and gems, dedicated to Mawdud son of Mas'ud * ''Astrolabe'' * A historical summary book * ''History of Mahmud of Ghazni and his father'' * ''History of Khawarazm'' ==Astronomy== [[Image:Lunar eclipse al-Biruni.jpg|thumb|300px|right|An illustration from Biruni's Persian book. It shows different [[phases of the moon]].]] [[Will Durant]] wrote the following on al-Biruni's contributions to [[Islamic astronomy]]: {{quote|"He wrote treatises on the [[astrolabe]], the [[planisphere]], the [[armillary sphere]]; and formulated [[Zij|astronomical tables]] for Sultan Masud. He took it for granted that the [[Spherical Earth|earth is round]], noted “the attraction of all things towards the center of the earth,” and remarked that astronomic data can be explained as well by supposing that the [[Earth's rotation|earth turns daily on its axis]] and annually [[Heliocentrism|around the sun]], as by the reverse hypothesis."<ref>[[Will Durant]] (1950). ''[[The Story of Civilization]] IV: The Age of Faith'', p. 239-45.</ref>}} ===Experimental observations=== Biruni was the first to conduct elaborate [[experiment]]s related to [[astronomical]] phenomena. He supposed the [[Milky Way]] [[galaxy]] to be a collection of numerous [[Nebula|nebulous]] [[star]]s, and in [[Greater Khorasan|Khorasan]], he observed and described the [[solar eclipse]] on April 8, 1019, and the [[lunar eclipse]] on September 17, 1019, in detail, and gave the exact [[latitude]]s of the stars during the lunar eclipse.<ref name=MacTutor/> In 1031, Biruni completed his extensive astronomical encyclopaedia ''Kitab al-Qanun al-Mas'udi'' ([[Latin]]ized as ''Canon Mas’udicus''),<ref name=Covington>{{Harv|Covington|2007}}</ref> in which he recorded his astronomical findings and formulated astronomical tables. The book introduces the mathematical technique of analysing the [[acceleration]] of the planets, and first states that the motions of the [[Apsis|solar apogee]] and the [[precession]] are not identical. Biruni also discovered that the distance between the Earth and the Sun is larger than [[Ptolemy]]'s estimate, on the basis that Ptolemy disregarded the annual [[solar eclipse]]s.<ref name=Khwarizm/><ref>[[George Saliba]] (1980), "Al-Biruni", in Joseph Strayer, ''Dictionary of the Middle Ages'', Vol. 2, p. 249. Charles Scribner's Sons, New York.</ref> Al-Biruni also introduced a new method of [[observation]] called the "three points observation". A later Muslim polymath astronomer, [[Taqi al-Din]], described the three points as "two of them being in opposition in the [[ecliptic]] and the third in any desired place." Prior to al-Biruni, astronomers used the relatively inaccurate method of [[Hipparchus]] who used the intervals of [[season]]s for calculating solar parameters. Al-Biruni's new "three points observation" was an important contribution to practical astronomy, and was still used six centuries later by Taqi al-Din, [[Tycho Brahe]] and [[Nicolaus Copernicus]] to calculate the [[Orbital eccentricity|eccentricity]] of the Sun's orbit and the annual motion of the [[apogee]].<ref name=Tekeli>Sevim Tekeli, "Taqi al-Din", in Helaine Selin (1997), ''Encyclopaedia of the History of Science, Technology, and Medicine in Non-Western Cultures'', [[Kluwer Academic Publishers]], ISBN 0792340663.</ref> ===Instruments=== Biruni invented a number of [[Islamic astronomy#Instruments|astronomical instruments]]. He wrote the first treatises on the [[planisphere]] (the earliest [[star chart]]) and the [[Orthographic projection (cartography)|orthographical]] [[astrolabe]], as well as a treatise on the [[armillary sphere]], and he was able to mathematically determine the direction of the [[Qibla]] from any place in the world.<ref name=Khwarizm>[http://muslimheritage.com/topics/default.cfm?ArticleID=482 Khwarizm], Foundation for Science Technology and Civilisation.</ref><ref name=Wiet>G. Wiet, V. Elisseeff, P. Wolff, J. Naudu (1975). ''History of Mankind, Vol 3: The Great medieval Civilisations'', p. 649. George Allen & Unwin Ltd, [[UNESCO]].</ref> He also wrote the earliest treatise on the [[Sextant (astronomical)|sextant]].<ref>Jean Claude Pecker (2001), ''Understanding the Heavens: Thirty Centuries of Astronomical Ideas from Ancient Thinking to Modern Cosmology'', p. 311, Springer, ISBN 3540631984.</ref> He also invented an early [[hodometer]],<ref>D. De S. Price (1984). "A History of Calculating Machines", ''IEEE Micro'' '''4''' (1), p. 22-52.</ref> and the first [[Mechanical engineering|mechanical]] [[lunisolar calendar]] [[Analog computer|computer]] which employed a [[gear train]] and eight [[gear]]-wheels.<ref>[[Donald Routledge Hill]] (1985). "Al-Biruni's mechanical calendar", ''Annals of Science'' '''42''', p. 139-163.</ref> These were early examples of fixed-[[wire]]d knowledge processing [[machine]]s.<ref>Tuncer Oren (2001). "Advances in Computer and Information Sciences: From Abacus to Holonic Agents", ''Turk J Elec Engin'' '''9''' (1), p. 63-70 [64].</ref> In his ''Exhaustive Treatise on Shadows'', he explained the calculation of [[Salah]] prayer times according to the shadow cast by the [[gnomon]] of a [[sundial]].<ref>{{citation|last=Morrison|first=Robert|contribution=Astronomy|editor-last=Meri|editor-first=Josef W.|year=2006|title=Medieval Islamic Civilization: An Encyclopedia|pages=77-78 [78]|publisher=[[Taylor and Francis]]|isbn=0415966914}}</ref> The first description of an "observation tube" is found in a work of Biruni, in a section "dedicated to verifying the presence of the new crescent on the horizon." Though these early observation tubes did not have [[Lens (optics)|lenses]], they "enabled an observer to focus on a part of the sky by eliminating [[light]] inteference." These observation tubes were later adopted in [[Latin]]-speaking Europe, where they influenced the development of the [[telescope]].<ref>Regis Morelon, "General Survey of Arabic Astronomy", pp. 9-10, in {{Harv|Rashed|Morelon|1996|pp=1-19}}</ref> ===Theories=== In 1030, [[Abū al-Rayhān al-Bīrūnī|Biruni]] discussed the [[Indian astronomy|Indian]] [[heliocentrism|heliocentric]] theories of [[Aryabhata]], [[Brahmagupta]] and [[Varahamihira]] in his ''[[Indica]]''. Biruni noted that the question of heliocentricity was a philosophical rather than a mathematical problem.<ref name=Saliba>[[George Saliba|Saliba, George]] (1999). [http://www.columbia.edu/~gas1/project/visions/case1/sci.1.html Whose Science is Arabic Science in Renaissance Europe?] [[Columbia University]].</ref> Abu Said [[al-Sijzi]], a contemporary of Biruni, suggested the possible [[Heliocentrism|heliocentric]] movement of the Earth around the Sun, which Biruni did not reject.<ref name=Baker>A. Baker and L. Chapter (2002), "Part 4: The Sciences". In M. M. Sharif, "A History of Muslim Philosophy", ''Philosophia Islamica''.</ref> Biruni agreed with the [[Earth's rotation]] about its own axis, and while he was initially neutral regarding the [[heliocentrism|heliocentric]] and [[geocentric model]]s,<ref name=Marmura>Michael E. Marmura (1965). "''An Introduction to Islamic Cosmological Doctrines. Conceptions of Nature and Methods Used for Its Study by the Ikhwan Al-Safa'an, Biruni, and Ibn Sina'' by Seyyed [[Hossein Nasr]]", ''Speculum'' '''40''' (4), p. 744-746.</ref> he considered heliocentrism to be a philosophical problem.<ref name=Saliba/> He remarked that if the Earth rotates on its axis and moves around the Sun, it would remain consistent with his astronomical parameters:<ref name=Khwarizm/><ref name=Wiet/> {{quote|"Rotation of the earth would in no way invalidate astronomical calculations, for all the astronomical data are as explicable in terms of the one theory as of the other. The problem is thus difficult of solution."}} Biruni also wrote the following on al-Sijzi's heliocentric astrolabe called the "Zuraqi":<ref>Seyyed [[Hossein Nasr]] (1993), ''An Introduction to Islamic Cosmological Doctrines'', p. 135-136. [[State University of New York Press]], ISBN 0791415163.</ref> {{quote|"I have seen the astrolabe called Zuraqi invented by Abu Sa'id Sijzi. I liked it very much and praised him a great deal, as it is based on the idea entertained by some to the effect that the motion we see is due to the Earth's movement and not to that of the sky. By my life, it is a problem difficult of solution and refutation. [...] For it is the same whether you take it that the Earth is in motion or the sky. For, in both cases, it does not affect the Astronomical Science. It is just for the physicist to see if it is possible to refute it."}} ===Refutation of astrology=== The first [[Semantics|semantic]] distinction between astronomy and [[Islamic astrology|astrology]] was given by al-Biruni in the 11th century.<ref>S. Pines (September 1964). "The Semantic Distinction between the Terms Astronomy and Astrology according to al-Biruni", ''Isis'' '''55''' (3): 343-349.</ref> In a later work, he wrote a refutation of astrology. His reasons for refuting astrology were both due to the methods used by astrologers being [[conjectural]] rather than [[empirical]] and also due to the views of astrologers conflicting with orthodox [[Islam]].<ref>{{Harv|Saliba|1994|pp=60 & 67-69}}</ref> ==Earth sciences== [[Image:Biruni-russian.jpg|thumb|1973 [[Soviet Union|USSR]] stamp commemorating the 1000th anniversary of Abū Rayhān al-Bīrūnī]] Biruni made a number of contributions to the [[Earth science]]s. In particular, he is regarded as the father of [[geodesy]],<ref name=Ahmed/><ref>H. Mowlana (2001). "Information in the Arab World", ''Cooperation South Journal'' '''1'''.</ref> and has made significant contributions to [[cartography]], [[Islamic geography|geography]], [[geology]] and [[mineralogy]]. ===Cartography=== By the age of 22, he had written several short works, including a study of [[map projection]]s, ''[[Cartography]]'', which included a method for projecting a [[Sphere|hemisphere]] on a [[plane (mathematics)|plane]]. ===Geodesy and Geography=== At the age of 17, Biruni calculated the [[latitude]] of Kath, [[Khwarazm]], using the maximum altitude of the Sun. Al-Biruni also solved a complex [[Geodesy|geodesic]] equation in order to accurately compute the [[Earth]]'s [[circumference]], which were close to modern values of the Earth's circumference.<ref name=Khwarizm/><ref>James S. Aber (2003). Alberuni calculated the Earth's circumference at a small town of Pind Dadan Khan, District Jhelum, Punjab, Pakistan.[http://academic.emporia.edu/aberjame/histgeol/biruni/biruni.htm Abu Rayhan al-Biruni], [[Emporia State University]].</ref> His estimate of 6,339.9 km for the [[Earth radius]] was only 16.8 km less than the modern value of 6,356.7 km. In contrast to his predecessors who measured the Earth's circumference by sighting the Sun simultaneously from two different locations, al-Biruni developed a new method of using [[trigonometric]] calculations based on the angle between a [[plain]] and [[mountain]] top which yielded more accurate measurements of the Earth's circumference and made it possible for it to be measured by a single person from a single location.<ref>Lenn Evan Goodman (1992), ''Avicenna'', p. 31, [[Routledge]], ISBN 041501929X.</ref> John J. O'Connor and Edmund F. Robertson write in the ''[[MacTutor History of Mathematics archive]]'': {{quote|"Important contributions to [[geodesy]] and [[Islamic geography|geography]] were also made by Biruni. He introduced techniques to measure the earth and distances on it using [[triangulation]]. He found the [[Earth radius|radius of the earth]] to be 6339.6 km, a value not obtained in the West until the 16th century. His ''Masudic canon'' contains a table giving the coordinates of six hundred places, almost all of which he had direct knowledge."<ref name=MacTutor/>}} In mathematical [[geography]], Biruni, around [[1025]], was the first to describe a polar equi-[[azimuthal equidistant projection]] of the [[celestial sphere]].<ref>David A. King (1996), "Astronomy and Islamic society: Qibla, gnomics and timekeeping", in Roshdi Rashed, ed., ''[[Encyclopedia of the History of Arabic Science]]'', Vol. 1, p. 128-184 [153]. [[Routledge]], London and New York.</ref> He was also regarded as the most skilled when it came to mapping [[City|cities]] and measuring the distances between them, which he did for many cities in the [[Middle East]] and western [[Indian subcontinent]]. He often combined astronomical readings and mathematical equations, in order to develop methods of pin-pointing locations by recording degrees of [[latitude]] and [[longitude]]. He also developed similar techniques when it came to measuring the heights of [[mountain]]s, depths of [[valley]]s, and expanse of the [[horizon]], in ''The Chronology of the Ancient Nations''.<ref name=Bill>{{Harv|Scheppler|2006|pp=41-2}}</ref> He also discussed [[human geography]] and the [[planetary habitability]] of the [[Earth]]. He hypothesized that roughly a quarter of the Earth's surface is habitable by [[human]]s, and also argued that the shores of [[Asia]] and [[Europe]] were "separated by a vast sea, too dark and dense to navigate and too risky to try" in reference to the [[Atlantic Ocean]] and [[Pacific Ocean]].<ref name=Bill/> ===Geology=== Among his writings on [[geology]], Biruni wrote the following on the [[geology of India]]: {{quote|"But if you see the soil of [[India (disambiguation)|India]] with your own eyes and meditate on its nature, if you consider the rounded stones found in earth however deeply you dig, stones that are huge near the mountains and where the rivers have a violent current: stones that are of smaller size at a greater distance from the mountains and where the streams flow more slowly: stones that appear pulverised in the shape of sand where the streams begin to stagnate near their mouths and near the sea - if you consider all this you can scarcely help thinking that India was once a sea, which by degrees has been filled up by the alluvium of the streams."<ref>[[Abdus Salam|A. Salam]] (1984), "Islam and Science". In C. H. Lai (1987), ''Ideals and Realities: Selected Essays of Abdus Salam'', 2nd ed., World Scientific, Singapore, p. 179-213.</ref>}} ===Mineralogy=== Al-Biruni introduced the [[scientific method]] into [[mineralogy]] in his ''Kitab al-Jawahir'' (''Book of Precious Stones''), where he was "the most [[Exact science|exact]] of [[experiment]]al scientists".<ref name=Sardar/> The book described [[mineral]]s such as [[Rock (geology)|stones]] and [[metal]]s in depth, and was regarded as the most complete book on [[mineralogy]] in his time. He conducted hundreds of [[experiment]]s to gauge the accurate measurements of items he [[Pharmacopoeia|catalogued]], and he often listed them by name in a number of different languages, including [[Arabic language|Arabic]], [[Persian language|Persian]], [[Greek language|Greek]], [[Syriac language|Syriac]], [[Hindi]], [[Latin]], and other languages. In the ''Book of Precious Stones'', he catalogued each [[mineral]] by its [[color]], [[odor]], [[hardness]], [[density]] and [[weight]]. The weights for many of these minerals he measured were correct to three [[Arithmetic precision|decimal places]] of accuracy, and were almost as accurate as modern measurements for these minerals.<ref>{{Harv|Scheppler|2006|pp=42-3}}</ref> ==Philosophy of science== ===Scientific method=== In [[early Islamic philosophy]], Biruni discussed the [[philosophy of science]] and introduced an early [[scientific method]] in nearly every field of [[inquiry]] he studied. For example, in his treatise on [[mineralogy]], ''Kitab al-Jamahir'' (''Book of Precious Stones''), he is "the most [[Exact science|exact]] of [[experiment]]al scientists", while in the introduction to his [[Indology|study of India]], he declares that "to execute our project, it has not been possible to follow the geometric method" and develops [[comparative sociology]] as a scientific method in the field.<ref name=Sardar>{{citation|first=Ziauddin|last=Sardar|author-link=Ziauddin Sardar|date=1998|contribution=Science in Islamic philosophy|title=Islamic Philosophy|publisher=[[Routledge Encyclopedia of Philosophy]]|url=http://www.muslimphilosophy.com/ip/rep/H016.htm|accessdate=2008-02-03}}</ref> He was also responsible for introducing the experimental method into [[mechanics]],<ref name=Rozhanskaya-642/> the first to conduct elaborate experiments related to [[astronomical]] phenomena,<ref name=Zahoor>Dr. A. Zahoor (1997), [http://www.unhas.ac.id/~rhiza/saintis/biruni.html Abu Raihan Muhammad al-Biruni], [[Hasanuddin University]].</ref> and a pioneer of [[experimental psychology]].<ref name=Iqbal/> Unlike his contemporary [[Avicenna]]'s scientific method where "general and universal questions came first and led to [[experiment]]al work", Biruni developed scientific methods where "universals came out of practical, experimental work" and "theories are formulated after discoveries."<ref name=Sardar/> In his debate with Avicenna, Biruni made the first real distinction between a [[scientist]] and a [[philosopher]], referring to Avicenna as a philosopher and considering himself to be a mathematical scientist (see ''[[#Natural philosophy|Natural philosophy]]'' below).<ref name=Dallal/> Biruni's scientific method was similar to the modern scientific method in many ways, particularly his emphasis on repeated experimentation. Biruni was concerned with how to conceptualize and prevent both [[systematic error]]s and [[random errors]], such as "errors caused by the use of small instruments and errors made by human observers."<ref>{{Harv|Glick|Livesey|Wallis|2005|p=89}}</ref> He argued that if instruments produce random errors because of their imperfections or idiosyncratic qualities, then multiple observations must be taken, [[Qualitative research|analyzed qualitatively]], and on this basis, arrive at a "common-sense single value for the [[constant]] sought", whether an [[arithmetic mean]] or a "reliable [[estimate]]."<ref>{{Harv|Glick|Livesey|Wallis|2005|pp=89-90}}</ref> ===Natural philosophy=== Biruni and [[Avicenna]] (Ibn Sina), who are regarded as two of the greatest [[polymath]]s in Persian history, were both colleagues and knew each other since the turn of the millennium. Biruni later engaged in a written [[debate]] with Avicenna, with Biruni criticizing the [[Peripatetic school]] for its adherence to [[Aristotelian physics]] and [[natural philosophy]], while Avicenna and his student Ahmad ibn 'Ali al-Ma'sumi respond to Biruni's criticisms in writing.<ref name=Berjak/> This debate has been preserved in a book entitled ''al-As'ila wal-Ajwiba'' (''Questions and Answers''), in which al-Biruni attacks Aristotle's theories on [[physics]] and [[cosmology]], and questions almost all of the fundamental [[Aristotelianism|Aristotelian]] physical [[axiom]]s. For example, he rejects the notion that [[Astronomical object|heavenly bodies]] have an [[Intrinsic and extrinsic properties (philosophy)|inherent nature]] and asserts that their "motion could very well be compulsory"; maintains that "there is no observable [[evidence]] that rules out the possibility of [[vacuum]]"; and states that there is no inherent reason why planetary [[orbit]]s must be [[Circular orbit|circular]] and cannot be [[Elliptic orbit|elliptical]]. He also argues that "the [[metaphysical]] axioms on which [[philosophers]] build their physical theories do not constitute valid evidence for the mathematical astronomer." This marks the first real distinction between the [[vocation]]s of the [[philosopher]]-metaphysician (which he labelled Aristotle and Avicenna as) and that of the [[mathematician]]-[[scientist]] (which al-Biruni viewed himself as). In contrast to the philosophers, the only evidence that al-Biruni considered reliable were either mathematical or [[empirical evidence]], and his systematic application of rigorous mathematical reasoning later led to the mathematization of [[Islamic astronomy]] and the mathematization of [[nature]].<ref name=Dallal>{{citation|first=Ahmad|last=Dallal|year=2001-2002|title=The Interplay of Science and Theology in the Fourteenth-century Kalam|publisher=From Medieval to Modern in the Islamic World, Sawyer Seminar at the [[University of Chicago]] |url=http://humanities.uchicago.edu/orgs/institute/sawyer/archive/islam/dallal.html |accessdate=2008-02-02}}</ref> Biruni began the debate by asking Avicenna eighteen questions, ten of which were criticisms of [[Aristotle]]'s ''[[On the Heavens]]'', with his first question criticizing the [[Aristotelian theory of gravity]] for denying the existence of [[wiktionary:levity|levity]] or [[Gravitation|gravity]] in the [[celestial sphere]]s, and the Aristotelian notion of [[circular motion]] being an [[Intrinsic and extrinsic properties (philosophy)|innate property]] of the heavenly bodies.<ref name=Berjak>Rafik Berjak and Muzaffar Iqbal, "Ibn Sina--Al-Biruni correspondence", ''Islam & Science'', June 2003.</ref> Biruni's second question criticizes Aristotle's over-reliance on more ancient views concerning the [[heaven]]s, while the third criticizes the Aristotelian view that [[space]] has only six directions. The fourth question deals with the continuity and discontinuity of [[Physical body|physical bodies]], while the fifth criticizes the Peripatetic denial of the possibility of there existing another [[world]] completely different from the world known to them.<ref>Rafik Berjak and Muzaffar Iqbal, "Ibn Sina--Al-Biruni correspondence", ''Islam & Science'', December 2003.</ref> In his sixth question, Biruni rejects Aristotle's view on the [[celestial sphere]]s having [[circular orbit]]s rather than [[elliptic orbit]]s. In his seventh question, he rejects Aristotle's notion that the motion of the heavens begins from the right side and from the [[east]], while his eighth question concerns Aristotle's view on the [[Fire (classical element)|fire element]] being [[Sphere|spherical]]. The ninth question concerns the movement of [[heat]], and the tenth question concerns the transformation of [[element]]s.<ref>Rafik Berjak and Muzaffar Iqbal, "Ibn Sina--Al-Biruni correspondence", ''Islam & Science'', Summer 2004.</ref> The eleventh question concerns the burning of bodies by [[radiation]] reflecting off a [[flask]] filled with [[water]], and the twelfth concerns the natural tendency of the [[classical element]]s in their upward and downward movements. The thirteenth question deals with [[Visual perception|vision]], while the fourteenth concerns [[habitation]] on different parts of [[Earth]]. His fifteenth question asks how two opposite [[Square (geometry)|squares]] in a square divided into four can be [[tangent]]ial, while the sixteenth question concerns [[vacuum]]. His seventeenth question asks "if things expand upon heating and contract upon cooling, why does a flask filled with water break when water freezes in it?" His eighteenth and final question concerns the observable phenomenon of [[ice]] floating on water.<ref>Rafik Berjak and Muzaffar Iqbal, "Ibn Sina--Al-Biruni correspondence", ''Islam & Science'', Winter 2004.</ref> After Avicenna responded to the questions, Biruni was unsatisfied with some of the answers and wrote back commenting on them, after which Avicenna's student Ahmad ibn 'Ali al-Ma'sumi wrote back on behalf of Avicenna.<ref name=Berjak/> ==Physics== ===Astrophysics=== In [[astrophysics]] and the [[celestial mechanics]] field of [[Islamic physics|physics]], Biruni described the [[Earth]]'s [[gravitation]] as:<ref name=Khwarizm/> {{quote|"The attraction of all things towards the centre of the earth."}} He also discovered that gravity exists within the [[Astronomical object|heavenly bodies]] and [[celestial sphere]]s, and he criticized [[Aristotle]]'s views of them not having any [[levity]] or gravity and of [[circular motion]] being an [[Intrinsic and extrinsic properties|innate property]] of the heavenly bodies.<ref name=Berjak/> ===Experimental mechanics=== [[Biruni]] was the first to apply [[experiment]]al [[scientific method]]s to [[mechanics]], especially the fields of [[statics]] and [[dynamics]], particularly for determining [[specific weight]]s, such as those based on the theory of [[balance]]s and [[Weighing scale|weighing]].<ref name=Rozhanskaya-642>Mariam Rozhanskaya and I. S. Levinova (1996), "Statics", in Roshdi Rashed, ed., ''[[Encyclopedia of the History of Arabic Science]]'', Vol. 2, p. 614-642 [642], [[Routledge]], London and New York: {{quote|"Numerous fine experimental methods were developed for determining the specific weight, which were based, in particular, on the theory of balances and weighing. The classical works of al-Biruni and [[al-Khazini]] can by right be considered as the beginning of the application of experimental methods in [[Science in the Middle Ages|medieval science]]."}}</ref> In the [[dynamics]] and [[kinematics]] fields of [[mechanics]], Biruni was the first to realize that [[acceleration]] is connected with non-uniform [[Motion (physics)|motion]], which is part of [[Newton's second law of motion]].<ref name=MacTutor/> In [[statics]], Biruni measured the [[Relative density|specific gravities]] of eighteen [[gemstone]]s, and discovered that there is a correlation between the specific gravity of an object and the [[volume]] of water it displaces.<ref>[[Will Durant]] (1950). ''The Age of Faith'', p. 244. Simon and Shuster, New York. ([[cf.]] [http://muslimheritage.com/topics/default.cfm?ArticleID=482 Khwarizm], Foundation for Science Technology and Civilisation.)</ref> He was also "the first in history to introduce checking tests in the practice of [[experiment]]s". He measured the [[weight]]s of various liquids, and recorded the differences in weight between [[freshwater]] and [[saline water]], and between hot water and cold water.<ref name=Rozhanskaya>M. Rozhanskaya and I. S. Levinova, "Statics", in R. Rashed (1996), ''The Encyclopaedia of the History of Arabic Science'', p. p. 614-642 [639], [[Routledge]], London. ([[cf.]] [http://muslimheritage.com/topics/default.cfm?ArticleID=482 Khwarizm], Foundation for Science Technology and Civilisation.)</ref> During his [[experiment]]s, he invented the [[conical measure]],<ref>Marshall Clagett (1961). ''The Science of Mechanics in the Middle Ages'', p. 64. [[University of Wisconsin Press]].</ref> in order to find the ratio between the [[weight]] of a substance in air and the weight of water displaced, and to accurately measure the specific weights of the gemstones and their corresponding [[metal]]s, which are very close to modern measurements.<ref name=Rozhanskaya/> ===Optics=== In [[optics]], Biruni was one of the first, along with [[Ibn al-Haytham]], to discover that the [[speed of light]] is finite. Biruni was also the first to discover that the speed of light is much faster than the [[speed of sound]].<ref name=MacTutor/><ref>[[George Sarton]], ''Introduction to the History of Science'', "The Time of Al-Biruni".</ref> ==Social sciences== ===Anthropology=== In the [[social sciences]], Biruni has been described as "the first [[Anthropology|anthropologist]]".<ref name=Ahmed>Akbar S. Ahmed (1984). "Al-Beruni: The First Anthropologist", ''RAIN'' '''60''', p. 9-10.</ref> He wrote detailed comparative studies on the [[anthropology]] of peoples, religions and cultures in the [[Middle East]], [[Mediterranean Basin|Mediterranean]] and [[South Asia]]. Biruni's anthropology of religion was only possible for a scholar deeply immersed in the lore of other nations.<ref>J. T. Walbridge (1998). "Explaining Away the Greek Gods in Islam", ''Journal of the History of Ideas'' '''59''' (3), p. 389-403.</ref> Biruni has also been praised by several scholars for his [[Islam]]ic anthropology.<ref>Richard Tapper (1995). "Islamic Anthropology" and the "Anthropology of Islam", ''Anthropological Quarterly'' '''68''' (3), Anthropological Analysis and Islamic Texts, p. 185-193.</ref> Al-Biruni developed a sophisticated [[methodology]] for his anthropological studies. For example, he wrote the following in the opening passages of his ''Indica'': {{quote|"No one will deny that in questions of historic authenticity hearsay does not equal eyewitness; for in the latter the eye of the observer apprehends the substance of that which is observed, both in the time when and in the place where it exists, whilst hearsay has its peculiar drawbacks."<ref name=Alam>Muzaffar Alam and Sanjay Subrahmanyam (2007), ''Indo-Persian Travels in the Age of Discoveries, 1400–1800'', "Chapter I - Introduction: the travel-account from Beijing to the Bosphorus", [[Cambridge University Press]], ISBN 978-0-521-78041-4.</ref>}} He was also aware that there are limitations to eye-[[witness]] accounts: {{quote|"The object of eye-witness can only be actual momentary existence, whilst hearsay comprehends alike the present, the past and the future"<ref name=Alam/>}} ===Experimental psychology=== In [[Islamic psychology]], al-Biruni was a pioneer of [[experimental psychology]], for his use of [[empirical]] observation and [[experiment]]ation in his discovery of the concept of [[reaction time]], which he described as follows:<ref name=Iqbal>{{citation|first=Muhammad|last=Iqbal|author-link=Muhammad Iqbal|year=1930|title=[[The Reconstruction of Religious Thought in Islam]]|chapter=The Spirit of Muslim Culture|url=http://www.allamaiqbal.com/works/prose/english/reconstruction|accessdate=2008-01-25}}</ref> {{quote|"Not only is every sensation attended by a corresponding change localized in the [[Sensory system|sense-organ]], which demands a certain time, but also, between the [[stimulation]] of the organ and [[consciousness]] of the [[perception]] an interval of time must elapse, corresponding to the transmission of [[Stimulus (physiology)|stimulus]] for some distance along the [[nerve]]s."}} ===History=== By the age of 27, in the year [[1000]], he had written a book called ''[[Chronology]]'' which referred to other works he had completed (now lost) that included one book about the [[astrolabe]], one about the [[decimal system]], four about [[astrology]], and two about [[history]]. In his ''Kitab fi Tahqiq ma li'l-Hind'' (''Researches on India''), he was the first to distinguish between the [[historical method]] and the [[scientific method]]. He also discussed more on his idea of [[history]] in another work, ''The Chronology of the Ancient Nations''.<ref name=Khan>M. S. Khan (1976). "al-Biruni and the Political History of India", ''Oriens'' '''25''', p. 86-115.</ref> ===Indology=== Until the 10th century, [[history]] most often meant political and military history, but this was not so with Biruni (973-1048). In his ''Kitab fi Tahqiq ma li'l-Hind'' (''Researches on India''), he did not record political and military history in any detail, but wrote more on [[History of India|India]]'s [[Culture of India|cultural]], [[Science and technology in ancient India|scientific]], social and [[Religion in India|religious]] history.<ref name=Khan/> Biruni is now regarded as the father of [[Indology]].<ref name=Khan2/> ==Theology== ===Islamic theology=== In [[theology]], Biruni was either a follower of the orthodox [[Ash'ari]] school of [[Sunni Islam|Sunni]] [[Kalam|Islamic theology]],<ref name=Sardar/> or a follower of [[Shi'a Islam]].<ref>Encyclopedia Britannica, Entry al-Biruni</ref> He is also thought to have associated with [[Maturidi]] theologians and was sympathetic towards [[Ismaili]]s. He was critical, however, of [[Mutazili]] theologians, particularly [[al-Jahiz]] and Zurqan, and he also criticized [[Muhammad ibn Zakarīya Rāzi]]'s sympathy for [[Manichaeanism]].<ref name=Watt/> In ''The Chronology Of Ancient Nations''<ref>Albiruni. The Chronology Of Ancient Nations, trans.Edward Sachau. London: Elibron Classics, 2005.</ref>, he refers to [[Ali]] as 'the Prince of the Believers' while not doing the same for [[Abu Bakr]], [[Umar]] or [[Uthman]]. He places great emphasis on the commemoration of the martyrdom of [[Husayn ibn Ali]] going into detail about the event and rejects the hadith that promotes fasting on the day of [[Ashura]]. He also refers to the murderer of Ali as the cursed while not doing the same with the killer of Umar. He mentions the birth and death of Shia Imams, Fatima daughter of Muhammad and Khadija, Muhammad's wife.<ref>The Chronology Of Ancient Nations, trans.Edward Sachau. London: Elibron Classics, 2005, pp.325-334</ref> Biruni assigned to the [[Qur'an]] a separate and autonomous realm of its own and held that:<ref>"Qur'an and Science", ''[[Encyclopedia of the Qur'an]]''.</ref> {{quote|"[the Qur'an] does not interfere in the business of [[Islamic science|science]] nor does it infringe on the realm of science."}} He also argued that the possession of [[intellect]] makes humans superior to [[animal]]s and that [[God]] "placed humans as [[Steward (office)|stewards]] over [[Earth]] and other terrestrial life-forms." He also considered [[Hearing (sense)|hearing]] and [[Visual perception|sight]] to be the two most important [[sense]]s, as they allow humans to "observe the signs of God's divine wisdom in his creations" and "receive the word of God and his command."<ref>{{Harv|Scheppler|2006|p=43}}</ref> ===Comparative religion=== In [[religious education]], Biruni was a pioneer of [[comparative religion]]. According to [[Arthur Jeffery]], "It is rare until modern times to find so fair and unprejudiced a statement of the views of other [[religion]]s, so earnest an attempt to study them in the best sources, and such care to find a method which for this branch of study would be both rigorous and just."<ref name=Watt>{{cite web|author=William Montgomery Watt|date=2004-04-14|title=BĪRŪNĪ and the study of non-Islamic Religions|url=http://www.fravahr.org/spip.php?article31|accessdate=2008-01-25}}</ref> In the introduction to his ''Indica'', Biruni himself writes that his intent behind the work was to engage [[dialogue]] between Islam and the [[Indian religions]], particularly [[Hinduism]] as well as [[Buddhism]]. He writes:<ref name=Watt/> {{quote|"Abu-Sahl at-­Tiflisi incited me to write down what I know about the [[Hindu]]s as a help to those who want to discuss religious questions with them, and as a repertory of information to those who want to associate with them. We think now that what we have related in this book will be sufficient for anyone who wants to converse with the Hindus, and to discuss with them questions of religion, science or literature, on the very basis of their own civilisation."}} Biruni was aware that statements about a religion would be open to criticism by its adherents, and insisted that a scholar should follow the requirements of a strictly scientific method. According to [[William Montgomery Watt]], Biruni "is admirably objective and unprejudiced in his presentation of facts" but "selects facts in such a way that he makes a strong case for holding that there is a certain unity in the religious experience of the peoples he considers, even though he does not appear to formulate this view explicitly." Biruni argued that Hinduism was a [[monotheistic]] faith like Islam, and in order to justify this assertion, he quotes [[Hindu texts]] and argues that the worship of [[idol]]s is "exclusively a characteristic of the common people, with which the educated have nothing to do." He writes:<ref name=Watt/> {{quote|"The educated among the Hindus abhor [[anthropomorphism]]s of this kind, but the crowd and the members of the single sects use them most extensively."}} {{quote|"The Hindus believe with regard to [[God]] that he is one, eternal, without beginning and end, acting by free-will, almighty, all-wise, living, giving life, ruling, preserving; one who in his sovereignty is unique, beyond all likeness and unlikeness, and that he does not resemble anything nor does anything resemble him."}} Biruni argued that the worship of idols "is due to a kind of confusion or corruption." He writes:<ref name=Watt/> {{quote|"The physical images are monuments in honour of certain much venerated persons, prophets, sages, angels, destined to keep alive their memory when they are absent or dead, to create for them a lasting place of grateful veneration in the hearts of men when they die."}} According to Watt, Biruni "goes on to maintain that in the course of generations the origin of the veneration of the images is forgotten, and further that the ancient legislators, seeing that the Veneration of images is advantageous, made it obligatory for the ordinary. He mentions the view of some people that, before God sent Prophets, all mankind were idol-worshippers, but he apparently does not presumably held that, apart from the messages transmitted by prophets, men could know the existence and unity of God by rational methods of philosophy." Biruni argued that "the Hindus, no less than the Greeks, have philosophers who are believers in monotheism." Other comparatisons between Islamic theology and [[Indian philosophy|Indian theology]] include the following comparison between the Qur'an and the [[Indian literature|Indian religious scriptures]] in the "On the Configuration of the Heavens and the Earth According to [Indian] astrologers" chapter of the ''Indica'':<ref>Prof. Ahmad Dallal (2004), "Science and the Qur'an", in Jane McAuliffe, ''Encyclopedia of the Qur'an'', vol. 4, p. 540-558.</ref> {{quote|"[The views of Indian astrologers] have developed in a way which is different from those of our [Muslim] fellows; this is because unlike the scriptures revealed before it, the Qur'an does not articulate on this subject [of astronomy], or any other [field of] necessary [knowledge] any assertion that would require erratic interpretations in order to harmonize it with that which is known by necessity."}} {{quote|"[In contrast, the religious and transmitted books of the Indians do indeed speak] of the configuration of the universe in a way which contradicts the truth which is known to their own astrologers."}} Al-Biruni also had an interest in studying [[Hermeticism]] and often criticized its religious views. He showed an interest in comparative religion, comparing Islam with pre-Islamic religions, and was willing to accept certain elements of pre-Islamic wisdom which would conform with his understanding of the Islamic spirit.<ref>Seyyed [[Hossein Nasr]] (1993), ''An Introduction to Islamic Cosmological Doctrines'', p. 166. [[State University of New York Press]], ISBN 0791415163.</ref> Al-Biruni also compared Islam and [[Christianity]], citing passages from the Qur'an and [[Bible]] which state that their followers should always speak the [[truth]]:<ref>{{citation|title=Great Muslim Mathematicians|first=Mohaini|last=Mohamed|year=2000|publisher=Penerbit UTM|isbn=9835201579|pages=71-2}}</ref> {{quote|"That man only is praiseworthy who shrinks from a lie and always adheres to the truth, enjoying credit even among liars, not to mention others. It has been said in the Koran, "Speak the truth, even if it were against yourselves" ([[An-Nisa|Sura, 4]], 134); and the Messiah expresses himself in the Gospel to this effect: "Do not mind the fury of kings in speaking the truth before them. They only possess your body, but they have no power over your soul." (cf. [[Gospel of Matthew|St. Matt.]] X. 18,19,28; [[Gospel of Luke|St. Luke]] xii.4)."}} ==Other contributions== ===Biomedical sciences=== In the [[biomedical sciences]], al-Biruni's ''Kitab al-Saidana fi al-Tibb'' was an extensive [[medical]] and [[pharmacological]] encyclopedia which synthesized [[Islamic medicine]] with [[Ayurveda|Indian medicine]]. His medical investigations included one of the earliest descriptions on [[Siamese twins]].<ref name=Zahoor/> The ''Kitab-al-Saidana'' was also a [[materia medica]] which was celebrated for its in-depth [[botanical]] studies of [[mineral]]s and [[herb]]s.<ref name=Bill-42>{{Harv|Scheppler|2006|p=42}}</ref> It was the earliest to describe the eating of several [[fungi]], including [[truffle]]s, which are a type of [[hypogeous]] fungi.<ref>{{Harv|Kiple|Ornelas|2001|p=316}}</ref> The earliest documented description of [[khat]] also dates back to the ''Kitab al-Saidana'', in which al-Bīrūnī wrote that khat is:<ref>{{Harv|Kiple|Ornelas|2001|pp=672-3}}</ref> {{quote|"a commodity from [[Turkestan]]. It is sour to taste and slenderly made in the manner of ''batan-alu''. But ''qat'' is reddish with a slight blackish tinge. It is believed that ''batan-alu'' is red, [[coolant]], relieves [[bilious]]ness, and is a [[refrigerant]] for the stomach and the liver."}} ===Chemistry=== Along with [[al-Kindi]] and [[Avicenna]], Biruni was one of the first [[Alchemy and chemistry in Islam|chemist]]s to reject the theory of the [[Philosopher's stone|transmutation of metals]] supported by some [[Alchemy|alchemists]].<ref name=Marmura/> ===Law=== In [[Sharia|Islamic law]] and [[Fiqh|jurisprudence]], Biruni understood [[natural law]] as the [[The Law of the Jungle|law of the jungle]]. He argued that the [[antagonism]] between [[human]] beings can only be overcome through a [[divine law]], which he believed to have been sent through the [[prophets of Islam]].<ref name="Corbin">{{cite book |last=Corbin |first=Henry |authorlink=Henry Corbin |coauthors= |title=History of Islamic Philosophy, Translated by Liadain Sherrard, Philip Sherrard |publisher=London; Kegan Paul International in association with Islamic Publications for The Institute of Ismaili Studies |1993 (original French 1964) |isbn=0710304161 |pages=p. 39}}</ref> ===Linguistics=== In [[linguistics]], al-Biruni could speak, read and write in a number of different languages, including [[Persian language|Persian]], [[Arabic language|Arabic]], [[Greek language|Greek]], [[Hebrew language|Hebrew]] and [[Sanskrit]].<ref name=Covington/> He was also conversant in [[Syriac language|Syriac]] and [[Turkish language|Turkish]],<ref>{{citation|contribution=al-Biruni|title=[[Encyclopædia Britannica]]|year=2008|url=http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9015394|accessdate=2008-02-14}}</ref> and could also speak some [[Hindi]] and [[Latin]].<ref name=Bill-42/> ===Mathematics=== He made significant contributions to [[mathematics]], especially in the fields of theoretical and practical [[arithmetic]], summation of [[Series (mathematics)|series]], [[Combinatorics|combinatorial analysis]], the [[Rule of three (mathematics)|rule of three]], [[irrational number]]s, [[ratio]] theory, [[algebra]]ic definitions, method of solving [[algebraic equation]]s, [[geometry]], and the development of [[Archimedes]]' theorems. ==Notes== {{reflist|2}} HE ATE 100000000000000000000 chickens == Further reading == *[http://www.iranica.com/newsite/index.isc?Article=http://www.iranica.com/newsite/articles/unicode/v4f3/v4f3a040.html Encyclopedia Iranica, "BĪRŪNĪ, ABŪ RAYḤĀN MOḤAMMAD b. Aḥmad "] *{{Harvard reference |last=Covington |first=Richard |contribution=Rediscovering Arabic science |title=[[Saudi Aramco World]] |date=May-June 2007 |year=2007 |pages=2-16 }} *{{Harvard reference |last1=Glick |first1=Thomas F. |last2=Livesey |first2=Steven John |last3=Wallis |first3=Faith |year=2005 |title=Medieval Science, Technology, and Medicine: An Encyclopedia |publisher=[[Routledge]] |isbn=0415969301 }} *{{DSB|first=E. S.|last=Kennedy|title=Bīrūnī, {{IAST|Abū Rayḥān}} al-}} *{{Harvard reference |last1=Kiple |first1=Kenneth F. |last2=Ornelas |first2=Kriemhild Coneè |year=2001 |title=The Cambridge World History of Food |publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]] |isbn=0521402166 }} *{{MacTutor Biography|id=Al-Biruni|title=Abu Rayhan Muhammad ibn Ahmad al-Biruni}} *{{Harvard reference |last1=Rashed |first1=Roshdi |last2=Morelon |first2=Régis |year=1996 |title=[[Encyclopedia of the History of Arabic Science]] |volume=1 & 3 |publisher=[[Routledge]] |isbn=0415124107 }} *{{Harvard reference |last=Saliba |first=George |authorlink=George Saliba |year=1994 |title=A History of Arabic Astronomy: Planetary Theories During the Golden Age of Islam |publisher=[[New York University Press]] |isbn=0814780237 }} *{{Harvard reference |last=Scheppler |first=Bill |year=2006 |title=Al-Biruni: Master Astronomer and Muslim Scholar of the Eleventh Century |publisher=The Rosen Publishing Group |isbn=1404205128 }} ==Works online== * [http://www.columbia.edu/cu/lweb/digital/collections/cul/texts/ldpd_5949073_001/index.html Alberuni's India, in English] * [http://www.farlang.com/gemstones/biruni-book-gemstones/page_001 "On Stones": Biruni's work on geology, medical properties of gemstones] full text version + comments ==External links== *[http://www.skyscript.co.uk/albiruni.html Extensive biography on Biruni] * [http://links.jstor.org/sici?sici=0021-1753(195912)50%3A4%3C459%3AOTPDOA%3E2.0.CO%3B2-N Did Al-Biruni discover evolution by natural selection 800 years before Darwin?] ==See also== <div style="-moz-column-count:2; column-count:2;"> * [[Islamic Golden Age]] * [[Islamic science]] * [[List of Islamic studies scholars]] * [[List of Muslim scientists]] * [[List of Iranian scientists and scholars]] * [[Alhacen]] * [[Abulcasis]] * [[al-Jazari| Aljazari]] * [[Averroes]] * [[Avicenna]] * [[Farabi]] * [[Geber]] * [[Khwarizmi]] * [[Rhazes]] * [[Nasīr al-Dīn al-Tūsī| Tusi]] * [[Shen Kuo]] </div> {{Islamic mathematics}} {{DEFAULTSORT:Biruni, Abu Rayhan}} [[Category:973 births]] [[Category:1048 deaths]] [[Category:10th century mathematicians]] [[Category:11th century mathematicians]] [[Category:Chronologists]] [[Category:Encyclopedists]] [[Category:Shi'a Muslims]] [[Category:Shi'a Muslim scholars of Islam]] [[Category:Islamic astronomy]] [[Category:Islamic geography]] [[Category:Islamic mathematics]] [[Category:Muslim astrologers]] [[Category:Muslim philosophers]] [[Category:Persian astrologers]] [[Category:Persian astronomers]] [[Category:Persian mathematicians]] [[Category:Persian philosophers]] [[Category:Historiography of India]] [[Category:Clockmakers]] [[ar:أبو الريحان البيروني]] [[az:Əl-Biruni]] [[bn:আবু রায়হান আল বিরুনি]] [[bs:El-Biruni]] [[cs:Aliboron]] [[de:Al-Biruni]] [[es:Al-Biruni]] [[eo:Al-Biruni]] [[fa:ابوریحان بیرونی]] [[fr:Al-Biruni]] [[hi:अल-बरुनी]] [[id:Al-Biruni]] [[it:Al-Biruni]] [[ku:Birûnî]] [[ml:അല്‍-ബറൂണി]] [[mr:अल बिरूनी]] [[ms:Abu Raihan Al-Biruni]] [[nl:Al-Biruni]] [[ja:アブー・ライハーン・アル・ビールーニー]] [[pl:Biruni]] [[ru:Аль-Бируни]] [[sl:Al-Biruni]] [[su:Abu Raihan al-Biruni]] [[sv:Abu Raihan Muhammed ibn Ahmed al-Biruni]] [[te:అల్ బెరూని]] [[tg:Абурайҳон Муҳаммад ибни Аҳмади Хоразмӣ]] [[tr:Birûni]] [[uk:Аль-Біруні]] [[ur:البیرونی]]