Adolescent psychology
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'''Adolescent Psychology''' addresses the psychological issues and interests of adolescents.
==Adolescence==
[[Adolescence]], the transitional stage of development between [[childhood]] and [[adult]]hood, represents the period of time during which a person experiences a variety of biological changes and encounters a number of emotional issues. The ages which are considered to be part of adolescence vary by culture, and ranges from [[preteen]]s to nineteen years. According to the [[World Health Organization]] (WHO), adolescence covers the period of life between 10 and 20 years of age. Adolescence is often divided by psychologists into three distinct phases: early, mid and late adolescence.
==Background==
Adolescence can be a specifically turbulent as well as a dynamic period of one's life. It has been identified as a period in which young people develop [[abstract thinking]] abilities, become more aware of their [[adolescent sexuality|sexuality]], develop a clearer sense of [[psychological identity]], and increase their independence from parents. <ref name=Viner_2005>{{cite journal | last = Viner | first = Russell | authorlink = | coauthors = Christie, Deborah | title = ABC of adolescence: Adolescent development | journal = British Medical Journal | volume = 330 | issue = | pages = 301–304 | publisher = | date = 5 February 2005 | url = http://www.bmj.com/cgi/content/full/330/7486/301 | doi = 10.1136/bmj.330.7486.301 | id = | accessdate = 2007-06-20 | pmid = 15695279 }}</ref> [[G. Stanley Hall]] denoted this period as one of "Storm and Stress" and, according to him, [[conflict]] at this developmental stage is normal and not unusual. [[Margaret Mead]], on the other hand, attributed the behavior of adolescents to their culture and upbringing.<ref>http://www.mnsu.edu/emuseum/cultural/anthropology/Mead.html</ref>
Several [[developmental stage]] models have placed adolescence in a period of [[human development]].<ref name=Viner_2005/> [[Sigmund Freud]] saw it as the "genital phase" of [[psychosexual development]], where the child recaptures the sexual awareness of infancy. [[Jean Piaget]] focused on [[theory of cognitive development|cognitive development]], seeing adolescence as the "formal operative stage" where the young person develops the ability to think abstractly and draw conclusions from the information available. [[Erik Erikson]]’s theory of [[psychosocial development]] identified the [[identity crisis (psychology)|identity crisis]] as central to the notion of adolescence.
Adolescent psychology addresses the issues associated with adolescence, such as whether or not the aforementioned "storm and stress" is a normal part of this period. The [[American Psychological Association]] has a separate division dedicated to adolescence, and the [[psychologists]] specializing in this topic attempt to answer questions dealing with the age group. One issue in adolescent psychology discusses whether adolescence is in fact a discrete developmental period, a point along a continuum of human development, or a [[social construction]].
==Social behavior patterns==
The social behavior of mammals changes as they enter adolescence. In humans, adolescents typically increase the amount of time spent with their [[peer]]s. Nearly eight hours are usually spent communicating with others, but only eight percent of this time is spent talking to adults. Adolescents report that they are far happier spending time with similarly aged peers as compared to adults.<ref name="CSI">{{cite journal|author=Csikszentmihalyi, M|title=The Ecology of Adolescent Activity and Experience|journal=Journal of Youth and Adolescence|volume=6|issue=3|pages=281–94|year=1977|doi=10.1007/BF02138940}}</ref> Consequently, conflict between adolescents and their parents increase at this time as adolescents strive to create a natural separation and sense of independence.<ref name="Sage">{{cite book|author=Steinberg, L|title=Advances in Adolescent Behavior and Development|year=1989|publisher=Sage Publications|location=Newbury Park, CA|pages=71–97}}</ref> These interactions are not always positive; [[peer pressure]] is very prevalent during adolescence, leading to increases in [[cheating]] and [[misdemeanor]] crime.<ref>{{cite journal|author=Berndt, T|title=Developmental Changes in Conformity to Peers and
Parents|journal=Developmental Psychology|volume=15|pages=608–16|year=1979|doi=10.1037/0012-1649.15.6.608}}</ref> Young adolescents are particularly susceptible to [[conforming]] to the behavior of their peers.<ref>{{cite journal|author=Costanzo, P & Shaw, M|title=Conformity as a Function of Age Level|journal=Child Development|volume=37|issue=4|pages=967–975|year=1966|doi=10.2307/1126618}}</ref>
Early adolescence is a stage at which the [[peer group]] becomes increasingly important, with conformity to peers peaking at 11-13 years (Costanzo and Shaw 1966). 90% of adolescents identify themselves with a peer group (Palmonari, 1989). According to [[Judith Rich Harris]]’s theory of group socialization, children and adolescents are shaped more by their peers than their parents (Harris 1997). Peers can encourage both [[pro-social behavior]], which peaks at 11-12 years, or [[anti-social behavior]], which peaks at 14-15 years (Bendt, 1979). Adolescents are less likely to feel depressed or anxious if the peer group provides emotional support (Buhrmester, 1992).
Non-human mammals also exhibit changes in social attitude during adolescence. Adolescent rodents have also been observed spending more of their time with rodents of similar age.<ref>{{cite journal|author=Primus, R & Kellogg, C|title=Pubertal-related changes influence the development of environment-related social interaction in the male rat|journal=Developmental Psychobiology|volume=22|pages=633–43|year=1989|doi=10.1002/dev.420220608}}</ref> Conflicts between adolescents and parents have been noted in other primates,<ref name="Sage"/> and overall increases in aggressiveness have been observed during this time period.<ref>{{cite book|author=Pereira, M & Altmann, J||title=Nonhuman Primate Models for Human Growth and Development|year=1985|publisher=Alan R. Liss|location=New York City|pages=217–309}}</ref> Despite this, social bonding between adolescents and adults tends to improve due to reconciliatory behavior.<ref>{{cite book|author=Cords, M, & Aureli, F|title=Juvenile Primates|year=1993|publisher=Oxford University Press|location=New York City|pages=271–84}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|author=de Waal, F|title=Juvenile Primates|year=1993|publisher=Oxford University Press|location=New York City|pages=259–70, 367–415}}</ref> [[Allomaternal behavior]] increases among females in several species, including humans,<ref>{{cite journal|author=Fullard, W & Reiling, A|title=An Investigation of Lorenz’s Babyness|journal=Child Development|volume=47|pages=1191–3|year=1976|doi=10.2307/1128462}}</ref> nonhuman primates,<ref name="evo">{{cite journal|author=Weisfeld, G & Berger J|title=Some Features of Human Adolescence
Viewed in Evolutionary Perspective|journal=Human Development|volume=26|pages=121–33|year=1983}}</ref> and rodents.<ref>{{cite journal|author=Mayer A, Freeman N, Rosenblatt J|title=Ontogeny of Maternal
Behavior in the Laboratory Rat: Factors Underlying Changes in Responsiveness
from 30 to 90 Days|publisher=Developmental Psychobiology|volume=12|pages=425–39|year=1979}}</ref> However, males tend to exhibit less interest in infants during adolescence.<ref name="evo"/>
==Psychological issues==
Adolescents are widely considered by the psychological establishment to be prone to [[recklessness (psychology)|recklessness]] and [[risk]]-taking behaviors, which can lead to [[substance abuse]], [[car accidents]], [[unsafe sex]] and [[youth crime]]. <ref>{{cite book | last = Lightfoot | first = Cynthia | title = The Culture of Adolescent Risk-Taking | publisher = The Guilford Press | date = 1997 | isbn = 978-1572302327}}</ref> There is some evidence that this risk-taking is biologically driven, caused by the social and emotional part of the brain (amygdala) developing faster than the cognitive-control part of the brain (frontal cortex). <ref> {{cite news | last = Moretz | first = Preston | title = Adolescent Risk Taking Likely Biologically Driven And Possibly Inevitable | publisher = Medical News Today | date = [[2007-04-17]] | url = http://www.medicalnewstoday.com/medicalnews.php?newsid=67714 | accessdate = 2007-06-20 }}</ref>
Although most adolescents are psychologically healthy, they can (like adults) exhibit signs of [[mental illness]]. Late adolescence and early adulthood are peak years for the onset of [[schizophrenia]].<ref name="Addington_et_al_2007">Addington J, Cadenhead KS, Cannon TD, Cornblatt B, [[Thomas McGlashan|McGlashan TH]], Perkins DO, Seidman LJ, Tsuang M, Walker EF, Woods SW, Heinssen R. (2007) North American prodrome longitudinal study: a collaborative multisite approach to prodromal schizophrenia research. ''[[Schizophrenia Bulletin]]'', 33 (3), 665-72. PMID 17255119</ref> [[Mood disorder]]s such as [[clinical depression]] and [[bipolar disorder]] can initially show in adolescence. <ref> {{cite journal | last = Bhatia | first = Shashi K. | coauthors = Subhash C. Bhatia | title = Childhood and Adolescent Depression | journal = American Academy of Family Physicians | publisher = Creighton University, Department of Psychiatry, Omaha, Nebraska | date = 2007-01-01 | url = http://www.aafp.org/afp/20070101/73.html | accessdate = 2007-06-20}}</ref> <ref>{{cite web | title = Child and Adolescent Bipolar Foundation | url = http://www.bpkids.org/ | accessdate = 2007-06-20 }}</ref> Girls aged between 15 and 19 make up 40% of [[anorexia nervosa]] cases. <ref>Bulik CM, Reba L, Siega-Riz AM, Reichborn-Kjennerud T. (2005) Anorexia nervosa: definition, epidemiology, and cycle of risk. ''Int J Eat Disord'', 37 Suppl, S2-9. PMID 15852310.</ref><ref>Hoek HW. (2006) Incidence, prevalence and mortality of anorexia nervosa and other eating disorders. ''Curr Opin Psychiatry.'', 19 (4), 389-94. PMID 16721169.</ref>
==See also==
*[[Adolescence]]
**[[Adolescent sexuality]]
*[[Sex education]]
*[[Puberty]]
*[[Mood swing]]
*[[Youth activism]]
== News Section ==
* [http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/magazine/6539093.stm Using dogs with disruptive adolescents]
==References==
<references />
==Further reading==
<div class="references-small">
*''Handbook of Adolescent Psychology'' (ISBN 0-471-20948-1), edited by Richard M. Lerner and Laurence Steinberg
*{{cite book
| last = Goethals
| first = George W.
| authorlink = George W. Goethals (psychologist)|George W. Goethals
| coauthors = [[Dennis S. Klos|Klos, Dennis S.]]
| title = Experiencing Youth. First-Person Accounts. Second Edition.
| publisher = [[University Press of America]]
| year = 1986
| id = ISBN 0-8191-5688-4}}
*{{cite book
| last = Muuss
| first = Rolf E.
| authorlink = Rolf E. Muuss
| title = Theories of Adolescence. Sixth Edition.
| publisher = [[McGraw Hill]]
| year = 1996
| id = ISBN 0-07-044267-3}}
{{Psychology}}
{{commonscat|Young people}}
</div>
[[Category:Adolescence]]
[[Category:Human development]]
[[Category:Youth]]