Alberto Fujimori
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224645746
2008-07-09T20:10:04Z
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Update on sentence, and removed paragraph not appropriate for introduction
{{Infobox President
|name = Alberto Fujimori
|image = OAS-Fujimori-crop.jpg
|order = 45th [[President of Peru]]
|term_start = [[July 28]] [[1990]]
|term_end = [[November 22]] [[2000]]
|predecessor = [[Alan García]]
|successor = [[Valentín Paniagua Corazao|Valentín Paniagua]]
|birth_date = {{Birth date and age|1938|07|28}}
|birth_place = [[Lima]], [[Peru]]
|dead = alive
|spouse = [[Susana Higuchi]] (divorced)<br/>Satomi Kataoka
|religion = [[Roman Catholic Church|Roman Catholic]]
|party = [[Cambio 90]] (1990-1999)<br/>[[Peru 2000]] (2000)<br/>[[Si Cumple]] (2006) <br/>[[People's New Party]] (2007)
|vicepresident = Máximo San Román (1990-92)<br/>Jaime Yoshiyama Tanaka (1993-95) <br/>Ricardo Márquez (1995-2000) <br/>Francisco Tudela (2000)
}}
'''Alberto Ken'ya Fujimori''' (Japanese name: {{nihongo|'''Ken'ya Fujimori'''|藤森 謙也|''Fujimori Ken'ya''}}) (born in [[Lima]], [[Peru]] on [[July 28]], [[1938]]) is a [[Peru]]vian and [[Japan]]ese<ref> [http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/asia-pacific/1065667.stm Fujimori secures Japanese haven], BBC News, 12 December 2000. Accessed online 29 December 2007.</ref> politician who served as [[President of Peru]] from [[July 28]], [[1990]] to [[November 17]], [[2000]]. A controversial figure,<ref> [http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/americas/705482.stm Fujimori's controversial career], BBC News, 18 September 2000. Accessed online 4 November 2006.</ref> Fujimori has been credited with uprooting [[terrorism]] in Peru and restoring its macroeconomic stability, though his methods have drawn charges of [[authoritarianism]] and human rights violations.<ref> Jo-Marie Burt. 2006 "Quien habla es terrorista": the political use of fear in Fujimori's Peru. Latin American Research Review 41(3):32-61 </ref> He is alleged to be responsible for a number of [[human rights]] abuses<ref name="Sterilization"> {{Cite news | title=Mass sterilisation scandal shocks Peru |date=2002-07-24 | accessmonthday=30 April | accessyear=2006|publisher=[[BBC News]]|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/americas/2148793.stm}} </ref> during his presidency, for which he is currently facing trial.<ref name=DecNYT> [http://www.nytimes.com/2007/12/12/world/americas/12fujimori.html?ref=world Peru’s Ex-President Gets 6 Years for Illicit Search], New York Times, 12 December 2007. Accessed online 12 December 2007.</ref> Fujimori is currently serving a six-year prison sentence for abuse of power.<ref>Corte Suprema de la República. [[December 10]], [[2008]]. [http://www.pj.gob.pe/CorteSuprema/spe/Documentos/exp_AV-13-2003_2da_SPE_150408.pdf Resolution 17-2008].</ref>
In late 2000, facing a corruption scandal, he fled to [[Japan]], where he attempted to resign his presidency. His resignation was rejected by the [[Congress of Peru|Congress of the Republic]], which preferred to remove him from office by force of vote. Congress proceeded to bar him from elective office for ten years. Wanted in Peru on charges of corruption and human rights abuses, Fujimori maintained a self-imposed exile abroad until his detainment during a visit to [[Chile]] in November 2005.<ref>[http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/americas/4994908.stm Conditional release for Fujimori], BBC News, [[18 May]] [[2006]]. Accessed online [[26 September]] [[2006]].</ref> He was finally extradited to face criminal charges in Peru in September 2007.<ref>[http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/americas/7008302.stm Extradited Fujimori back in Peru] 22 September 2007</ref>
On [[December 11]], [[2007]], in a court case separate from the pending human rights charges, Fujimori was convicted of ordering an illegal search and seizure of documents and videotapes in the possession of the wife of his former spy chief, [[Vladimiro Montesinos]]. He was sentenced to six years in prison.<ref> [http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/americas/7139719.stm Fujimori jailed for abusing power], BBC News, 12 December 2007. Accessed online 12 December 2007.</ref> Fujimori appealed the verdict, but on April 15, 2008 the Supreme Court upheld the conviction and 6-year sentence.
==Birthplace==
According to government records, Fujimori was born on [[July 28]], [[1938]] in [[Miraflores District|Miraflores]], a district of [[Lima]]. His parents, Naoichi Fujimori and Mutsue Inomoto de Fujimori, were natives of [[Kumamoto]], [[Japan]] who immigrated to Peru in 1934. He holds dual Peruvian and Japanese [[citizenship]], his parents having secured the latter through the Japanese Consulate.
In July 1997, the political magazine ''Caretas'' charged that Fujimori had actually been born in Japan. Because Peru's constitution requires the president to have been born in Peru, this would have made Fujimori ineligible to be president.<ref name=Britannica>''Encyclopædia Britannica'' reports these challenges, but seems to dismiss them, saying that his family emigrated from Japan in 1934. [http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9114534?tocId=9114534 Fujimori, Alberto / Year in Review 1998], ''Encyclopædia Britannica'' online, accessed [[19 June]] [[2006]]</ref> The magazine, which had been sued for libel by [[Vladimiro Montesinos]] seven years earlier,<ref>Dartnell, Michael York. ''Insurgency online: Web activism and global conflict''. 2006, page 77</ref> reported that Fujimori's birth and baptismal certificates may have been altered. ''Caretas'' also alleged that Fujimori's mother declared having two children when she entered Peru; Fujimori is the second of four children.<ref>[http://www.expressindia.com/ie/daily/19970727/20850523.html Expressindia.com] - Information about Fujimori's birthplace</ref> ''Caretas''' contentions were hotly contested in the Peruvian media; the magazine ''Sí'', for instance, described the allegations as "pathetic" and "a dark page for [Peruvian] journalism".<ref>Waisbord, Silvio Ricardo. ''Watchdog Journalism in South America''. 2000, page 83.</ref>
==Early years==
Fujimori obtained his early education at the ''Colegio Nuestra Señora de la Merced'', and ''La Rectora'', and graduated high school from ''La gran unidad escolar Alfonso Ugarte'' in Lima. He went on to [[undergraduate]] studies at the [[Universidad Nacional Agraria La Molina]] in 1957, graduating in 1961 first in his class as an [[Agricultural engineering|agricultural engineer]].
There he lectured on [[mathematics]] the following year. In 1964 he went on to study [[physics]] at the [[University of Strasbourg]] in [[France]]. On a Ford scholarship, Fujimori also attended the [[University of Wisconsin-Milwaukee]]<ref> [http://www.math.rochester.edu/undergraduate/sums/aftermath/famouspeople.html Famous people major in Mathematics], University of Rochester website. Retrieved on March 30, 2007 </ref> in the [[United States]], where he obtained his master's degree in mathematics in 1969. In [[1974]], he married [[Susana Higuchi]], also a Peruvian of Japanese descent.
In recognition of his academic achievements, the sciences faculty of the Universidad Nacional Agraria offered Fujimori the [[Dean (education)|deanship]] and in 1984 appointed him to the [[rector magnificus|rectorship]] of the university, which he held until 1989. In 1987, Fujimori also became president of the ''National Commission of Peruvian University Rectors'' ''(Asamblea Nacional de Rectores)'', a position which he has held twice. He also hosted a TV show called ''"Concertando"'' from 1987 to 1989, on Peru's state-owned network, [[Peruvian National Television|Channel 7]].
A [[dark horse]] candidate, Fujimori won the 1990 presidential election under the banner of the new party ''[[Cambio 90]]'' ("cambio" meaning "change"), beating world-renowned writer [[Mario Vargas Llosa]] in a surprising upset. He capitalized on profound disenchantment with previous president [[Alan García]] and his [[American Popular Revolutionary Alliance]] party (APRA). He exploited popular distrust of Vargas Llosa's identification with the existing Peruvian political establishment, and uncertainty about Vargas Llosa's plans for [[Neoliberalism|neoliberal]] economic reforms. Fujimori won much support from the poor, who had been frightened by Vargas Llosa's austerity proposals.
During the campaign, Fujimori was nicknamed ''El Chino'', which translates literally to "The Chinese Guy"; it is common for people of any East Asian descent to be called ''chino'' in Latin America. Although he is of Japanese heritage, Fujimori has suggested that he was always gladdened by the term, which he perceived as a term of affection.<ref>Interview with Fujimori, in Ellen Perry's ''The Fall of Fujimori''</ref> With his election victory, he became the first person of [[East Asian]] descent to become [[head of government]] of a [[Latin America]]n nation, and just the third of East Asian descent to govern a South American state, after [[Arthur Chung]] of [[Guyana]] and [[Henk Chin A Sen]] of [[Suriname]] (each of whom had served as [[head of state]], rather than head of government).
==First term (1990–1995)==
==="Fujishock"===
During his first term in office, Fujimori enacted wide-ranging neoliberal reforms, known as ''[[Fujishock]]''. During the previous presidency of [[Alan García]], the Peruvian economy entered a period of hyperinflation and the political system was in crisis due to the country's internal conflict, leaving Peru in "economic and political chaos".<ref name=lp>Benson, Sara and Hellander, Paul and Wlodarski, Rafael. ''[[Lonely Planet]]: Peru''. 2007, page 37-8.</ref> It was Fujimori's objective to pacify the nation and restore economic balance. Even though this program bore little resemblance to Fujimori's campaign platform, and was in fact more drastic than anything Vargas Llosa had proposed,<ref name=gouge3>Gouge, Thomas. ''Exodus from Capitalism: The End of Inflation and Debt''. 2003, page 363.</ref> ''Fujishock'' succeeded in restoring Peru to the global economy, though not without immediate social cost.<ref name=manz>Manzetti, Luigi. ''Privatization South American Style''. 1999, page 325.</ref>
Fujimori's initiative relaxed private sector price controls, drastically reduced government subsidies and federal employment, and eliminated all exchange controls, also reducing restrictions on investment, imports, and capital flow.<ref name=manz /> Tariffs were radically simplified, the minimum wage was immediately quadrupled, and the government established a $400 million poverty relief fund.<ref name=manz /> The latter measure seemed to anticipate the economic agony that was to come, as electricity costs quintupled, water prices rose eightfold, and gasoline prices rose 3000%.<ref name=gouge3 /><ref name=manz />
The [[IMF]] was impressed by these measures, and guaranteed loan funding for Peru.<ref name=gouge>Gouge, Thomas. ''Exodus from Capitalism: The End of Inflation and Debt''. 2003, page 364.</ref> Inflation began to fall rapidly and foreign investment capital flooded in.<ref name=gouge /> Fujimori's [[privatization]] campaign featured the selling off of hundreds of state-owned enterprises, and the replacing of the troubled Peruvian currency, the [[Peruvian inti|inti]], with the [[Nuevo Sol]].<ref name=lp /> The ''Fujishock'' restored [[Macroeconomics|macroeconomic]] stability to the economy and triggered a considerable long-term economic upturn in the mid-1990s.<ref name=cs>Carol Stokes, Susan. ''Public Support for Market Reforms in New Democracies''. 2001, page 163.</ref> In 1994, the Peruvian economy grew at a rate of 13%, faster than any other economy in the world.<ref name=cs />
===1992 "self-coup"===
{{main|Peruvian Constitutional Crisis of 1992}}
During Fujimori's first term in office, APRA and Vargas Llosa's party, [[FREDEMO]], remained in control of both chambers of Congress (the [[Chamber of Deputies of Peru|Chamber of Deputies]] and [[Senate of Peru|Senate]]), hampering his ability to enact his economic reforms. Fujimori also found it difficult to combat the threat posed by the [[Maoism|Maoist]] guerrilla organization [[Shining Path]] ([[Spanish language|Spanish]]: ''Sendero Luminoso''), largely on account of what he perceived to be the intransigence and obstructionism of Congress. By March 1992, Congress met with the approval of only 17% of the electorate, according to one poll (the presidency stood at 42%, in the same poll).<ref name=smith234>Smith, Peter H. ''Latin America in Comparative Perspective: New Approaches to Methods and Analysis''. 1995, page 234.</ref>
In response to the political deadlock, on [[April 5]], [[1992]] Fujimori, with the support of the military, carried out a presidential [[coup d'état]],<ref>{{cite book |title=Fujimori's coup and the breakdown of democracy in Latin America |last=Kenney |first=Charles D. |url=http://www.bibliovault.org/BV.book.epl?BookId=5885 |year=2004 |publisher=University of Notre Dame Press |location= |isbn=0-268-03171-1}}</ref> also known as the ''autogolpe'' (auto-coup or self-coup) or ''Fujigolpe'' (Fuji-coup) in Peru. He shut the Congress, suspended the constitution, and purged the judiciary.<ref>Levitsky, Steven "Fujimori and Post-Party Politics in Peru", ''Journal of Democracy''. 10(3):78</ref> The coup was welcomed by the public, according to numerous polls.<ref name=smith236>Smith, Peter H. ''Latin America in Comparative Perspective: New Approaches to Methods and Analysis''. 1995, page 236.</ref> Not only was the coup itself marked by favorable public opinion in several independent polls, but also public approval of the Fujimori administration jumped significantly in the wake of the coup.<ref name=smith236 /><ref name=Levitt> Barry S. Levitt. 2006 “A desultory defense of democracy: OAS Resolution 1080 and the Inter-American Democratic Charter. (Organization of American States).” Latin American Politics and Society 48(3):93-123. </ref> Fujimori often cited this public support in defending the coup, which he characterized as "not a negation of real democracy, but on the contrary... a search for an authentic transformation to assure a legitimate and effective democracy."<ref name=smith236 /> Fujimori believed that Peruvian democracy had been nothing more than "a deceptive formality--a facade";<ref name=smith236 /> he claimed the coup was necessary to break with the deeply-entrenched special interests that were hindering him from rescuing Peru from the chaotic state in which García had left it.<ref>{{es icon}} [http://www.congreso.gob.pe/museo/mensajes/Mensaje-1992-1.pdf Mensaje a la nación del presidente del Perú, ingeniero Alberto Fujimori Fujimori, el 5 de abril de 1992] ([[Portable Document Format|PDF]]). On the website of the Peruvian National Congress. Accessed [[26 September]] [[2006]].</ref>
Fujimori's coup was immediately met with the near-unanimous condemnation by the international community.<ref name=smith236 /> The [[Organization of American States]] denounced the coup and demanded a return to "representative democracy",<ref name=smith238>Smith, Peter H. ''Latin America in Comparative Perspective: New Approaches to Methods and Analysis''. 1995, page 238.</ref> despite Fujimori's claims that his coup represented a "popular uprising".<ref name=smith236 /> Various foreign ministers of the OAS reiterated this condemnation of the ''autogolpe''.<ref name=Levitt> They proposed an urgent effort to promote the re-establishment of "the democratic institutional order" in Peru.<ref>Organization of American States (OAS). 1992. Ser. G MRE/RES 1/92 April 13. </ref> Following negotiations involving the OAS, the government, and opposition groups, Alberto Fujimori's initial response was to hold a referendum to ratify the auto-coup, which the OAS rejected. Fujimori then proposed scheduling elections for a Democratic Constituent Congress (CCD), which would be charged with drafting a new constitution, to be ratified by a national referendum. Despite the lack of consensus among political forces in Peru regarding this proposal, the ''ad hoc'' OAS meeting of ministers nevertheless approved Fujimori’s offer in mid-May, and elections for the CCD were held on [[November 22]], [[1992]].<ref name=Levitt />
Various states acted to condemn the coup, individually. [[Venezuela]] broke off diplomatic relations, and [[Argentina]] withdrew its ambassador. [[Chile]] joined [[Argentina]] in requesting that Peru be suspended from the [[Organization of American States]]. International financiers delayed planned or projected loans, and the [[United States]], [[Germany]] and [[Spain]] suspended all non-humanitarian aid to Peru. The coup appeared to threaten the economic recovery strategy of reinsertion, and complicated the process of clearing arrears with the [[International Monetary Fund]].
Whereas Peruvian-U.S. relations early in Fujimori's presidency had been dominated by questions of [[coca eradication]], Fujimori's ''autogolpe'' immediately became a major obstacle to international relations, as the United States immediately suspended all military and economic aid to Peru, with exceptions for counter-narcotic and humanitarian-related funds.<ref>Cameron, Maxwell A. and Mauceri, Philip. ''The Peruvian Labyrinth''. 1997, page 216.</ref> Two weeks after the self-coup, the [[George H.W. Bush]] administration changed its position and officially recognized Fujimori as the legitimate leader of Peru.{{Fact|date=April 2008}}
===Post-coup period (1992–1995)===
With FREDEMO dissolved and APRA's leader, [[Alan García]], exiled to [[Colombia]], Fujimori sought to legitimize his position. He called elections for a [[Democratic Constitutional Congress]] that would serve as a legislature and a [[constituent assembly]]. While [[APRA]] and [[Popular Action]] attempted to boycott this, the Popular Christian Party and many left-leaning parties participated in this election. His supporters won a majority in this body, and drafted a [[Constitution of Peru|new constitution]] in 1993. A referendum was scheduled, and the coup and the Constitution of 1993 were approved by a narrow margin of between four and five percent.
Later in the year, on [[November 13]], there was a failed military coup, led by General [[Jaime Salinas]]. Salinas asserted that his efforts were a matter of turning Fujimori over for trial, for violating the Peruvian constitution.<ref>Conaghan, Catherine M. ''Fujimori's Peru: Deception in the Public Sphere''. 2006, page 55.</ref>
In 1994, Fujimori separated from his wife [[Susana Higuchi]] in a noisy, public divorce. He formally stripped her of the title [[First Lady]] in August 1994, appointing their elder daughter First Lady in her stead. Higuchi publicly denounced Fujimori as a "tyrant" and claimed that his administration was corrupt. They formally divorced in 1995.
==Second term (1995–2000)==
The 1993 Constitution allowed Fujimori to run for a second term, and in April 1995, at the height of his popularity, Fujimori easily won reelection with almost two-thirds of the vote. His major opponent, former [[Secretary-General of the United Nations]] [[Javier Pérez de Cuéllar]], won only 22 percent of the vote. His supporters won control of the legislature. One of the first acts of the new congress was to declare an amnesty for all members of the Peruvian military or police accused or convicted of human rights abuses between 1980 and 1995.
During his second term, Fujimori signed a peace agreement with [[Ecuador]] over a [[History of the Ecuadorian-Peruvian territorial dispute|border dispute that had simmered for more than a century]]. The treaty allowed the two countries to obtain international funds for developing the border region. Fujimori also settled unresolved issues with Chile, Peru's southern neighbor, still outstanding since the [[Treaty of Lima]] of 1929.
The 1995 election was the turning point in Fujimori's career. Peruvians now began to be more concerned about freedom of speech and the press. However, before he was sworn in for a second term, Fujimori stripped two universities of their autonomy and reshuffled the national electoral board.
According to a poll by the Peruvian Research and Marketing Company conducted in 1997, 40.6% of Lima residents considered President Fujimori an authoritarian.<ref>Cathleen Caron, [http://www.wcl.american.edu/hrbrief/06/1peru.cfm Judiciary Firmly Under Control in Fujimori's Peru], ''Human Rights Brief'', Volume 6 Issue 1 (1999). p.9 ''et. seq.''</ref><ref>Roger Atwood, 'Democratic Dictators: Authoritarian Politics in Pertu from Leguia to Fujimori,' ''SAIS Review'', vol. 21, no. 2 (2001), p. 167 </ref><ref> Kurt Weyland, 'Neopopulism and Neoliberalism in Latin America: Unexpected Affinities,' ''Studies in Comparative International Development'', vol. 31, no. 3 (1996)</ref>
In addition to the nature of democracy under Fujimori, Peruvians were becoming increasingly interested in the myriad criminal allegations involving Fujimori and his chief of the National Intelligence Service, [[Vladimiro Montesinos]]. A 2002 report by Health Minister Fernando Carbone would later suggest that Fujimori had played a role in pressuring 200,000 indigenous people in rural areas into being sterilized from 1996 to 2000, as part of a population control program.<ref name="Sterilization"/> A 2004 [[World Bank]] publication would suggest that, in this period, Montesinos' abuse of the power accorded him by Fujimori "led to a steady and systematic undermining of the rule of law".<ref>"State Society Interactions as Sources of Persistence and Change in Inequality" in ''Inequality in Latin America: Breaking With History?'' (World Bank Latin American and Caribbean Studies. Viewpoints). David De Ferranti, et al. World Bank Publications. 2004, p. 139 </ref>
==Third term (2000)==
{{Main|Peruvian national election, 2000}}
The 1993 constitution limits a presidency to two terms. Shortly after Fujimori began his second term, his supporters in Congress passed a law of "authentic interpretation" which effectively allowed him to run for another term in 2000. A [[1998]] effort to repeal this law by referendum failed.<ref> David R. Mares 2001 ''Violent Peace: Militarized Interstate Bargaining in Latin America'' New York: Columbia University Press, pp. 161. </ref> In late 1999, Fujimori announced that he would run for a third term. Peruvian electoral bodies, which were politically sympathetic to Fujimori, accepted his argument that the two-term restriction did not apply to him, as it was enacted while he was already in office.<ref>Clifford Krauss, [http://www.nytimes.com/library/world/americas/122899peru-fujimori.html Peru's Chief to Seek 3rd Term, Capping a Long Legal Battle], 'New York Times'', December 28, 1999. Accessed online [[26 September]] [[2006]].</ref>
Exit polls showed Fujimori well short of the 50% required to avoid an electoral runoff, but the first official results showed him with 49.6% of the vote, just short of outright victory. Eventually, Fujimori was credited with 49.89%--20,000 votes short of avoiding a runoff. Despite reports of numerous irregularities, the international observers recognized an adjusted victory of Fujimori. His primary opponent, [[Alejandro Toledo]], called for his supporters to spoil their ballots in the runoff by writing "No to fraud!" on them (voting is mandatory in Peru). International observers pulled out of the country after Fujimori refused to delay the runoff.
In the runoff, Fujimori won with just over 51% of the vote. While votes for Toledo declined from 40.24% of the valid votes cast in the first round to 25.67% of the valid votes in the second round, invalid votes jumped from 2.25% of the total votes cast in the first round to 29.93% of total votes in the second round. The large percentage of votes cast as invalid suggested that many Peruvians took Toledo's advice to spoil deliberately their ballots.
Although Fujimori had won the runoff with only a bare majority, rumors of irregularities led to daily demonstrations in front of the presidential palace. As a conciliatory measure, Fujimori appointed former opposition candidate Federico Salas as the new prime minister. However, opposition parties in Parliament refused to support this move while Toledo campaigned vigorously to have the election annulled. At this point, a corruption scandal involving Vladimiro Montesinos, de-facto chief of Peru's [[National Intelligence Service (Peru)|National Intelligence Service]] (SIN), broke out.
[[Image:OAS-Fujimori.jpg|thumb|300px|Fujimori meeting with OAS Secretary General [[César Gaviria]] on [[September 28]], [[2000]], seven weeks before the end of his presidency.]]
The [[scandal]] exploded into full force on the evening of [[September 14]], [[2000]], when the cable television station [[Canal N]] broadcasted footage of Montesinos apparently bribing opposition congressman Alberto Kouri for his defection to Fujimori's ''Perú 2000'' party. This video was presented by [[Fernando Olivera]], leader of the FIM (Independent Moralizing Front), who purchased it from one of Montesinos's closest allies (nicknamed by the Peruvian press ''El Patriota'').
Fujimori's support virtually collapsed, and on [[November 10]], Fujimori won approval from Congress to hold elections on [[April 8]], [[2001]]--in which he would not be a candidate. On [[November 13]], Fujimori left Peru for a visit to [[Brunei]] to attend the Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation forum. On [[November 16]], [[Valentín Paniagua]] took over as president of Congress after the pro-Fujimori leadership lost a vote of confidence. On [[November 17]], Fujimori traveled from Brunei to [[Tokyo]], where he submitted his presidential [[resignation]] via fax. Congress refused to accept his resignation, instead voting 62-9 to remove Fujimori from office on the grounds that he was "morally disabled."
On [[November 19]], government ministers presented their resignations en bloc. Because Fujimori's first vice president, Francisco Tudela, had broken with Fujimori and resigned a few days earlier, his successor Ricardo Márquez came to claim the presidency. Congress, however, refused to recognize him, as he was an ardent Fujimori loyalist; Márquez resigned two days later. Paniagua was next in line, and became interim president to oversee the April elections.
==Fujimori and terrorism==
{{main|Internal conflict in Peru}}
{{see also|Tarata bombing|Japanese embassy hostage crisis}}
When Fujimori came to power, much of Peru was dominated by the [[Maoist]] insurgent group Sendero Luminoso ("[[Shining Path]]"), and the [[Marxist-Leninist]] group [[Túpac Amaru Revolutionary Movement]] (MRTA). In 1989, 25% of Peru's district and provincial councils opted not to hold elections, owing to a persistent campaign of assassination, over the course of which over 100 officials had been killed by Shining Path in that year alone.<ref name="Freeman">Freeman, Michael. ''Freedom Or Security: The Consequences for Democracies Using Emergency Powers''. 2003, page 150.</ref> That same year, over one-third of Peru's positions for justices of the peace stood vacant, owing to Shining Path intimidation.<ref name="Freeman" /> Union leaders and military officials had also been assassinated throughout the 1980s.<ref name="Freeman" />
[[Image:Sendero Luminoso Peru.png|thumb|right|200px|Areas where Shining Path was active in Peru.]]
By the early 1990s, some parts of the country were under the control of the insurgents, in territories known as "zonas liberadas" ("liberated zones"), where inhabitants lived under the rule of these groups and paid them taxes.<ref>Freeman, Michael. ''Freedom Or Security: The Consequences for Democracies Using Emergency Powers''. 2003, page 148.</ref> When Shining Path arrived in Lima, it organized "paros armados" ("work stoppages"), which were enforced by killings and other forms of violence. The leadership of Shining Path was largely university students and teachers.<ref>Freeman, Michael. ''Freedom Or Security: The Consequences for Democracies Using Emergency Powers''. 2003, page 159.</ref> Two previous governments, those of [[Fernando Belaúnde Terry]] and [[Alan García]], at first neglected the threat posed by Shining Path, then launched an unsuccessful military campaign to eradicate it, undermining public faith in the state and precipitating an exodus of elites.<ref>"By the time Fujimori was elected you had a population in the cities, and particularly in Lima, that was living in fear." [http://www.pbs.org/pov/pov2006/falloffujimori/special_goldman.html The Fall of Fujimori: Peru's war on terror] July 6, 2006</ref>
By 1992, Shining Path guerrilla attacks had claimed an estimated 20,000 lives over the course of 12 years. The July 16, 1992 [[Tarata Bombing]], in which several car bombs exploded in Lima's wealthiest district, killed over 40 people; the bombings were characterized by one commentator as an "offensive to challenge President Alberto Fujimori."<ref>[http://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?res=9E0CEFDB173FF93BA25754C0A964958260 Car-Bomb Blasts in Peru Kill 18 And Hurt 140 in Wealthy Sector] July 18, 1992</ref> The bombing at Tarata was followed up with a "weeklong wave of car bombings... Bombs hit banks, hotels, schools, restaurants, police stations and shops... [G]uerrillas bombed two rail bridges from the [[Andes]], cutting off some of Peru's largest copper mines from coastal ports."<ref>[http://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?res=9E0CE5D6133DF930A15754C0A964958260 Peruvian Guerrillas Test Government With Bombs] July 23, 1992</ref>
Fujimori has been credited by most Peruvians with ending the fifteen-year reign of terror of Shining Path. As part of his anti-insurgency efforts, Fujimori granted the military broad powers to arrest suspected insurgents and try them in secret military courts with few legal rights. This measure has often been criticized for having compromised the fundamental democratic and human right of an open trial wherein the accused faces the accuser. Fujimori contended that these measures were justified, that this compromise of open trials was necessary because the judiciary was too afraid to charge alleged insurgents, and that judges and prosecutors had legitimate fears of insurgent reprisals against them or their families.<ref>Fujimori advances this argument in [[Ellen Perry]]'s documentary film, ''The Fall of Fujimori''.</ref> At the same time, Fujimori's government armed rural Peruvians, organizing them into groups known as "rondas campesinas" ("peasant patrols").
Insurgent activity was in decline by the end of 1992,<ref>Stern, Steve J. ''Shining and Other Paths: War and Society in Peru, 1980-1995''. 1998, page 307.</ref> and Fujimori took credit for this development, claiming that his campaign had largely eliminated the insurgent threat. After the 1992 auto-coup, the intelligence work of the DINCOTE (National Counter-Terrorism Directorate) led to the capture of the leaders from Shining Path and MRTA, including notorious Shining Path leader [[Abimael Guzmán]]. Guzmán's capture was a political coup for Fujimori, who used it to great effect in the press; in an interview with documentarian [[Ellen Perry]], Fujimori even notes that he specially ordered Guzmán's prison jumpsuit to be white with black stripes, to enhance the image of his capture in the media.<ref>Ellen Perry's ''The Fall of Fujimori''.</ref>
Critics charge that to achieve the defeat of Shining Path, the Peruvian military engaged in widespread [[human rights]] abuses, and that the majority of the victims were poor highland [[campesinos]] caught in the crossfire between the military and insurgents. The final report of the Peruvian [[Truth and Reconciliation Commission (Peru)|Truth and Reconciliation Commission]], published on [[28 August]] [[2003]], revealed that while the majority of the atrocities committed between 1980 and 1995 were the work of Shining Path, the Peruvian armed forces were also guilty of having destroyed villages and murdered campesinos whom they suspected of supporting insurgents.
The [[Japanese embassy hostage crisis]] began on [[December 17]], [[1996]], when fourteen [[Movimiento Revolucionario Túpac Amaru|MRTA]] militants seized the residence of the Japanese ambassador in Lima during a party, taking hostage some four hundred diplomats, government officials, and other dignitaries. The action was partly in protest of prison conditions in Peru. During the four-month standoff, the ''Emerretistas'' gradually freed all but 72 of their hostages. The government rejected the militants' demand to release imprisoned MRTA members and secretly prepared an elaborate plan to storm the residence, while stalling by negotiating with the hostage-takers.<ref>Brewer, Paul. ''The Lima Embassy Siege and Latin American Terrorism''. 2006, page 12.</ref>
On [[April 22]], [[1997]], a team of military [[commando]]s, codenamed "[[Chavín de Huantar (military)|Chavín de Huantar]]", raided the building. One hostage, two military commandos, and all 14 [[MRTA]] insurgents were killed in the operation.<ref>[http://www.livinginperu.com/blogs/features/234 Japanese embassy hostage crisis in Peru started 10 years ago] 18 December, 2006, Accessed [[26 December]] [[2006]].</ref> Images of President Fujimori at the ambassador's residence during and after the military operation, surrounded by soldiers and liberated dignitaries, and walking among the corpses of the insurgents, were widely televised. The conclusion of the four-month long standoff was used by Fujimori and his supporters to bolster his image as tough on terrorism.<ref>Conaghan, Catherine M. ''Fujimori's Peru: Deception in the Public Sphere''. 2006, page 129.</ref>
==Accusations of human rights abuses==
{{see also|Barrios Altos massacre|La Cantuta massacre|}}
Several organizations criticized Fujimori's methods in the struggle against [[Shining Path]] and the MRTA. According to [[Amnesty International]], "the widespread and systematic nature of human rights violations committed during the government of former head of state Alberto Fujimori (1990 - 2000) in Peru constitute crimes against humanity under international law."<ref>[http://www.kintera.org/site/c.luLVJ8MRKrH/b.1419663/k.BE3C/Home.htm Bring Former President Fujimori to Justice], Amnesty International. Accessed [[26 September]] [[2006]].</ref> Fujimori's alleged association with [[death squad]]s is currently being studied by the [[Interamerican Court of Human Rights]], after the court accepted the case of "Cantuta vs Perú".
The 1991 [[Barrios Altos massacre]] by members of the death squad ''[[Grupo Colina]]'', made up of members of the [[Peruvian Armed Forces]], was one of the crimes cited in the request for his extradition submitted by the Peruvian government to Japan in 2003.
From 1996-2000, the Fujimori government oversaw a massive family planning campaign known as Voluntary Surgical Contraception. [[The United Nations]], [[USAID]] and other international aid agencies supported this campaign.<ref>[http://www.insightnewstv.com/d68/ Insight News TV | Peru: Fujimori's Forced Sterilization Campaign<!-- Bot generated title -->]</ref> The [[Nippon Foundation]], headed by [[Ayako Sono]], a Japanese novelist and personal friend of Fujimori, supported as well.<ref>[http://www.cwnews.com/news/viewstory.cfm?recnum=20466 Catholic World News Enough Evidence to Extradite? September 27, 2001]</ref><ref>http://zenit.org/article-2233?l=english Peru Plans a Hot Line to Battle Forced-Sterilizations ZENET LIMA, Peru, SEPT. 2, 2001]</ref> Nearly 300,000 women were coerced or forced to get sterilisation during these years.<ref name="Sterilization" />
The success of the operation in the [[Japanese embassy hostage crisis]] was tainted by subsequent allegations that at least three and possibly eight of the insurgents had been summarily executed by the commandos after surrendering. In 2002, the case was taken up by public prosecutors, but the Peruvian Supreme Court ruled that the military tribunals had jurisdiction. A military court later absolved them of guilt, and the "Chavín de Huantar" soldiers led the 2004 military parade. In response, in 2003 MRTA family members lodged a complaint with the [[Inter-American Commission on Human Rights]] (IACHR) accusing the Peruvian state of human rights violations, namely that the MRTA insurgents had been denied the "right to life, the right to judicial guarantees and the right to judicial protection". The IACHR accepted the case and is currently studying it.<ref>[http://www.cidh.org/annualrep/2004eng/Peru.136.03.eng.htm Report Nº 13/04, Petition 136/03, Admissibility, Eduardo Nicolas Cruz Sanchez et al., Peru, February 27, 2004], on the [[Inter-American Commission on Human Rights IACHR site]]. Accessed [[26 September]] [[2006]].</ref>
The current Peruvian Minister of Justice, Maria Zavala, has recently stated that the latest verdict by the IACHR supports the Peruvian government's extradition of Fujimori from Chile. Though the IACHR verdict does not directly implicate Fujimori, it does fault the Peruvian government for its complicity in the 1992 [[La Cantuta massacre|Cantuta University killings]].<ref>[http://www.livinginperu.com/news/2914 Verdict made by IACHR favors extradition of Peru's Fujimori] 21 December, 2006, Accessed [[26 December]] [[2006]].</ref>
==Resignation, arrest, trial==
{{main|Alberto Fujimori's arrest and trial}}
After his faxed resignation was rejected by the Congress, Fujimori was relieved of his duties as president and banned from Peruvian politics for a decade. He remained in self-imposed [[exile]] in [[Japan]],<ref>[http://www.thestatesmanonline.com/pages/columns_details.php?aid=38&cid=81 Fate of indemnity clauses: Let the public decide] April 12, 2006</ref> where he resided with his friend, the famous Catholic novelist [[Ayako Sono]].<ref> [http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/asia-pacific/1044927.stm BBC News Fujimori's uncertain status 28 November, 2000] </ref> Several senior Japanese politicians have supported Fujimori,<ref name="Pilli">David Pilling, [http://news.ft.com/cms/s/679d77be-a210-11d9-8483-00000e2511c8.html Peru tiring of bid to secure Fujimori return], ''Financial Times'', [[31 March]] [[2005]]. Accessed online [[26 September]] [[2006]].</ref> partly for his decisive action in ending the 1997 [[Japanese embassy hostage crisis|Japanese embassy crisis]].
[[Alejandro Toledo]], who assumed the presidency in [[2001]], spearheaded the criminal case against Fujimori. He arranged meetings with the Supreme Court, tax authorities, and other powers in Peru in order to "coordinate the joint efforts to bring the criminal Fujimori from Japan." His vehemence in this matter at times compromised Peruvian law: forcing the judiciary and legislative system to keep guilty sentences without hearing Fujimori's defense; not providing Fujimori with a lawyer in absence of representation; and expelling pro-Fujimori congressmen from the parliament without proof of the accusations against them. The latter action was later reversed by the judiciary.<ref>{{es icon}} [http://www.rpp.com.pe/portada/politica/24922_1.php Valle Riestra: Pedido de extradición de Fujimori será rechazado por Chile] RPP Noticias, [[16 November]] [[2005]]. Accessed [[26 September]] [[2006]].</ref>
The Toledo administration's review of the Fujimori administration led to the Peruvian Congress authorizing charges against Fujimori, in August 2001. Fujimori was alleged to be a co-author, alongside Vladimiro Montesinos, in the death-squad killings at [[Barrios Altos massacre|Barrios Altos]] in 1991 and [[La Cantuta massacre|La Cantuta]] in 1992.<ref>McClintock, Cynthia and Vallas, Fabian. ''The United States and Peru: Cooperation at a Cost''. 2003, page 163.</ref> At the behest of Peruvian authorities, [[Interpol]] issued an arrest order for Fujimori on charges that included murder, kidnapping, and [[crimes against humanity]]. Meanwhile, the Peruvian government found that Japan was not amenable to the extradition of Fujimori; a protracted diplomatic debate ensued, when Japan showed itself unwilling to accede to the extradition request.
In September 2003, Congresswoman Dora Núñez Dávila, joined by Minister of Health Luis Soari, denounced Fujimori and several of his ministers for crimes against humanity, for allegedly having overseen forced [[sterilization (surgical procedure)|sterilizations]] during his regime. In November, Congress approved charges against Fujimori, to investigate how much he had been involved in the airdrop of [[AK-47|Kalashnikov]] rifles into the [[Colombia]]n jungle in 1999 and 2000 for guerrillas of the [[Revolutionary Armed Forces of Colombia]] (FARC). Fujimori maintains he had no knowledge of the arms-trading, and blames Montesinos. By approving the charges, Congress lifted the immunity granted to Fujimori as a former president, so that he can be criminally charged and prosecuted.
Congress also voted to support charges against Fujimori for the detention and disappearance of 67 students from Peru's central Andean city of [[Huancayo]], and the disappearance of several residents from the northern coastal town of [[Chimbote]] during the 1990s. It also approved charges that Fujimori mismanaged millions of dollars from Japanese charities, suggesting that the millions of dollars in his bank account were far too much to have been accumulated legally.<ref>[http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/americas/3710848.stm New Evidence in Fujimori Scandal]. ''BBC'', 2 October 2004</ref>
By March 2005, it appeared that Peru had all but abandoned its efforts to extradite Fujimori from Japan. In September of that year, Fujimori obtained a new Peruvian passport in Tokyo, and announced his intention to run in the [[Peruvian national election, 2006]].
The Special Prosecutor established to investigate Fujimori released a report alleging that the Fujimori administration had grafted US$2 billion.<ref name=Forero>Forero, Juan. [http://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?res=9F00E2D61139F936A35757C0A9629C8B63&sec=&spon=&pagewanted=1 Peruvians Fight Graft One Case At a Time]. ''The New York Times'', April 5, 2004.</ref> Most of this money is related to [[Vladimiro Montesinos]]' web of corruption.<ref name=Forero /> The Special Prosecutor's figure of two billion dollars is considerably higher than that arrived at by [[Transparency International]], an NGO that studies corruption. In its "Global Corruption Report 2004", Transparency International listed Fujimori as leading the seventh most corrupt government of the past two decades, estimating that the corruption may have embezzled USD $600 million in funds.<ref>[http://www.transparency.org/content/download/4456/26777/file/Highlights_from_the_GCR_2004_FINAL.pdf Highlights from the Global Corruption Report 2004], Transparency International, [[25 March]] [[2004]]. Accessed [[26 September]] [[2006]].</ref><ref>[http://web.archive.org/web/20040717153615/http://www.laksamana.net/vnews.cfm?ncat=25&news_id=6841 Suharto Tops World Corruption League], [[25 March]] [[2004]], Laksamana.Net, Jakarta. Archived [[17 July]] [[2004]] on the [[Internet Archive]].</ref>
Undaunted by the judicial proceedings underway against him, which, citing Toledo's involvement, he dismissed as "politically motivated", Fujimori, working from Japan, established a new political party in Peru, ''[[Sí Cumple]]'', in hopes of participating in the [[Peruvian national election, 2006|2006 presidential elections]]. In February 2004 the Constitutional Court dismissed the possibility of Fujimori participating in those elections, noting that the ex-president was barred by Congress from holding office for ten years. The decision was regarded as unconstitutional by Fujimori supporters such as ex-congress members Luz Salgado, Marta Chávez, and Fernán Altuve, who argued it was a "political" maneuver, and that the only body with authority to determine the matter is the Jurado Nacional de Elecciones (JNE). Valentín Paniagua disagreed, suggesting that the Constitutional Court finding is binding, and that "no further debate is possible".<ref>{{es icon}} [http://www.terra.com.pe/noticias/nacional/18/18990.html No hay nada más que discutir sobre candidatura de Fujimori], ''Noticias'' on terra.com.peru, [[27 February]] [[2006]], credited to ''Andina''. Accessed [[26 September]] [[2006]].</ref><ref>{{es icon}}
[http://www.terra.com.pe/noticias/nacional/18/18847.html Salgado: JNE debe ser quien defina postulación de Fujimori], ''Noticias'' on terra.com.peru, [[21 February]] [[2005]], credited to ''Expreso''. Accessed [[26 September]] [[2006]].</ref>
Fujimori's ''Sí Cumple'' (roughly translated, "He Keeps His Word") received more than 10% in many country-level polls, contending with [[APRA]] for the second place slot.<ref>Brooke, James. [http://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?res=9403E4D9173CF937A15751C0A9629C8B63&sec=&spon=&pagewanted=2 An Ex-President of Peru Plots His Return]. ''The New York Times'', February 24, 2004.</ref>
==Legacy==
===Economic achievements===
Fujimori is credited by many Peruvians for bringing stability to the country after the violence and hyperinflation of the García years. While it is generally agreed that the "Fujishock" brought short/middle-term macroeconomic stability, the long-term social impact of Fujimori's free market economic policies is still hotly debated.
High growth during Fujimori's first term petered out during his second term. "[[El Niño]]" phenomena had a tremendous impact on the Peruvian economy during the late 1990s.<ref>Gastón Antonio Zapata Velasco, Kenneth Broad, et.al., [http://www.ccb.ucar.edu/un/peru.html Peru Country Case Study: Impacts and Responses to the 1997-98 El Niño Event], Peru Country Case Study supported by the International Research Institute for climate prediction (IRI) and [[National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration|NOAA's]] Office of Global Programs as a contribution to the UNEP/NCAR/WMO/UNU/ISDR study for the UN Foundation. Accessed [[27 September]] [[2006]].</ref> Nevertheless, total GDP growth between 1992 and 2001, inclusive, was 44.60%, that is, 3.76% per annum; total GDP per capita growth between 1991 and 2001, inclusive, was 30.78%, that is, 2.47% per annum. Also, studies by [[INEI]], the national statistics bureau<ref>[http://www.yachay.com.pe/especiales/internet/index1.htm El Entorno], Atlas Internet Perú - Red Científica Peruana, 2003. Accessed [[26 September]] [[2006]].</ref> show that the number of Peruvians living in poverty increased dramatically (from 41.6% to 55%) during Alan García's term, but they actually decreased somewhat (from 55% to 54%) during Fujimori's term. Furthermore, FAO reported Peru reduced undernourishment by about 29% from 1990-92 to 1997-99.<ref>[http://www.fao.org/docrep/003/y1500e/y1500e03.htm Undernourishment around the world: Reductions in undernourishment over the past decade], part of [http://www.fao.org/docrep/003/y1500e/y1500e00.HTM The state of food insecurity in the world 2001], FAO Corporate Document Repository. Accessed [[26 September]] [[2006]].</ref>
Peru was reintegrated into the global economic system, and began to attract foreign investment. The sell-off of state-owned enterprises led to improvements in some service industries, notably local telephony, mobile telephony and Internet. For example, before privatization, a consumer or business would need to wait up to 10 years to get a local telephone line installed from the monopolistic state-run telephone company, at a cost of $607 for a residential line.<ref>{{es icon}} [http://www.up.edu.pe/ciup/AER/textos/Fernandez-Baca.ppt Las Privatizaciones y la Pobreza en el Perú: Resultados y Desafios] ([[PowerPoint]] presentation), unsigned, undated, on the site of El Área de Economía de la Regulación, Centro de Investigación de la Universidad del Pacífico (CIUP). Accessed [[27 September]] [[2006]].</ref><ref>[http://www.cgdev.org/doc/Privatization/ch%206.pdf Peru after Privatization: Are Telephone Consumers Better Off?]. Máximo Torero, Enrique Schroth, and Alberto Pascó-Font. Accessed [[4 October]] [[2006]].</ref> A couple of years after privatization, the wait was reduced to just a few days. Peru's Physical land based telephone network had a dramatic increase in telephone penetration from 2.9% in 1993 to 5.9% in 1996 and 6.2% in 2000,<ref>[http://www.mtc.gob.pe/estadisticas/archivos/xls/6.C.1.xls Líneas en servicio y densidad en la telefonía fija y móvil: 1993 - 2006] ([[Microsoft Excel|Excel]] spreadsheet, on the site of Peru's Ministry of Transport and Communications. Accessed [[28 September]] [[2006]].</ref> and a dramatic decrease in the wait for a telephone line. Average wait went from 70 months in 1993 (before privatization) to 2 months in 1996 (after privatization).<ref>[http://www.stanford.edu/class/las194/GroupProjects99/peru.pdf#search=%22telephone%20lines%20statistics%20peru%22 The Information Revolution in Latin America: The Case of Peru] ([[Portable Document Format|PDF]]), December 6, 1999. Student group paper from Stanford University. Accessed [[28 September]] [[2006]].</ref> Privatization also generated foreign investment in export-oriented activities such as mining and energy extraction, notably the [[Camisea]] gas project and the [[copper]] and [[zinc]] extraction projects at Antamina.<ref>McClintock, Cynthia and Vallas, Fabian. ''The United States and Peru: Cooperation at a Cost''. 2003, page 105-6.</ref>
By the end of the decade, Peru's international currency reserves were built up from nearly zero at the end of García's term to almost [[USD]] $10 billion. Fujimori also left a smaller state bureaucracy and reduced government expenses (in contrast to the historical pattern of bureaucratic expansion), a technically minded (but widely perceived as politicized) administration of public entities like SUNAT, a large number of new schools (not only in Lima but in Peru's small towns), more roads and highways, and new and upgraded communications infrastructure.{{Fact|date=February 2007}} These improvement led to the revival of tourism, agroexport, industries and fisheries.<ref>{{es icon}} [http://www2.congreso.gob.pe/Sicr/Prensa/heraldo.nsf/0/bc520537f55e0ec805256f3a006beff6?OpenDocument Primer reporte-resumen... Actividades en el Congreso], ''El Heraldo'', [[27 October]] [[2004]], reprinted on the site of the Peruvian Congress. Accessed [[28 September]] [[2006]].</ref><ref>{{es icon}} [http://www.aprodeh.org.pe/noti-apr/2003/08abr2003.htm Noti-Aprodeh], [[8 April]] [[2003]], Asociación Pro Derechos Humanos (APRODEH). Accessed [[28 September]] [[2006]].</ref>
===Criticism===
Detractors have observed that Fujimori was able to encourage large-scale mining projects with foreign corporations and push through mining-friendly legislation laws because the post auto-coup political picture greatly facilitated the process.
Some analysts state that some of the GDP growth during the Fujimori years reflects a greater rate of extraction of non-renewable resources by transnational companies; these companies were attracted by Fujimori by means of near-zero royalties, and, by the same fact, little of the extracted wealth has stayed in the country.<ref> "Chile, Peru - How much do mining companies contribute? The debate on royalties is not over yet", ''Latinamerica Press'', Special Edition - The Impact of Mining ''Latinamerica Press'', Vol. 37, No. 2, January 26, 2005. ISSN 0254-203X. [http://noticiasaliadas.org/mining/mining.doc Accessible online] as a [[Microsoft Word]] document. Accessed 26 September 2006. There appears to be a separate [http://www.fsa.ulaval.ca/rdip/cal/lectures/aff_actualites/chile__peru_-_how_much_do_.htm HTML copy of the article] on the site of [http://www.fsa.ulaval.ca/rdip/cal/lectures/ Carrefour Amérique Latine (CAL)]. Accessed [[27 September]] [[2006]].</ref><ref>"Peru: Public consultation says NO to mining in Tambogrande", p.14–15 in ''WRM Bulletin'' # 59, June 2002 (World Rainforest Movement, English edition). [http://www.wrm.org.uy/bulletin/59/index.rtf Accessible online] as [[Rich Text Format]] (RTF) document. Accessed [[26 September]] [[2006]].</ref><ref>Jeffrey Bury, "Livelihoods in transition: transnational gold mining operations and local change in Cajamarca, Peru" ''The Geographical Journal'' (Royal Geographic Society), Vol. 170 Issue [[1 March]] [[2004]], p. 78. [http://www.blackwell-synergy.com/links/doi/10.1111/j.0016-7398.2004.05042.x/full/ Link] leads to a pay site allowing access to this paper.</ref><ref>"Investing in Destruction: The Impacts of a WTO Investment Agreement on Extractive Industries in Developing Countries", Oxfam America Briefing Paper, June 2003. Accessed [[27 September]] [[2006]].</ref> Peru's mining legislation, they claim, has served as a role model for other countries that wish to become more mining-friendly.<ref> [http://www.rightsaction.org/Reports/Cuffe%20mining%20report%202005-03.htm “A Backwards, Upside-Down Kind of Development”: Global Actors, Mining and Community-Based Resistance in Honduras and Guatemala], Rights Action, February 2005. Accessed [[27 September]] [[2006]].</ref>
Fujimori's privatization program also remains shrouded in controversy. A congressional investigation in 2002, led by radical{{Fact|date=May 2008}} [[socialist]] opposition congressman [[Javier Diez Canseco]], stated that of the [[USD]] $9 billion raised through the privatizations of hundreds of state-owned enterprises, only a small fraction of this income ever benefited the Peruvian people.
Some scholars claim that Fujimori's government became a "dictatorship" after the auto-coup,<ref>Charles D. Kenney, 2004 ''Fujimori's Coup and the Breakdown of Democracy in Latin America'' (Helen Kellogg Institute for International Studies) [[University of Notre Dame]] Press ISBN 0-268-03172-X </ref> permeated by a network of corruption organized by his associate Montesinos, who now faces dozens of charges that range from [[embezzlement]] to [[drug trafficking]] to murder (Montesinos is currently on trial in Lima).<ref> Julio F. Carrion (ed.) 2006 ''The Fujimori Legacy: The Rise of Electoral Authoritarianism in Peru''. [[Pennsylvania State University]] Press ISBN 0-271-02748-7 </ref><ref> Catherine M. Conaghan 2005 ''Fujimori's Peru: Deception In The Public Sphere'' (Pitt Latin American Series) [[University of Pittsburgh Press]] ISBN 0-8229-4259-3 </ref><ref>{{es icon}} Esteban Cuya, [http://www.derechos.org/diml/doc/cuya4.html La dictadura de Fujimori: marionetismo, corrupción y violaciones de los derechos humanos], Centro de Derechos Humanos de Nuremberg, July 1999. Accessed [[22 October]] [[2006]].</ref> Fujimori's style of government has also been described as "populist authoritarianism". Numerous governments<ref> ''Resolución del Parlamento Europeo apoyando la extradición de Fujimori'', Strasbourg, 19 January 2006</ref> and human rights organizations such as [[Amnesty International]], have welcomed the extradition of Fujimori to face human rights charges.<ref>[http://www.worldpress.org/Americas/2938.cfm Chile Opts to Extradite Fujimori]. ''World Press'', September 23, 2007.</ref> As early as 1991, Fujimori had himself vocally denounced what he called "pseudo-human rights organizations" such as Amnesty International and [[Americas Watch]], for allegedly failing to criticize the insurgencies targeting civilian populations throughout Peru against which his government was struggling.<ref>Human Rights Watch. [http://books.google.com/books?id=hZMn3HsYouMC&pg=PA314&dq=%22Amnesty+International%22+fujimori+%22human+rights%22&as_brr=3&sig=yiHmOvUyNwD4ro1Z7oRF9JPd1J4#PPA314,M1 Human Rights Watch World Report, 1992]. 1991, page 314.</ref>
===Popular support===
Fujimori still enjoys a measure of support within Peru. A poll conducted in March 2005 by the Instituto de Desarrollo e Investigación de Ciencias Económicas (IDICE) indicated that 12.1% of the respondents intended to vote for Fujimori in the 2006 presidential election.<ref>[http://www.angus-reid.com/polls/index.cfm?fuseaction=viewItem&itemID=6543 García, Fujimori Top Candidates In Peru], ''Angus Reid Global Monitor'' (Angus Reid Consultants), March 30, 2005. Accessed [[27 September]] [[2006]].</ref> A poll conducted on November 25, 2005 by the Universidad de Lima indicated a high approval (45.6%) rating of the Fujimori period between 1990-2000, attributed to his counterinsurgency efforts (53%).<ref>{{es icon}} [http://www.ulima.edu.pe/webulima.nsf/default/1090CF4DC0FE8CB905256E630017BCEC/$file/barometro_nov_2005.pdf Estudio 293 - Barómetro - Lima Metropolitana y Callao - Sábado 19 y Domingo 20 de Noviembre de 2005], Grupo de Opinión Pública de la Universidad de Lima. Accessed [[27 September]] [[2006]].</ref>
According to a more recent [[Universidad de Lima]] survey, Fujimori still retains public support, ranking fifth in personal popularity among other political figures. Popular approval for his decade-long presidency (1990-2000) has reportedly grown (from 31.5% in 2002 to 49.5% in May 2007). Despite accusations of corruption and human rights violations, nearly half of the individuals interviewed in the survey approved of Fujimori’s presidential regime. In the same poll, a large majority of people in the nation’s capital feel that Fujimori should face criminal charges in Peru: 82.6% of respondents in Lima and the port of Callao agreed that the former president should be extradited from Chile to stand trial in Peru.<ref>[http://www.angus-reid.com/polls/index.cfm/fuseaction/viewItem/itemID/15709 Peruvians Call for Fujimori's Extradition] ''Angus Reid Global Monitor'' (Angus Reid Consultants), May 12, 2007, Accessed [[19 May]] [[2007]].</ref>
The Lima-based newspaper ''Perú 21'' ran an editorial noting that even though the [[Universidad de Lima]] poll results indicate that 4 out of every 5 interviewees believe that Fujimori is guilty of some of the charges against him, he still enjoys at least 30% of popular support and enough approval to restart a political career.
On February 2008, two of the best universities in the country, showed their latest polls, and Fujimori had 38.1% of support according to [[Universidad de Lima]] and 24.3 according to [[Pontifica Universidad Católica del Perú]]. Furthermore, his Political Party Coalition, [[Alliance for the Future]] had around 30% of support.{{Fact|date=March 2008}} 50.2% agreed on how he conducted his government, while he was in office.{{Fact|date=March 2008}}
==See also==
*[[History of Peru]]
*[[Politics of Peru]]
*[[Japanese Peruvian]]
*[[List of Presidents of Peru]]
*[[Vladimiro Montesinos]]
*[[Peruvian national election, 2006]]
*[[Peruvian internal conflict]]
==Notes==
{{reflist|2}}
==External links==
<!--Some reasonably neutral links-->
* [http://www.falloffujimori.com/ The Fall of Fujimori] is a documentary based on an interview of the former President taken after his self-exile in Japan, along with extensive footage from his time in office, and other interviews.
** {{imdb title|id=0436295|title=The Fall of Fujimori}}
**[http://www.pbs.org/pov/pov2006/falloffujimori/ The Fall of Fujimori] PBS P.O.V
* [http://archives.cnn.com/2000/WORLD/americas/11/22/peru.politics.01/ CNN News Archive]
* [http://www.interpol.int/public/ICPO/PressReleases/PR2003/PR200305es.asp Press Release From Interpol] In Spanish.
* [http://www.fujimoriextraditable.org.pe Fujimori Extraditable] Spanish-language website calling for Fujimori's extradition.
* [http://skylightpictures.com/site/film_detail/state_of_fear/ State of Fear] is a documentary that tells the story of Peru's war on terror based on the findings of the Peruvian Truth and Reconciliation Commission.
<!--Official and pro-Fujimori sites-->
* [http://www.fujimoristas.com Página Fujimorista] - A site in support of Fujimori. In Spanish.
*[http://www.cidob.org/es/documentacion/biografias_lideres_politicos/america_del_sur/peru/alberto_fujimori Biography by CIDOB Foundation]
<!--Human rights organizations, Truth and Reconciliation, etc. -->
*[http://www.cverdad.org.pe/ingles/pagina01.php Peru's Truth and Reconciliation Commission's Final Report]
*[http://www.juicioysancionafujimori.org/ingles/albertofujimori.htm The Trial of Alberto Fujimori]. [[APRODEH]].
* [http://www.amnistia.org.pe/ Amnistía Internacional Perú] Information on human rights abuses during the Fujimori era (in Spanish)
* [http://fujimoriontrial.org/ Fujimori on Trial :: Fujimori procesado] Daily updates on the case against Fujimori.
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{{s-ttl|title=[[President of Peru]]|years=July 1995 – November 2000}}
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{{Presidents of Peru}}
{{DEFAULTSORT:Fujimori, Alberto}}
<!--Categories-->
[[Category:1938 births]]
[[Category:Fujimorista politicians]]
[[Category:Japanese Peruvians]]
[[Category:Japanese people of Peruvian descent|Fujimori, Alberto]]
[[Category:Living people]]
[[Category:Presidents of Peru]]
[[Category:Peruvian Roman Catholics]]
[[Category:Recipients of the Star of Romania Order]]
[[Category:University of Wisconsin-Milwaukee alumni]]
[[Category:Asian Latin Americans]]
[[Category:Political repression|Fujimori, Alberto]]
[[Category:Leaders who took power by coup]]
[[Category:Dirty wars]]
[[Category:Peruvian criminals|Fujimori, Alberto]]
[[Category:Peruvian prisoners and detainees]]
[[Category:Japanese prisoners and detainees]]
[[Category:Prisoners and detainees of Chile]]
[[Category:Prisoners and detainees of Peru]]
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[[bn:আলবের্তো ফুজিমোরি]]
[[ca:Alberto Fujimori]]
[[da:Alberto Fujimori]]
[[de:Alberto Fujimori]]
[[es:Alberto Fujimori]]
[[eo:Alberto Fujimori]]
[[fr:Alberto Fujimori]]
[[gl:Alberto Fujimori]]
[[ko:알베르토 후지모리]]
[[hr:Alberto Fujimori]]
[[io:Alberto Fujimori]]
[[id:Alberto Fujimori]]
[[it:Alberto Fujimori]]
[[he:אלברטו פוג'ימורי]]
[[lv:Alberto Fuhimori]]
[[lt:Alberto Fujimori]]
[[mr:आल्बेर्तो फुजिमोरी]]
[[ms:Alberto Fujimori]]
[[nl:Alberto Fujimori]]
[[ja:アルベルト・フジモリ]]
[[no:Alberto Fujimori]]
[[nn:Alberto Fujimori]]
[[oc:Alberto Fujimori]]
[[pl:Alberto Fujimori]]
[[pt:Alberto Fujimori]]
[[qu:Alberto Fujimori]]
[[ru:Фухимори, Альберто]]
[[simple:Alberto Fujimori]]
[[sr:Алберто Фуџимори]]
[[sh:Alberto Fujimori]]
[[fi:Alberto Fujimori]]
[[sv:Alberto Fujimori]]
[[th:อัลเบร์โต ฟูจิโมริ]]
[[vi:Alberto Fujimori]]
[[zh:藤森謙也]]