Actuary 43405 226030784 2008-07-16T14:52:35Z NSH001 1647583 /* External links */ rm linkspam [[Image:Hurricane katrina damage gulfport mississippi.jpg|thumb|250px|right|Damage from [[Hurricane Katrina]]. Actuaries need to estimate long-term averages of such damage in order to accurately price property insurance.]] An '''actuary''' is a business professional who deals with the financial impact of risk and uncertainty. Actuaries have a deep understanding of financial security systems, their reasons for being, their complexity, their mathematics, and the way they work {{ref_harvard|Trow|Trowbridge 1989, p. 7|none}}. They evaluate the likelihood of events and quantify the contingent outcomes in order to minimize losses, both emotional and financial, associated with uncertain undesirable events. Since many events, such as death, cannot be totally avoided, it is helpful to take measures to minimize their financial impact when they occur. These risks can affect both sides of the [[balance sheet]], and require [[investment management|asset management]], [[liability]] management, and valuation skills. Analytical skills, business knowledge and understanding of human behavior and the vagaries of information systems are required to design and manage programs that control risk {{ref_harvard|Bean1|Be An Actuary 2005|none}}. Actuaries' [[insurance]] disciplines may be classified as [[Life insurance|life]]; [[Health insurance|health]]; [[Mathematical finance|pensions, annuities, and asset management]]; [[social security|social welfare programs]]; [[Property insurance|property]]; [[Casualty insurance|casualty]]; [[general insurance]]; and [[reinsurance]]. Life, health, and pension actuaries deal with [[Mortality rate|mortality]] risk, [[morbidity]], and consumer choice regarding the ongoing utilization of drugs and medical services risk, and investment risk. Products prominent in their work include [[life insurance]], [[Annuity (financial contracts)|annuities]], [[pension]]s, [[Mortgage insurance|mortgage]] and [[credit insurance]], short and long term [[disability]], and [[health insurance|medical, dental]], [[health savings account]]s and [[Long-term care|long term care]] insurance. In addition to these risks, [[Social security|social insurance]] programs are greatly influenced by [[public opinion]], [[politics]], budget constraints, changing [[demographics]] and other factors such as [[medical technology]], [[inflation]] and [[Cost-of-living index|cost of living]] considerations {{ref_harvard|BLS1|Bureau of Labor Statistics 2006|a}}. Casualty actuaries, also known as non-life or [[general insurance]] actuaries, deal with catastrophic, unnatural risks that can occur to people or property. Products prominent in their work include [[auto insurance]], [[home insurance|homeowners insurance]], commercial property insurance, [[workers' compensation|workers’ compensation]], [[title insurance]], [[malpractice]] insurance, [[Product liability|products liability insurance]], [[directors and officers liability insurance]], environmental and marine insurance, [[terrorism insurance]] and other types of [[liability insurance]]. [[Reinsurance]] products have to accommodate all of the previously mentioned products, and in addition have to properly reflect the increasing long term risks associated with [[climate change]], cultural litigiousness, [[War|acts of war]], [[terrorism]] and politics {{ref_harvard|BLS1|Bureau of Labor Statistics 2006|b}}. In 2002, a ''[[The Wall Street Journal|Wall Street Journal]]'' survey on the best jobs in the United States listed actuary as the second best job, while in previous editions of the list, actuaries had been the top rated job {{ref_harvard|Lee|Lee 2002|none}}. The survey used six key criteria to rank jobs: environment, income, employment outlook, physical demands, security and stress. A similar survey by ''[[U.S. News & World Report]]'' in 2006 included actuaries among the 25 Best Professions that it expects will be in great demand in the future {{ref_harvard|Nemko|Nemko 2006|none}}. ==History== ===Need for insurance=== The basic requirements of communal interests gave rise to risk sharing since the dawn of [[civilization]]. For example, people who lived their entire lives in a camp had the risk of fire, which would leave their band or family without shelter. After basic [[exchange]] came into existence, more complex forms developed beyond a basic [[barter (economics)|barter]] economy, and new forms of risk manifested. [[Merchant]]s embarking on trade journeys bore the risk of losing goods entrusted to them, their own possessions, or even their lives. [[Intermediary|Intermediaries]] developed to warehouse and trade goods, and they often suffered from [[financial risk]]. The primary providers in any extended families or household always ran the risk of premature death, disability or infirmity, leaving their dependents to starve. [[Credit (finance)|Credit]] procurement was difficult if the [[lender]] worried about repayment in the event of the borrower's death or infirmity. Alternatively, people sometimes lived too long, exhausting their savings, if any, or becoming a burden on others in the extended family or society {{ref_harvard|FIFA2|Faculty and Institute of Actuaries 2004|a}}. ===Early attempts=== In the ancient world there was not always room for the sick, suffering, disabled, aged, or the poor—these were often not part of the [[Collective consciousness|cultural consciousness]] of societies {{ref_harvard|Perkins|Perkins 1995|a}}. Early methods of protection, aside from the normal support of the extended family, involved [[Charitable organization|charity]]; [[Religion-supporting organization|religious organizations]] or neighbors would collect for the destitute and needy. By the middle of the third century, 1,500 suffering people were being supported by charitable operations in [[Ancient Rome|Rome]] {{ref_harvard|Perkins|Perkins 1995|b}}. Charitable protection is still an active form of support to this very day {{ref_harvard|Tong1|Tong 2006|none}}. However, receiving charity is uncertain and is often accompanied by [[social stigma]]. Elementary [[mutual aid]] agreements and pensions did arise in antiquity {{ref_harvard|Thucydides|Thucydides c. 431BCE|none}}. Early in the [[Roman Empire|Roman empire]], associations were formed to meet the expenses of burial, cremation, and monuments—precursors to [[Burial society|burial insurance]] and [[Friendly society|friendly societies]]. A small sum was paid into a communal fund on a weekly basis, and upon the death of a member, the fund would cover the expenses of rites and burial. These societies sometimes sold shares in the building of [[Columbarium|columbāria]], or burial vaults, owned by the fund—the precursor to [[Mutual insurance|mutual insurance companies]] {{ref_harvard|Johnston1|Johnston 1903, §475–§476|none}}. Other early examples of mutual [[surety]] and [[assurance]] pacts can be traced back to various forms of fellowship within the Saxon clans of England and their Germanic forbears, and to Celtic society {{ref_harvard|Loan1|Loan 1992|none}}. However, many of these earlier forms of surety and aid would fail due to lack of understanding and knowledge {{ref_harvard|FIFA2|Faculty and Institute of Actuaries 2004|b}}. ===Development of theory=== [[Image:Excerpt from CDC 2003 Table 1.png|thumb|right|2003 US mortality ([[life table|life]]) table, Table 1, Page 1]] The 17th century was a period of extraordinary advances in mathematics in Germany, France, and England. At the same time there was a rapidly growing desire and need to place the valuation of personal risk on a more scientific basis. Independently from each other, [[compound interest]] was studied and [[probability theory]] emerged as a well understood mathematical discipline. Another important advance came in 1662 from a [[London]] [[draper]] named [[John Graunt]], who showed that there were predictable patterns of longevity and death in a defined group, or [[Cohort (statistics)|cohort]], of people, despite the uncertainty about the future longevity or mortality of any one individual person. This study became the basis for the original [[life table]]. It was now possible to set up an insurance scheme to provide life insurance or pensions for a group of people, and to calculate with some degree of accuracy how much each person in the group should contribute to a common fund assumed to earn a fixed rate of interest. The first person to demonstrate publicly how this could be done was [[Edmond Halley]]. In addition to constructing his own life table, Halley demonstrated a method of using his life table to calculate the [[Insurance|premium]] someone of a given age should pay to purchase a life-annuity {{ref_harvard|Halley1|Halley 1693|none}}. ===Early actuaries=== [[James Dodson]]’s pioneering work on the level premium system led to the formation of the Society for Equitable Assurances on Lives and Survivorship (now commonly known as [[The Equitable Life Assurance Society|Equitable Life]]) in London in 1762. This was the first life insurance company to use premium rates which were calculated scientifically for long-term life policies, using Dodson’s work. The company still exists, though it has run into difficulties recently. After Dodson’s death in 1757, [[Edward Rowe Mores]] took over the leadership of the group that eventually became the Society for Equitable Assurances in 1762. It was he who specified that the chief official should be called an ‘actuary’ {{ref_harvard|Ogb1|Ogborn, 1956|a}}. Previously, the use of the term had been restricted to an official who recorded the decisions, or ‘acts’, of ecclesiastical courts, in ancient times originally the secretary of the [[Roman senate]], responsible for compiling the [[Acta Senatus]] {{ref_harvard|FIFA2|Faculty and Institute of Actuaries 2004|c}}. Other companies which did not originally use such mathematical and scientific methods most often failed or were forced to adopt the methods pioneered by Equitable {{ref_harvard|Buhl|Bühlmann 1997 p. 166|a}}. ===Development of the modern profession=== {{main|Actuarial science}} In the [[18th century|eighteenth]] and [[19th century|nineteenth]] centuries, computational complexity was limited to manual calculations. The actual calculations required to compute fair insurance premiums are rather complex. The actuaries of that time developed methods to construct easily-used tables, using sophisticated approximations called commutation functions, to facilitate timely, accurate, manual calculations of premiums {{ref_harvard|Slud1|Slud 2006|none}}. Over time, actuarial organizations were founded to support and further both actuaries and [[actuarial science]], and to protect the public interest by ensuring competency and ethical standards {{ref_harvard|Hickman1|Hickman 2004 p. 4|none}}. However, calculations remained cumbersome, and actuarial shortcuts were commonplace. Non-life actuaries followed in the footsteps of their life compatriots in the early [[20th century|twentieth century]]. In the United States, the 1920 revision to workers' compensation rates took over two months of around-the-clock work by day and night teams of actuaries {{ref_harvard|Mich1|Michelbacher 1920 p. 224, 230|none}}. In the 1930s and 1940s, however, rigorous mathematical foundations for [[stochastic]] processes were developed {{ref_harvard|Buhl|Bühlmann 1997 p. 168|b}}. Actuaries could now begin to forecast losses using models of random events instead of [[deterministic]] methods. Computers further revolutionized the actuarial profession. From pencil-and-paper to punchcards to microcomputers, the modeling and forecasting ability of the actuary has grown exponentially {{ref_harvard|MacGinnitie1|MacGinnitie 1980 p.50–51|none}}. Another modern development is the convergence of modern [[finance theory|financial theory]] with actuarial science {{ref_harvard|Buhl|Bühlmann 1997 p. 169–171|c}}. In the early twentieth century, actuaries were developing many techniques that can be found in modern financial theory, but for various historical reasons, these developments did not achieve much recognition {{ref_harvard|Whelan1|Whelan 2002|none}}. However, in the late 1980s and early 1990s, there was a distinct effort for actuaries to combine financial theory and stochastic methods into their established models {{ref_harvard|Darcy1|D’arcy 1989|none}}. Today, the profession, both in practice and in the educational syllabi of many actuarial organizations, combines tables, loss models, stochastic methods, and financial theory {{ref_harvard|Feld1|Feldblum 2001 p. 8–9|a}}, but is still not completely aligned with modern [[financial economics]] {{ref_harvard|Bad|Bader & Gold 2003 p. 1–39|none}}. ==Responsibilities== Actuaries use skills in [[mathematics]], [[economics]], [[finance]], [[probability]] and [[statistics]], and [[business]] to help businesses assess the risk of certain events occurring, and to formulate policies that minimize the cost of that risk. For this reason, actuaries are essential to the insurance and reinsurance industry, either as staff employees or as [[consultants]], as well as to [[government]] agencies such as the [[Government Actuary's Department|Government Actuary’s Department]] in the UK or the [[Social Security Administration]] in the US. Actuaries assemble and analyze data to estimate the probability and likely cost of the occurrence of an event such as death, sickness, injury, disability, or loss of property. Actuaries also address financial questions, including those involving the level of pension contributions required to produce a certain retirement income and the way in which a company should invest resources to maximize its return on investments in light of potential risk. Using their broad knowledge, actuaries help design and price insurance policies, pension plans, and other financial strategies in a manner which will help ensure that the plans are maintained on a sound financial basis {{ref_harvard|BLS1|Bureau of Labor Statistics 2006|c}}. ===Traditional employment=== On both the life and casualty sides, the classical function of actuaries is to calculate premiums and reserves for insurance policies covering various risks. Premiums are the amount of money the insurer needs to collect from the policyholder in order to cover the expected losses, expenses, and a provision for profit. Reserves are provisions for future liabilities and indicate how much money should be set aside now to reasonably provide for future payouts. If you inspect the balance sheet of an insurance company, you will find that the liability side consists mainly of reserves. On the casualty side, this analysis often involves quantifying the probability of a loss event, called the frequency, and the size of that loss event, called the severity. Further, the amount of time that occurs before the loss event is also important, as the insurer will not have to pay anything until after the event has occurred. On the life side, the analysis often involves quantifying how much a potential sum of money or a financial liability will be worth at different points in the future. Since neither of these kinds of analysis are purely [[deterministic]] processes, [[stochastic]] models are often used to determine frequency and severity [[frequency distribution|distribution]]s and the [[parameter]]s of these distributions. Forecasting interest yields and currency movements also plays a role in determining future costs, especially on the life side. Actuaries do not always attempt to predict aggregate future events. Often, their work may relate to determining the cost of financial liabilities that have already occurred, called [[Reinsurance#Retrocession|retrospective reinsurance]], or the development or re-pricing of new products. Actuaries also design and maintain products and systems. They are involved in financial reporting of companies’ assets and liabilities. They must communicate complex concepts to clients who may not share their language or depth of knowledge. Actuaries work under a strict code of ethics that covers their communications and work products, but their clients may not adhere to those same standards when interpreting the data or using it within different kinds of businesses. ===Non-traditional employment=== Many actuaries are general business managers or financial officers. They analyze prospective business prospects with their financial skills in valuing or discounting risky future cash flows, and many apply their pricing expertise from insurance to other lines of business. Some actuaries act as [[expert witness]]es by applying their analysis in court trials to estimate the economic value of losses such as lost profits or lost wages. There has been a recent widening of the scope of the actuarial field to include [[investment]] advice and [[asset management]]. Further, there has been a convergence from the financial fields of [[risk management]] and [[quantitative analysis]] with [[actuarial science]]. Now, actuaries also work as risk managers, quantitative analysts, or investment specialists. Even actuaries in traditional roles are now studying and using the tools and data previously in the domain of finance {{ref_harvard|Feld1|Feldblum 2001 p. 8|a}}. One of the latest developments in the industry, insurance securitization, requires both the actuarial and finance skills {{ref_harvard|Krutov|Krutov 2006|none}}. Another field in which actuaries are becoming more prominent is that of [[Enterprise Risk Management]], for both financial and non-financial corporations {{ref_harvard|Darcy2|D’arcy 2005|none}}. For example, the [[Basel II]] accord for financial institutions, and its analogue, the Solvency II accord for insurance companies, requires such institutions to account for [[operational risk]] separately and in addition to [[credit risk|credit]], [[Actuarial reserves|reserve]], [[asset]], and [[insolvency]] risk. Actuarial skills are well suited to this environment because of their training in analyzing various forms of risk, and judging the potential for upside gain, as well as downside loss associated with these forms of risk {{ref_harvard|Darcy2|D’arcy 2005|none}}. ===Remuneration=== The credentialing and examination procedure for becoming a fully qualified actuary can be discouraging. Consequently, the profession remains very small throughout the world. As a result, actuaries are in high demand, and they are highly paid for the services they render {{ref_harvard|DWS1|D.W. Simpson 2006|none}}. In the UK, where there are approximately 8,000 fully qualified actuaries, typical post-university starting salaries range between [[Pound sterling|GBP]] £25,300 and £35,000 (approx. [[United States dollar|US$]]50,100–US$69,300 c. January 2008) and newly qualified actuaries in insurance companies earn somewhere between £46,000 and £55,000 (approx. US$91,100–US$108,900 c. January 2008) per year. Many successful actuaries earn over £100,000 a year (approx. US$198,000 c. January 2008). These reflect nationwide salaries and numbers are likely to be higher in London or in the South East of England {{ref_harvard|Lom|Lomas 2007|none}}. <!-- In developing markets such as [[India]], annual compensation for newly qualified actuaries starts at around 8 [[lakh]] (800,000 [[Indian rupee]]s or approximately US$17,500 c. June 2006) and can go as high as 20 lakh (approx. US$43,600 c. June 2006) {{ref_harvard|Bim|Bimaonline.com 2003|none}}.--> <!--In [[South Africa]], a country with close to 1,000 qualified actuaries (mostly through the British qualification system), starting salaries for graduates studying towards their professional qualification range from 160,000 ZAR to 250,000 ZAR while newly qaulified actuaries with relevant experience can expect to earn between 400,000 ZAR to 600,000 ZAR (ZAR7.05/$1 at time of writing). There is a trend in South-Africa for higher remuneration in the non-traditional compared with the traditional actuarial fields.--> ==Credentialing and exams== Becoming a fully credentialed actuary requires passing a rigorous series of exams, usually taking several years. In some countries, such as France, most study takes place in a university setting. In others, such as the U.S. and the UK, most study takes place during employment. ===UK and Republic of Ireland=== Qualification in the [[United Kingdom]] and the [[Republic of Ireland]] consists of a combination of exams and courses provided by the professional bodies: the [[Institute of Actuaries]] based in [[London]], [[England]], and the [[Faculty of Actuaries]] based in [[Edinburgh]], [[Scotland]] — separate but coinciding bodies. No geographic limitations exist for these bodies. Students and actuaries in any part of the UK or the Republic of Ireland may be a member of either or both bodies. The exams may only be taken upon having officially joined the body, unlike many other countries where exams may be taken earlier. However, a candidate may offer proof of having previously covered topics, usually while at university, in order to be exempt from taking certain subjects. The exams themselves are now split into four sections: Core Technical (CT), Core Applications (CA), Specialist Technical (ST), and Specialist Applications (SA). For students who joined the Profession after June 2004, a further requirement that the student carry out a "Work-based skills" exercise has been brought into effect. This involves the student submitting a series of essays to the Profession detailing the work that he or she has performed. In addition to exams, essays and courses, it is required that the candidate have at least three years' experience of actuarial work under supervision of a recognized actuary in order to qualify as a Fellow of the Institute of Actuaries (FIA) or of the Faculty of Actuaries (FFA) {{ref_harvard|FIFA1|Faculty and Institute of Actuaries 2006|none}}. Actuaries can also gain partial credit towards Fellowship of either the Faculty or Institute of Actuaries by following an [[actuarial science]] degree at an accredited university. At the undergraduate level the only accredited programmes are currently at [[Heriot-Watt University]], Edinburgh, the [[London School of Economics]], [[City University, London]] and the [[University of Kent]]. Full-time accredited masters programmes are provided only by the University of Kent, Heriot-Watt University and City University; part-time accredited masters degrees are offered by [[Imperial College London]] and the [[University of Leicester]]. Actuarial programmes that offer the possibility of exemption from individual professional exams are also available at City University, London, Heriot-Watt University, the London School of Economics, the [[University of Southampton]], the [[University of Wales, Swansea]], the University of Kent and the [[University of Warwick]]. In the Republic of Ireland exemptions are offered by [[University College Cork]], [[University College Dublin]] and [[Dublin City University]]. ===United States=== In the U.S., for life, health, and pension actuaries, exams are given by the [[Society of Actuaries]], while for property and casualty actuaries the exams are administered by the [[Casualty Actuarial Society]]. The Society of Actuaries’ requirements for Associateship include passing five preliminary examinations, demonstrating educational experience in [[economics]], [[corporate finance]] and [[applied statistics]]—called validation by educational experience (VEE), completing an eight-module self-learning series, and taking a course on professionalism. For Fellowship, three other modules, two exams, and a special fellowship admission course is added {{ref_harvard|SOA1|SOA 2008|none}}. The Casualty Actuary Society requires the successful completion of seven examinations and VEE for Associateship and two additional exams for Fellowship. In addition to these requirements, casualty actuarial candidates must also complete professionalism education and be recommended for membership by existing members {{ref_harvard|CAS1|CAS 2008|none}}. In order to sign statements of actuarial opinion, however, American actuaries must be members of the [[American Academy of Actuaries]]. Academy membership requirements include membership in one of the recognized actuarial societies, at least three years of full-time equivalent experience in responsible actuarial work, and either residency in the United States for at least three years or a non-resident or new resident who meets certain requirements {{ref_harvard|AAA|AAA 2006|none}}. Continuing education is required after certification for all actuaries who sign statements of actuarial opinion {{ref_harvard|AAA2|AAA 2001|none}}. In the pension area, American actuaries must pass three examinations to become an [[Enrolled Actuary]]. Some pension-related filings to the [[Internal Revenue Service]] and the [[Pension Benefit Guaranty Corporation]] require the signature of an Enrolled Actuary. Many Enrolled Actuaries belong to the [[Conference of Consulting Actuaries]] or the [[American Society of Pension Professionals and Actuaries]]. ===Canada=== The [[Canadian Institute of Actuaries]] (the CIA) recognizes fellows of both the Society of Actuaries and the Casualty Actuary Society, provided that they have specialized study in Canadian actuarial practice. For fellows of the SOA, this is fulfilled by taking the CIA’s Practice Education Course (PEC). For fellows of the Casualty Actuarial Society, this is fulfilled by taking exam 7C (Canada) instead of exam 7US. Unlike their American counterparts, the CIA only has one class of actuary—Fellow. Further, the CIA requires three years of actuarial practice within the previous decade, and 18 months of Canadian actuarial practice within the last three years, to become a fellow {{ref_harvard|CIA|CIA 2004|none}}. === Sweden === Actuarial training in [[Sweden]] takes place at [[Stockholm University]]. The four year [[Master's degree|master's]] program covers the subjects [[mathematics]], [[statistics|mathematical statistics]], [[actuarial science|insurance mathematics]], [[Mathematical finance|financial mathematics]], insurance [[law]] and insurance [[economics]]. The program operates under the Division of Mathematical Statistics {{ref_harvard|Swed|Stockholm University 2006|none}}. ===Denmark=== In Denmark it normally takes five years of study at the [[University of Copenhagen]] to become an actuary with no professional experience requirement. There is a focus on [[statistics]] and [[probability theory]], and a requirement for a [[Master's degree|master's]] [[thesis]] {{ref_harvard|Norberg|Norberg 1990|none}}. By Danish law, responsibility for the practise of any life insurance business must be taken by a formally acknowledged and approved actuary. In order to be approved as a formally responsible actuary, three to five years of professional experience is required {{ref_harvard|Haastrup|Haastrup and Nielsen|none}}. ===Australia=== The education system in Australia is divided into five parts. The first three are exam-based curricula, and the final two require a professionalism course and work experience {{ref_harvard|IAA-E|IAA-Ed 2006|none}}. Part I relies on exemptions from an accredited under-graduate degree from either [[Macquarie University]], [[University of New South Wales]], [[University of Melbourne]], [[Australian National University]] or [[Curtin University]] {{ref_harvard|IAA-I|IAA-Part I 2006|a}}. The courses would cover subjects including finance, financial mathematics, economics, contingencies, demography, models, probability and statistics. Students may also gain exemptions by passing the exams of the [[Institute of Actuaries]] in London {{ref_harvard|IAA-I|IAA-Part I 2006|b}}. Part II is the Actuarial Control Cycle and is offered by the first 4 universities above {{ref_harvard|IAA-II|IAA-Part II 2006|none}}. Part III consists of 4 half-year courses of which two are compulsory and the other two allow specialization {{ref_harvard|IAA-III|IAA-Part III 2006|none}}. ===India=== The [[Actuarial Society of India]] (now converted into Institute of Actuaries of India) offers both associateship and fellowship classes of membership. However, prospective candidates must be admitted to the society as students before they achieve associateship or fellowship. The exam sequence is similar to the British model, with Core and Specialty technical and application exams. The exams are conducted twice a year during the months of May-June and October-November {{ref_harvard|ASI|ASI 2006|none}}. ===Other countries=== Many other countries pattern their requirements after the larger societies of the US or UK. In general, the websites of these organizations are often the easiest source for finding out about membership requirements. ===Exam support=== As these qualifying exams are rigorous, support is usually available to people progressing through the exams. Often, employers provide paid on-the-job study time and paid attendance at seminars designed for the exams {{ref_harvard|Bean2|Be An Actuary 2005|none}}. Also, many companies which employ actuaries have automatic pay raises or promotions when exams are passed. As a result, actuarial students have strong incentives for devoting adequate study time during off-work hours. A common rule of thumb for exam students is that roughly 400 hours of study time are necessary for each four-hour exam {{ref_harvard|FF|Sieger 1998|none}}. Thus, thousands of hours of study time should be anticipated over several years, assuming no failures {{ref_harvard|Feld1|Feldblum 2001 p. 6|b}}. In practice, as the historical passing percentages remain below 50% for these exams, the “travel time” to credentialing is extended and more study time is needed. This process resembles formal schooling, so that actuaries who are sitting for exams are still called “students” or “candidates” despite holding important positions with substantial responsibilities. ==Notable actuaries== ;[[James Dodson]] :Head of the Royal Mathematical School, and Stone's School, Dodson built on the statistical mortality tables developed by Edmund Halley in 1693 {{ref_harvard|FIFA2|Faculty and Institute of Actuaries 2004|d}}. ;[[Edmond Halley]] :While Halley actually predated much of what is now considered the start of the actuarial profession, he was the first to mathematically and statistically rigorously calculate premiums for a life insurance policy {{ref_harvard|Halley1|Halley 1693|none}}. ;[[James C. Hickman]] :Notable actuarial educator, researcher, and author {{ref_harvard|Chap1|Chaptman 2006|none}}. ;[[Edward Rowe Mores]] :First person to use the title ‘actuary’ with respect to a business position {{ref_harvard|Ogb1|Ogborn 1956|b}}. ;[[William Morgan (scientist)|William Morgan]] :Morgan was the appointed Actuary of the Society for Equitable Assurances in 1775. He expanded on Mores's and Dodson's work, and may be rightly considered the father of the actuarial profession in that his title became applied to the field as a whole.{{ref_harvard|FIFA3|Faculty and Institute of Actuaries 1973|none}}. ;[[Maurice Princet]] :French actuary and close associate of artist [[Pablo Picasso]]. Princet is considered "Le Mathématicien du Cubisme" ("The Mathematician of Cubism") for his "critical influence on Picasso’s development as an artist at the birth of [[cubism]]" {{ref_harvard|Boyle|Boyle 2002|none}}. <!-- Note: Wikilink to article in French Wikipedia. --> ;[[Frank Redington]] :Developed the Redington Immunization Theory ;[[I. M. Rubinow|Isaac M. Rubinow]] :Founder and first president of the [[Casualty Actuarial Society]] {{ref_harvard|CASF|CAS 2006|none}}. ;[[Elizur Wright]] :American actuary and abolitionist, professor of mathematics at Western Reserve College (Ohio). He campaigned for laws that required life insurance companies to hold sufficient reserves to guarantee that policies would be paid {{ref_harvard|Sketch|Stearns 1905|none}}. ==Fictional actuaries== {{main|Fictional actuaries}} Due to the low public-profile of the job, some of the most recognisable actuaries to the general public happen to be characters in movies. Many actuaries were unhappy with the stereotypical portrayals of these actuaries as unhappy, math-obsessed and socially inept people; others have claimed that the portrayals are close to home, if a bit exaggerated. {{ref_harvard|Bean3|Coleman 2003|none}}. ==See also== *[[:Category:Actuarial associations]] *[[:Category:Actuarial science]] ==External links== {{Wiktionary}} *[http://www.beanactuary.com Be An Actuary: The SOA and CAS jointly sponsored web site] *[http://www.actuarialoutpost.com/actuarial_discussion_forum/index.php Global actuarial discussion forum] and [http://www.actuarialoutpost.com/wiki actuarial wiki] *[http://www.actuarialwiki.org Actuarial Wiki] *[http://www.aspa.org American Society of Pension Actuaries] ==References== <div class="references-small"> {{note_label|AAA|AAA 2006|none}}{{cite book | title = American Academy of Actuaries: 2006 Yearbook | url = http://www.actuary.org/yearbook/pdf/member_requirements_06.pdf | format = PDF | accessdate = 2006-06-11 | year = 2006 | publisher = [[American Academy of Actuaries]] | location = [[Washington, DC]] | pages = 59–61 | chapter = Academy Policies: Membership Requirements }} {{note_label|AAA2|AAA 2001|none}}{{cite book | title = Qualification Standards for Prescribed Statements of Actuarial Opinion | url = http://www.actuary.org/pdf/prof/qualif_stnds.pdf | format = PDF | accessdate = 2007-02-26 | year = 2001 | publisher = [[American Academy of Actuaries]] | location = [[Washington, DC]] | pages = 1–36 }} {{note_label|ASI|ASI 2006|none}}{{cite web |url = http://www.actuariesindia.org/index.html |title = Actuarial Society of India |accessdate = 2007-08-31 }} {{note_label|Bad|Bader & Gold 2003|none}}{{cite journal | last = Bader | first = Lawrence N. & Jeremy Gold | year = 2003 | month = January | title = Reinventing Pension Actuarial Science | journal = Pension Forum | volume = 14 | issue = 2 | pages = 1–38 | url = http://library.soa.org/library/sectionnews/pension/PFN0301.pdf | format = PDF | accessdate = 2006-12-10 }} {{note_label|Bean1|Be An Actuary 2005|none}}{{cite web | year = 2005 | url = http://www.beanactuary.com/about/whatis.cfm | title = What is an Actuary? | publisher = BeAnActuary Web Site | accessdate = 2006-06-11 }} {{note_label|Bean2|Be An Actuary 2005|none}}{{cite web | year = 2005 | url = http://www.beanactuary.com/exams/exam_info.cfm | title = About Actuarial Examinations | publisher = BeAnActuary Web Site | accessdate = 2006-08-21 }} {{note_label|Bim|Bimaonline.com 2003|none}}{{cite web | year = 2003 | url = http://www.bimaonline.com/cgi-bin/ind/careersnew/insurancecareers.asp | title = Careers | publisher = Bimaonline.com | accessdate = 2006-06-06 }} {{note_label|Boyle|Boyle 2002|none}}{{cite journal | last = Boyle | first = Phelim | year = 2002 | month = September | title = The actuary and the artist | journal = The Actuary | pages = 32 | url = http://www.the-actuary.org.uk/pdfs/02_09_09.pdf | accessdate = 2007-03-15 }} {{note_label|Buhl|Bühlmann 1997 p. 166|a}}{{note_label|Buhl|Bühlmann 1997 p. 168|b}}{{note_label|Buhl|Bühlmann 1997 p. 169–171|c}}{{cite journal | last = Bühlmann | first = Hans | year = 1997 | month = November | title = THE ACTUARY: THE ROLE AND LIMITATIONS OF THE PROFESSION SINCE THE MID-19th CENTURY | journal = ASTIN Bulletin | volume = 27 | issue = 2 | pages = 165–171 | id = {{ISSN|0515-0361}} | url = http://www.casact.org/library/astin/vol27no2/165.pdf | format = PDF | accessdate = 2006-06-28 }} {{note_label|BLS1|Bureau of Labor Statistics 2006|a}}{{note_label|BLS1|Bureau of Labor Statistics 2006|b}}{{note_label|BLS1|Bureau of Labor Statistics 2006|c}}{{cite web | date = 2006-08-04 | url = http://www.bls.gov/oco/ocos041.htm | title = Actuaries | work = Occupational Outlook Handbook 2006–07 Edition | publisher = U.S. Department of Labor, Bureau of Labor Statistics | accessdate = 2007-01-29 }} {{note_label|CAS1|CAS 2008|none}}{{cite web |url= http://www.casact.org/admissions/syllabus/summary.pdf |title= 2008 CAS BASIC EDUCATION SUMMARY |accessdate= 2008-01-11 |year= 2008 |work= Syllabus of Basic Education |publisher= [[Casualty Actuarial Society]] }} {{note_label|CASF|CAS 2006|none}}{{cite web | year = 2006 | url = http://www.casact.org/aboutcas/brochure.htm | title = Who is CAS? | work = Casact.org | publisher = [[Casualty Actuarial Society]] | accessdate = 2006-06-22 }} {{note_label|Chap1|Chaptman 2006|none}}{{cite web |url= http://www.news.wisc.edu/12874 |title= James C. Hickman, former business school dean, dies |accessdate= 2008-01-11 |last= Chaptman |first= Dennis |date= [[September 13]], [[2006]] |work= News |publisher= [[University of Wisconsin-Madison]] }} {{note_label|CIA|CIA 2004|none}}{{cite web | year = 2004 | month = October | url = http://www.actuaries.ca/membership/enrollment_e.cfm | title = Membership & Education: Canadian Enrollment Information | pages = | publisher = [[Canadian Institute of Actuaries]] | accessdate = 2006-06-11 }} {{note_label|Bean3|Coleman 2003|none}}{{cite journal | last = Coleman | first = Lynn G. | year = 2003 | month = Spring | title = Was "About Schmidt" about actuaries? | journal = The Future Actuary | volume = 12 | issue = 1 | url = http://www.beanactuary.org/news/futureactuary/2003mar/schmidt.cfm | accessdate = 2006-08-29 }} {{note_label|Darcy1|D’arcy 1989|none}}{{cite journal | last = D’arcy | first = Stephen P. | year = 1989 | month = May | title = On Becoming An Actuary of the Third Kind | journal = Proceedings of the Casualty Actuarial Society | volume = LXXVI | issue = 145 | pages = 45–76 | url = http://www.casact.org/pubs/proceed/proceed89/89045.pdf | format = PDF | accessdate = 2006-06-28 }} {{note_label|Darcy2|D’arcy 2005|none}}{{cite journal | last = D’arcy | first = Stephen P. | year = 2005 | month = November | title = On Becoming An Actuary of the Fourth Kind | journal = Proceedings of the Casualty Actuarial Society | volume = XCII | issue = 177 | pages = 745–754 | url = http://www.casact.org/pubs/proceed/proceed05/05755.pdf | format = PDF | accessdate = 2007-07-05 }} {{note_label|Lom|Lomas 2007|none}}{{cite web | last = Lomas | first = Anna | date = 2007-02-26 | url = http://www.prospects.ac.uk/downloads/occprofiles/profile_pdfs/I1_Actuary,_consultancy.pdf | title = Occupational profile: Actuary, consultancy | format = PDF | pages = 4 | publisher = AGCAS | accessdate = 2008-01-28 }} {{note_label|DWS1|D.W. Simpson 2006|none}}{{cite web | year = 2006 | url = http://www.dwsimpson.com/salary.html | title = Actuary Salary Survey | publisher = D. W. Simpson & Company | accessdate = 2006-06-11 }} {{note_label|Feld1|Feldblum 2001|a}}{{note_label|Feld1|Feldblum 2001|b}}{{cite book | last = Feldblum | first = Sholom | editor = Robert F. Lowe (ed.) | title = Foundations of Casualty Actuarial Science | origyear = 1990 | edition = 4th | year = 2001 | publisher = [[Casualty Actuarial Society]] | location = [[Arlington, Virginia]] | id = ISBN 0-9624762-2-6 {{LCCN|2001|0|88378}} | chapter = Introduction }} {{note_label|FIFA2|Faculty and Institute of Actuaries 2004|a}}{{note_label|FIFA2|Faculty and Institute of Actuaries 2004|b}}{{note_label|FIFA2|Faculty and Institute of Actuaries 2004|c}}{{note_label|FIFA2|Faculty and Institute of Actuaries 2004|d}}{{cite web | date = 2004-01-13 | url = http://www.actuaries.org.uk/Display_Page.cgi?url=/library/profession_history.html | title = History of the actuarial profession | publisher = Faculty and Institute of Actuaries | accessdate = 2006-06-21 }} {{note_label|FIFA1|Faculty and Institute of Actuaries 2006|none}}{{cite web | year = 2006 | url = http://www.actuaries.org.uk/Display_Page.cgi?url=/students/become_student.html | title = Becoming a student | work = Actuarial Profession | publisher = Faculty and Institute of Actuaries | accessdate = 2006-06-11 }} {{note_label|Halley1|Halley 1693|none}}{{cite journal | last = Halley | first = Edmond | authorlink = Edmond Halley | year = 1693 | title = An Estimate of the Degrees of the Mortality of Mankind, Drawn from Curious Tables of the Births and Funerals at the City of Breslaw; With an Attempt to Ascertain the Price of Annuities upon Lives | journal = [[Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society|Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London]] | volume = 17 | pages = 596–610 | url = http://www.york.ac.uk/depts/maths/histstat/halley.pdf | format = PDF | id = {{ISSN|0260-7085}} | accessdate = 2006-06-21 }} {{note_label|Haastrup|Haastrup and Nielsen|none}}{{cite paper | author = Haastrup, Svend and Jens Perch Nielsen | title = The historical perspective of the Danish actuarial profession | url = http://citeseer.ist.psu.edu/cache/papers/cs/16500/http:zSzzSzwww.math.ku.dkzSz~haastrupzSzic2.pdf/the-historical-perspective-of.pdf | format = PDF | accessdate = 2006-12-14 }} {{note_label|Hickman1|Hickman 2004 p. 4|none}}{{cite web | url = http://www.wiley.co.uk/eoas/pdfs/TAH012-.pdf | title = History of Actuarial Profession | accessdate = 2006-06-28 | last = Hickman | first = James | year = 2004 | format = PDF | work = Encyclopedia of Actuarial Science | publisher = John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. | pages = 4 }} {{note_label|IAA-E|IAA-Ed 2006|none}}{{cite web | url = http://www.actuaries.asn.au/Education | title = Education | accessdate = 2007-05-01 | year = 2006 | publisher = [[Institute of Actuaries of Australia]] }} {{note_label|IAA-I|IAA-Part I 2006|a}}{{note_label|IAA-I|IAA-Part I 2006|b}}{{cite web | url = http://www.actuaries.asn.au/Education/Courses/PartOne | title = Part I | accessdate = 2007-05-01 | year = 2006 | work = Courses | publisher = [[Institute of Actuaries of Australia]] }} {{note_label|IAA-II|IAA-Part II 2006|none}}{{cite web | url = http://www.actuaries.asn.au/Education/Courses/PartTwo | title = Part II (Actuarial Control Cycle) | accessdate = 2007-05-01 | year = 2006 | work = Courses | publisher = [[Institute of Actuaries of Australia]] }} {{note_label|IAA-III|IAA-Part III 2006|none}}{{cite web | url = http://www.actuaries.asn.au/Education/Courses/PartThree | title = Part III | accessdate = 2007-05-01 | year = 2006 | work = Courses | publisher = [[Institute of Actuaries of Australia]] }} {{note_label|Johnston1|Johnston 1903, §475–§476|none}}{{cite book | last = Johnston | first = Harold Whetstone | authorlink = Harold Whetstone Johnston | others = Revised by Mary Johnston | title = The Private Life of the Romans | origyear = 1903 | url = http://www.forumromanum.org/life/johnston.html | accessdate = 2006-06-26 | year = 1932 | publisher = Scott, Foresman and Company | location = Chicago, Atlanta | id = {{LCCN|32|00|7692}} | pages = §475–§476 | chapter = BURIAL PLACES AND FUNERAL CEREMONIES | chapterurl = http://www.forumromanum.org/life/johnston_14.html | quote = <small>Early in the Empire, associations were formed for the purpose of meeting the funeral expenses of their members, whether the remains were to be buried or cremated, or for the purpose of building columbāria, or for both.…If the members had provided places for the disposal of their bodies after death, they now provided for the necessary funeral expenses by paying into the common fund weekly a small fixed sum, easily within the reach of the poorest of them. When a member died, a stated sum was drawn from the treasury for his funeral….If the purpose of the society was the building of a columbārium, the cost was first determined and the sum total divided into what we should call shares (sortēs virīlēs), each member taking as many as he could afford and paying their value into the treasury.</small> }} {{note_label|Krutov|Krutov 2006|none}}{{cite journal | last = Krutov | first = Alex | year = 2006 | title = '''Insurance Linked Securities''' | journal = Financial Engineering News magazine | issue = 48 | url = http://www.fenews.com/fen48/one_time_articles/insurance/insurance.html | accessdate = 2006-11-30 }} {{note_label|Lee|Lee 2002|none}}{{cite web | last = Lee | first = Tony | year = 2002 | url = http://www.careerjournal.com/jobhunting/change/20020507-lee.html | title = 2002: Rating the Nation's Best and Worst Jobs | accessdate = 2006-04-04 }} {{note_label|Loan1|Loan 1992|none}}{{cite journal | last = Loan | first = Albert | year = 1991/92 | month = Winter | title = '''Institutional Bases of the Spontaneous Order: Surety and Assurance''' | journal = Humane Studies Review | volume = 7 | issue = 1 | url = http://mason.gmu.edu/~ihs/w91essay.html | accessdate = 2006-06-26 }} {{note_label|MacGinnitie1|MacGinnitie 1980 p.50–51|none}}{{cite journal | last = MacGinnitie | first = James | year = 1980 | month = November | title = The Actuary and his Profession: Growth, Development, Promise | journal = Proceedings of the Casualty Actuarial Society | volume = LXVII | issue = 127 | pages = 49–56 | url = http://www.casualtyactuarialsociety.com/pubs/proceed/proceed80/80049.pdf | format = PDF | accessdate = 2006-06-28 }} {{note_label|Mich1|Michelbacher 1920 p. 224, 230|none}}{{cite journal | last = Michelbacher | first = Gustav F. | year = 1920 | month = | title = The Technique of Rate Making as Illustrated by the 1920 National Revision of Workmen's Compensations Insurance Rates | journal = Proceedings of the Casualty Actuarial Society | volume = VI | issue = 14 | pages = 201–249 | url = http://www.casact.org/pubs/proceed/proceed19/19201.pdf | format = PDF | accessdate = 2006-06-28 }} {{note_label|Nemko|Nemko 2006|none}}{{cite web | last = Nemko | first = Marty | year = 2006 | url = http://www.usnews.com/usnews/biztech/best_careers_2007/ | title = Best Careers 2007 | publisher = ''[[U.S. News & World Report]]'' | accessdate = 2007-02-20 }} {{note_label|Norberg|Norberg 1990|none}}{{cite conference | first = Ragnar | last = Norberg | year = 1990 | title = Actuarial Statistics - The European Perspective | booktitle = International Conference on the Teaching of Statistics 3, Dunedin, New Zealand | publisher = International Association for Statistical Education | location = [[Auckland]], [[New Zealand]] | pages = 405–410 | url = http://www.stat.auckland.ac.nz/~iase/publications/18/BOOK2/B7-2.pdf | format = PDF | accessdate = 2006-12-14 }} {{note_label|Ogb1|The Professional Name of Actuary|a}}{{note_label|Ogb1|The Professional Name of Actuary|b}}{{cite journal | last = Ogborn | first = M.E. | year = 1956 | month = | title = The Professional Name of Actuary | journal = Journal of the Institute of Actuaries | volume = 82 | pages = 233–246 | url = http://www.actuaries.org.uk/files/pdf/library/JIA-082/0233-0246.pdf | format = PDF | accessdate = 2006-08-29 }} {{note_label|FIFA3|Faculty and Institute of Actuaries 1973|none}}{{cite web | last = Ogborn | first = M.E. | year = 1973 | month = July | url = http://www.actuaries.org.uk/files/pdf/library/JIA-100/0005-0014.pdf | title = CATALOGUE OF AN EXHIBITION ILLUSTRATING THE HISTORY OF ACTUARIAL SCIENCE IN THE UNITED KINGDOM | format = PDF | work = | pages = 7–8 | publisher = Faculty and Institute of Actuaries | accessdate = 2006-06-22 }} {{note_label|Perkins|Perkins 1995|a}}{{note_label|Perkins|Perkins 1995|b}}{{cite book | last = Perkins | first = Judith | title = The Suffering Self; Pain and Narrative Representation in the Early Christian Era | date = [[August 25]], [[1995]] | publisher = [[Routledge]] | location = [[London, England]] | id = ISBN 0-415-11363-6 {{LCCN|94|0|42650}} }} {{note_label|FF|Sieger 1998|none}}{{cite journal | last = Sieger | first = Richard | year = 1998 | month = March | title = What is an Actuary? | journal = Future Fellows | volume = 4 | issue = 1 | url = http://casact.org/admissions/futfell/mar98/whatis.htm | accessdate = 2006-06-22 }} {{note_label|SOA1|SOA 2008|none}}{{cite web |url= http://www.soa.org/education/course-catalog/spring-exam-session/2008/edu-admission-req.aspx |title= Admission Requirements to the SOA |accessdate= 2008-01-11 |year= 2008 |work= Spring 2008 Basic Education Catalog |publisher= [[Society of Actuaries]] }} {{note_label|Slud1|Slud 2006|none}}{{cite book | last = Slud | first = Eric V. | title = Actuarial Mathematics and Life-Table Statistics | origyear = 2001 | url = http://www.math.umd.edu/~evs/s470/BookChaps/01Book.pdf | format = PDF | accessdate = 2006-06-28 | year = 2006 | pages = 149–150 | chapter = 6: Commutation Functions, Reserves & Select Mortality | chapterurl = http://www.math.umd.edu/~evs/s470/BookChaps/Chp6.pdf | quote = <small>The Commutation Functions are a computational device to ensure that net single premiums…can all be obtained from a single table lookup. Historically, this idea has been very important in saving calculational labor when arriving at premium quotes. Even now…company employees without quantitative training could calculate premiums in a spreadsheet format with the aid of a life table.</small> }} {{note_label|Sketch|Stearns 1905|none}}{{cite book | last = Stearns | first = Frank Preston | title = Cambridge sketches | url = http://www.gutenberg.org/dirs/etext05/7camb10.txt | format = text | accessdate = 2007-01-15 | edition = 1st ed. | date = 1905 | publisher = [[J. B. Lippincott Company]] | location = [[Philadelphia]], [[Pennsylvania]] | isbn = | oclc = | doi = | id = {{LCCN|05|0|11051}} | pages = | chapter = ELIZUR WRIGHT | chapterurl = | quote = <small>This danger could only be averted by placing their rates of insurance on a scientific basis, which should be the same and unalterable for all companies.…After two or three interviews with Elizur Wright the presidents of the companies came to the conclusion that he was exactly the man that they wanted, and they commissioned him to draw up a revised set of tables and rates which could serve them for a uniform standard.</small> }} {{note_label|Swed|Stockholm University 2006|none}}{{cite web | url = http://www.utbildning.su.se/katalog/Linjer/46.asp | title = Aktuarieprogrammet | accessdate = 2006-09-10 | year = 2006 | publisher = [[Stockholm University]] | language = {{sv icon}} }} {{note_label|Thucydides|Thucydides c. 431BCE|none}}{{cite book | last = Thucydides | authorlink = Thucydides | others = Translated by Richard Crawley | title = [[The History of the Peloponnesian War]] | url = http://classics.mit.edu/Thucydides/pelopwar.html | accessdate = 2006-06-27 | year = c. 431 [[Common Era|BCE]] | location = [[Greece]] | chapter = VI - Funeral Oration of Pericles | chapterurl = http://classics.mit.edu/Thucydides/pelopwar.2.second.html | quote = <small>My task is now finished.…those who are here interred have received part of their honours already, and for the rest, their children will be brought up till manhood at the public expense: the state thus offers a valuable prize, as the garland of victory in this race of valour, for the reward both of those who have fallen and their survivors.</small> }} {{note_label|Tong1|Tong 2006|none}}{{cite news |first = Vinnee |last = Tong |url = http://www.suntimes.com/output/news/cst-nws-phil19.html |title = Americans’ donations to charity near record |work = [[Chicago Sun-Times]] |publisher = Digital Chicago Inc. |date = [[June 19]], [[2006]] |accessdate = 2006-06-21 }} {{note_label|Trow|Trowbridge 1989, p. 7|none}}{{cite paper |author= Trowbridge, Charles L. |date= 1989 |url= http://www.actuarialfoundation.org/research_edu/fundamental.pdf |format= PDF |title= Fundamental Concepts of Actuarial Science |publisher= Actuarial Education and Research Fund |version= Revised Edition |accessdate= 2006-06-28 }} {{note_label|Whelan1|Whelan 2002|none}}{{cite news |first = Shane |last = Whelan |url = http://www.the-actuary.org.uk/pdfs/02_12_08.pdf |title = Actuaries’ contributions to financial economics |work = The Actuary |publisher = Staple Inn Actuarial Society |pages = 34–35 |date = December 2002 |accessdate = 2006-06-28 }} </div> {{Featured article}} <!-- Categories --> {{DEFAULTSORT:Actuary}} [[Category:Actuarial science]] [[Category:Insurance]] [[Category:Mathematical science occupations]] [[Category:Occupations]] <!-- Interwikis --> [[af:Aktuaris]] [[bg:Актюер]] [[ca:Actuari (ofici)]] [[da:Aktuar]] [[de:Aktuar (Versicherungswirtschaft)]] [[es:Actuario]] [[eo:Aktuario]] [[fr:Actuaire]] [[hy:Ակտուար]] [[id:Aktuaris]] [[he:אקטואר]] [[hu:Aktuárius]] [[nl:Actuaris]] [[ja:アクチュアリー]] [[no:Aktuar]] [[nov:Aktuare]] [[pl:Aktuariusz]] [[pt:Atuário]] [[ru:Актуарий]] [[simple:Actuary]] [[sv:Aktuarie]] [[tr:Aktüerya]] [[uk:Актуарій]] [[zh:精算師]]