Abnormal psychology 238212 224150061 2008-07-07T15:26:21Z 98.14.74.79 /* Biopsychosocial factors */ {{Psychology (sidebar)}} '''Abnormal psychology''' is the [[psychoanalysis|analytic]] and [[scientific method|scientific]] study of [[Abnormality|abnormal]] thoughts and behavior in order to interpret, describe, predict, explain, and change abnormal patterns of functioning. The definition of what constitutes 'abnormal' has varied across time and across cultures, and varies among individuals within cultures. Today, persistent abnormal functioning is often associated with a [[mental disorder]]. In general, abnormal psychology can be described as an area of psychology that studies people who are consistently unable to adapt and function effectively in a variety of conditions. An individual's ability to adapt and function can be affected by a number of variables, including one's [[Genetics|genetic]] makeup, physical condition, [[learning]] and [[reason]]ing, and [[socialization]]. == History == The history of abnormal psychology began with [[Plato]] in the fourth century B.C. During his time, many believed that the strange thoughts and actions that psychologists study today were caused by evil spirits. Plato believed this to be false and postulated that these behaviors were caused by a "natural madness, usually caused by a disease". His words had limited impact in the following centuries. During the [[Dark Ages]], the idea of the behaviors being caused by evil spirits escalated to the idea that people were being possessed by demons. Many people were exorcised by the churches or burned at the stake for possessing these "demons". Over 100,000 people were killed for the same reasons by the [[Inquisition]]. Throughout the 19th century, the idea of demonic possession was largely superseded in many societies by the belief that illnesses in the mind were responsible for people's harmful functioning. ==Core concepts: explaining abnormal behavior == Abnormal psychology consists of three core concepts; cultural and historical relativism, the principle of multiple causality and the connection between mind and body. ===Cultural and historical relativism=== Throughout time, societies have proposed several explanations of abnormal behavior within human beings. Beginning in some hunter-gatherer societies, [[animism|animists]] have believed that people demonstrating abnormal behavior are possessed by malevolent spirits. This idea has been associated with [[trephination]], the practice of cutting a hole into the individual's skull in order to release the malevolent spirits.<ref> James Hansell and Lisa Damour. Abnormal Psychology. Ch 3. pg 30-33. </ref> A more formalized response to spiritual beliefs about abnormality is the practice of [[exorcism]]. Performed by religious authorities, exorcism is thought of as another way to release evil spirits who cause pathological behavior within the person. In some instances, individuals exhibiting unusual thoughts or behaviors have been [[exile]]d from society or worse. Perceived [[witchcraft]], for example, has been punished by death. Two Catholic Inquisitors wrote a manual, the [[Malleus Maleficarum]], that became co-opted by many Inquisitors and witch-hunters. It contained an early taxonomy of deviant behavior and proposed guidelines for prosecuting deviant individuals. The act of placing mentally ill individuals in a separate facility known as an [[asylum]] dates to 1547, when [[King Henry VIII]] of England established the St. Mary of Bethlehem asylum. Asylums remained popular throughout the [[Middle Ages]] and the [[Renaissance era]]. ===Multiple causality=== The amount of different theoretical perspectives in the field of psychological abnormality has made it difficult properly to explain psychopathology. The attempt to explain all mental disorders with the same theory leads to reductionism (explaining a disorder or other complex phenomena using only a single idea or perspective)<ref>James Hansell and Lisa Damour. Abnormal Psychology ch 3. pg 37</ref>. Most mental disorders are composed of several factors, which is why one must take into account several theoretical perspectives when attempting to diagnose or explain a particular behavioral abnormality or mental disorder. Explaining mental disorders with a combination of theoretical perspectives is known as multiple causality.<ref>[http://www.helium.com/items/212978-since-emergence-clinical-psychology Understanding the multiple causality of psychopathology]</ref> The [[diathesis-stress model]]<ref>[http://www.sciencedirect.com/science?_ob=ArticleURL&_udi=B6V5W-4DSW9MX-2&_user=10&_rdoc=1&_fmt=&_orig=search&_sort=d&view=c&_acct=C000050221&_version=1&_urlVersion=0&_userid=10&md5=0e24f1a1bfe7cf1b4f508e2f8f80c73f Diathesis stress model for panic-related distress: a test in a Russian epidemiological sample]</ref> emphasizes the importance of applying multiple causality to psychopathology by stressing that disorders are caused by both precipitating causes and predisposing causes. A precipitating cause is an immediate trigger that instigates a person's action or behavior. A predisposing cause is an underlying factor that interacts with the immediate factors to result in a disorder. Both causes play a key role in the development of a psychological disorder. <ref> Abnormal Psychology. James Hansell and Lisa Damour. Ch 3. pg 37.</ref> ===Mind and body=== A paradigm is a general viewpoint on the world and is much broader than a theory. Today's field of psychology revolves around two major paradigms for explaining mental disorders, the ''psychological'' paradigm and the ''biological'' paradigm. The psychological paradigm focuses more on the humanistic, cognitive and behavioral perspectives. The biological paradigm includes the theories that rely more on physical causes such as [[genetics]] and [[neurochemistry]]. ===Recent concepts of abnormality=== * ''Statistical abnormality'' - when a certain behaviour/characteristic is relevant to a low percentage of the population. However, this does not necessarily mean that such individuals are suffering from mental illness (for example, statistical abnormalities such as extreme wealth/attractiveness) * ''Psychometric abnormality'' - when a certain behaviour/characteristic differs from the population's normal dispersion e.g. having an IQ of 35 could be classified as abnormal, as the population average is 100. However, this does not specify a particular mental illness. * ''Deviant behaviour'' - this is not always a sign of mental illness, as it can occur without deviant behaviour, and such behaviour may occur in the absence of mental illness. * ''Combinations'' - including distress, dysfunction, distorted psychological processes, inappropriate responses in given situations and causing/risking harm to oneself.<ref>{{Harvnb|Bennett|2003|p=3-5}}</ref> ==Approaches== * ''Somatogenic'' - abnormality is seen as a result of biological disorders in the brain (Kraeplin, 1883). However, this approach has led to the development of radical biological treatments e.g. lobotomy. * ''Psychogenic'' - abnormality is caused by psychological problems. This, too, has led to some esoteric treatments. Mesmer used to put his patients in a darkened room with music playing, then entered wearing a flamboyant outfit and pressed the 'infected' body areas with a stick. It has also led to the development of hypnosis, psychoanalysis (Freud) and cartharsis as psychological treatments, as well as humanism ([[Carl Rogers]], [[Abraham Maslow]]). <ref>{{Harvnb|Bennett|2003|p=7-10}}</ref> == Classification == === DSM-IV TR === The standard abnormal psychology and psychiatry reference book in North America is the [[Diagnostic and Statistical Manual]] of the [[American Psychiatric Association]]. The current version of the book is known as DSM IV-TR. It lists a set of [[mental illness|disorders]] and provides detailed descriptions on what constitutes a disorder such as [[Major Depressive Disorder]] or [[anxiety disorder]]. It also gives general descriptions of how frequent the disorder occurs in the general population, whether it is more common in males or females and other such facts. The diagnostic process uses five dimensions called 'axes' to ascertain [[symptom]]s and overall functioning of the individual. These axes are as follows * '''Axis I''' - ''Particular clinical syndromes'' * '''Axis II''' - ''Permanent Problems (Personality Disorders, Mental Retardation)'' * '''Axis III''' - ''General medical conditions'' * '''Axis IV''' - ''Psychosocial/environmental problems'' * '''Axis V''' - ''[[Global Assessment of Functioning|Global assessment of functioning]] (often referred to as GAF)'' === ICD-10 === The major international nosologic system for the classification of mental disorders can be found in the most recent version of the International Classification of Diseases, 10th revision (ICD-10). The [[ICD|ICD-10]] has been used by [http://www.who.int/en/ World Health Organization] (WHO) Member States since 1994. Chapter five covers some 300 "Mental and behavioural disorders." The ICD-10's chapter five has been influenced by APA's DSM-IV and there is a great deal of concordance between the two. WHO maintains free access to the [http://www.who.int/classifications/icd/en/ ICD-10 Online] . Below are the main categories of disorders: * '''F00-F09''' Organic, including symptomatic, mental disorders * '''F10-F19''' Mental and behavioural disorders due to psychoactive substance use * '''F20-F29''' Schizophrenia, schizotypal and delusional disorders * '''F30-F39''' Mood [affective] disorders * '''F40-F48''' Neurotic, stress-related and somatoform disorders * '''F50-F59''' Behavioural syndromes associated with physiological disturbances and physical factors * '''F60-F69''' Disorders of adult personality and behaviour * '''F70-F79''' Mental retardation * '''F80-F89''' Disorders of psychological development * '''F90-F98''' Behavioural and emotional disorders with onset usually occurring in childhood and adolescence * '''F99''' Unspecified mental disorder ==Etiology== ===Genetics=== *Investigated through family studies, mainly of monozygotic (identical) and dizygotic (fraternal) twins, often in the context of [[adoption]]. *These studies allow calculation of a ''heritability coefficient''. ===Biological factors=== *Investigates effects of hormones, neurotransmitters and neuron damage in mental illness, for example Alzheimer's Disease (neuronal degeneration), [[Seasonal Affective Disorder]] (hormonal imbalance) and depression/anxiety. *Different theories focus on structural, biochemical and genetic theories. ===Psychological factors===<!--please note that this subsection needs to be reworded. it is currently a list of _therapies_ consistent with various theories, not (as the section heading states) a list of _etiological_ factors consistent with these approaches.--> *Psychoanalysis (Freud) *Behavioural therapy (Wolpe) based on [[behaviourism]], and involving classical and [[operant conditioning]]. *Humanistic therapy aiming to achieve [[self-actualisation]] ([[Carl Rogers]], 1961) *Cognitive Behavioural Therapy aims to influence thought and cognition (Beck, 1977). ===Socio-cultural factors=== *Effects of urban/rural dwelling, gender and minority status on state of mind. *[[British Psychiatric Morbidity Survey]] conducted by Jenkins (1998) <ref> British Psychiatric Morbidity Survey, Jenkins et al. (1998), ''The British Journal of Psychiatry'' 173: 4-7.</ref> ===Systemic factors=== *Family systems *Negatively Expressed Emotion playing a part in schizophrenic relapse and [[anorexia nervosa]]. ===Biopsychosocial factors=== *Holistic causal model *Illness dependent on stress 'triggers'. <ref>{{Harvnb|Bennett|2003|pp=17-26}}</ref> ==See also== *[[DSM-IV Codes]] *[[Structured Clinical Interview for DSM-IV]] ''(SCID)'' *[[Insanity defense]] *[[M'Naghten Rules]] *[[International Classification of Diseases]] *[[Cognitive Behavioural Therapy]] *[[Seasonal Affective Disorder]] *[[Mental Health Act 1983]] *[[Mental Health Act 2007]] *[[Mental Health Alliance]] ==Notes== {{reflist}} ==References== * {{cite book |title=Abnormal and Clinical Psychology |last=Bennett |first=Paul |authorlink=Paul Bennett |coauthors= |year=2003 |publisher=Open University Press |location= |isbn=978-0335212361 }} ==Bibliography== * {{cite book |title=Abnormal Psychology |last=Hansell |first=James |authorlink= |coauthors=Lisa Damour |year=2005 |publisher=Von Hoffman Press |location= |isbn=0-471-38982-X }} * {{cite book |title=Psychology |last=Hockenbury |first=Don |authorlink= |coauthors=Sandra Hockenbury |edition=3rd Edition |year=2003 |publisher=Worth Publishing |location= |isbn=0-7167-5129-1 }} ==External links== *[http://minnay.com/products/ Abnormal Psychology Students Practice Resources] *[http://www.helium.com/items/212978-since-emergence-clinical-psychology/ Understanding the multiple causality of psychopatholgy] *[http://www.sciencedirect.com/science?_ob=ArticleURL&_udi=B6V5W-4DSW9MX-2&_user=10&_rdoc=1&_fmt=&_orig=search&_sort=d&view=c&_acct=C000050221&_version=1&_urlVersion=0&_userid=10&md5=0e24f1a1bfe7cf1b4f508e2f8f80c73f Science Direct] {{Psychology}} [[Category:Abnormal psychology| ]] [[Category:Clinical psychology]] [[ar:علم نفس الشواذ]] [[bg:Патопсихология]] [[ja:異常心理学]] [[zh:变态心理学]]