Albinism
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226046391
2008-07-16T16:16:52Z
Kamagrian
7474959
Just tidying up a bit of grammar and punctuation in some areas.
<gallery>
</gallery>{{Redirect|Albino}}
{{DiseaseDisorder infobox |
Name = Albinism |
Image = Albino girl honduras.jpg |
Caption = Girl from [[Honduras]] with probable OCA1a-type albinism. |
DiseasesDB = 318 |
ICD10 = {{ICD10|E|70|3|e|70}} |
ICD9 = {{ICD9|270.2}} |
ICDO = |
OMIM = 203100 |
OMIM_mult = {{OMIM4|103470}}, {{OMIM4|203200}}, {{OMIM4|203280}}, {{OMIM4|203290}}, {{OMIM4|203300}}, {{OMIM4|203310}}, {{OMIM4|256710}}, {{OMIM4|278400}}, {{OMIM4|214450}}, {{OMIM4|214500}}, {{OMIM4|220900}}, {{OMIM4|300500}}, {{OMIM4|300600}}, {{OMIM4|300650}}, {{OMIM4|300700}}, {{OMIM4|600501}}, {{OMIM4|604228}}, {{OMIM4|606574}}, {{OMIM4|606952}}, {{OMIM4|607624}}, {{OMIM4|609227}} |
MedlinePlus = 001479 |
eMedicineSubj = derm |
eMedicineTopic = 12 |
MeshID = D000417 |
}}
'''Albinism''' (from [[Latin]] ''albus'', "white"; ''see [[wikt:albino|extended etymology]]'') is a form of [[hypopigmentation|hypopigmentary]] [[congenital disorder]], characterized by a partial (in '''hypomelanism''', also known as '''hypomelanosis''') or total ('''amelanism''' or '''amelanosis''') lack of [[melanin]] [[Biological pigment|pigment]] in the eyes, skin and hair (or more rarely the eyes alone). Albinism results from inheritance of [[recessive allele]]s. The condition is known to affect mammals (including humans), reptiles, amphibians, and insects. While the most common term for an organism affected by albinism is "albino" (noun and adjective), the word is sometimes used in derogatory ways towards people; more neutral terms are "albinistic" (adjective) and "person with albinism" (noun). Additional clinical adjectives sometimes used to refer to animals are "albinoid" and "albinic".
==Types of human albinism==
Albinism is hereditary; it is not an [[infectious disease]] and cannot be transmitted through contact, [[blood transfusion]]s, or other [[Vector (biology)|vectors]]. The principal gene which results in albinism prevents the body from making the usual amounts of the [[biological pigment|pigment]] [[melanin]]. Most forms of albinism are the result of the [[biological inheritance]] of [[dominance relationship|genetically recessive]] [[allele]]s ([[gene]]s) passed from both parents of an individual, though some rare forms are inherited from only one parent. There are other [[genetic mutation]]s which are proven to be associated with albinism. All alterations, however, lead to changes in melanin production in the body.<ref name="eMedicine1">[http://www.emedicine.com/derm/topic12.htm "Albinism"], by Dr. Raymond E. Boissy, Dr. James J. Nordlund, et al., at [[eMedicine]], [[22 August]] [[2005]]; retrieved [[31 March]] [[2007]]</ref><ref name="OMIM1">[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov.ezproxy.auckland.ac.nz/entrez/query.fcgi?CMD=search&DB=omim&term=albinism Online ''Mendelian Inheritance in Man'' Database], at [[Johns Hopkins University]] (see also [[Mendelian Inheritance in Man]] for more information about this source).</ref>
Albinism was formerly categorized as [[tyrosinase]]-positive or -negative. In cases of tyrosinase-positive albinism, the [[enzyme]] tyrosinase is present. The [[melanocyte]]s (pigment cells) are unable to produce melanin for any one of a variety of reasons that do not directly involve the tyrosinase enzyme. In tyrosinase-negative cases, either the tyrosinase enzyme is not produced or a nonfunctional version is produced. This classification has been rendered obsolete by recent research.<ref name="Facts_Albinism"> [http://albinism.med.umn.edu/facts.htm "Facts about Albinism"], by Richard King ''et al.'' </ref>
The chance of offspring with albinism resulting from the pairing of an organism with albinism and one without albinism is low, as discussed in more detail below. However, because organisms can be carriers of genes for albinism without exhibiting any traits, albinistic offspring can be produced by two non-albinistic parents. Albinism usually occurs with equal frequency in both genders.<ref name="eMedicine1" /> An exception to this is ocular albinism, because it is passed on to offspring through X-linked inheritance. Thus, males more frequently have ocular albinism.<ref name="Facts_Albinism"> [http://albinism.med.umn.edu/facts.htm "Facts about Albinism"], by Richard King ''et al.'' </ref>
Because organisms with albinism have skin that lacks (sufficiently or entirely) the dark pigment melanin, which helps protect the skin from [[ultraviolet]] [[radiation]] coming from the sun, they can [[sunburn]] easily from overexposure. (See [[human skin color]] for more information). Lack of melanin in the eye also results in problems with vision, related and unrelated to [[photosensitivity]], which are discussed further below.
Most humans and many animals with albinism appear white or very pale; the multiple types of melanin pigment are responsible for brown, black, gray, and some yellow colorations. In some animals, especially [[Albinism in birds|albinistic birds]] and reptiles, ruddy and yellow hues or other colors may be present on the entire body or in patches (as is common among pigeons), due to the presence of other pigments unaffected by albinism such as [[porphyrin]]s, [[pteridine]]s and [[psittacin]]s, as well as [[carotenoid]] pigments derived from the diet. Some animals are white or pale due to [[chromatophore]] (pigment cell) defects, do not lack melanin ''production'', and have normal eyes; they are referred to as [[leucism|leucistic]]. The direct opposite of albinism, an unusually high level of melanin pigmentation (and sometimes absence of other types of pigment in species that have more than one), is known as [[melanism]], and results in an appearance darker than non-melanistic specimens from the same genepool.<ref name="Feinstein">[http://www.birdersworld.com/brd/default.aspx?c=a&id=676 "Feather Colors: What We See"] by Dr. Julie Feinstein of the American Museum of Natural History (NY), in ''Birder's World Magazine'' online archive; sourced December 2006, actual authoring/publication date unspecified.</ref> Albinism-like conditions may affect other pigments or pigment-production mechanisms in some animals (e.g. "whiteface", a lack of psittacins that can affect some parrot species.).<ref name="Hesford">[http://www.birdhobbyist.com/parrotcolour/parblu04.html "The Parblue Puzzle: Part 4—Common Parblue Varieties: The Cockatiel [''Nymphicus hollandicus'']"] by Clive Hesford, ''The Genetics of Colour in the Budgerigar and Other Parrots'', January 1998</ref> Another is common in reptiles and amphibians: [[axanthism]], in which [[xanthophore]] [[metabolism]], instead of [[Synthesis#Chemical synthesis|synthesis]] of melanin, is affected, resuling in reduction or absence of red and yellow pteridine pigments.<ref name="ABPC">[http://www.livingunderworld.org/biology/caudata/ "Amphibian Biology & Physiology: ''Caudata''"] at ''Amphibian Information Resource: An Educational Web Project About Amphibian Species''; sourced December 2006, actual authoring/publication date unspecified.</ref> Of all these conditions, only albinism and melanism affect humans.
[[Image:Wistar rat.jpg|thumb|left|px280|An albino [[Wistar rat]], a strain commonly used for both [[animal testing|biomedical and basic research.]]]]
The eyes of an animal with albinism occasionally appear red due to the underlying retinal blood vessels showing through where there is not enough pigment to cover them. In humans this is rarely the case, as a human eye is quite large and thus produces enough pigment to lend opacity to the eye, often colouring the iris pale blue. However, there are cases in which the eyes of an albinistic person appear red or purple, depending on the amount of pigment present.
The albinistic are generally (but see related disorders below) as healthy as the rest of their species, with growth and development occurring as normal, and albinism by itself does not cause mortality<ref name="eMedicine1" /> (though the lack of pigment is an elevated risk for skin cancer and other problems.) Many animals with albinism lack their protective [[camouflage]] and are unable to conceal themselves from their predators or prey; the survival rate of animals with albinism in the wild is usually quite low. <ref name="survival1">Ilo Hiler, Albinos. ''Young Naturalist''. The Louise Lindsey Merrick Texas Environment Series, No. 6, pp. 28-31. Texas A&M University Press, College Station (1983)</ref> <ref name="survival2"> S. Dobosz, K. Kohlmann, K. Goryczko, H. Kuzminski (2000) Growth and vitality in yellow forms of rainbow trout. ''[[Journal of Applied Ichthyology]]'' 16, 117–120.</ref> However the novelty of albino animals has occasionally led to their protection by groups such as the [[Albino Squirrel Preservation Society]].
Intentionally-bred albinistic strains of some animal species are commonly used as [[model organism]]s in biomedical study and experimentation. Examples include the [[BALB/c]] mouse and [[Wistar rat|Wistar]] and [[Sprague Dawley rat]] strains, while albino rabbits were historically used for [[Draize test|Draize toxicity testing]]. <ref name="Draize">Draize, J.H., Woodard, G. & Calvery, H.O. (1944) Methods for the study of irritation and toxicity of substances applied topically to the skin and mucous membranes. ''J. Pharmacol. and Exp. Therapeutics.'' 82, 377–390.</ref> Albino [[axolotl]]s, [[zebrafish]], [[medaka]] and [[Xenopus|frogs]] are other common laboratory animals. The ''yellow'' mutation in [[Drosophila|fruit flies]] is their version of albinism.
The incidence of albinism can be artificially increased in
fish by exposing the eggs to [[heavy metals]].<ref>{{cite journal|url=http://www.ufrgs.br/ni/vol3num1%5CBrito%20&%20Caramaschi.pdf|title=An albino armored catfish ''Schizolecis guntheri'' (Siluriformes: Loricariidae) from an Atlantic Forest coastal basin|first=Marcelo F. G.|last=de Brito|coauthors=Caramaschi, Érica P.|journal=Neotropical Ichthyology|volume=3|issue=1|pages=2005|format=[[PDF]]}}</ref>
About 1 in 17,000 human beings has some type of albinism, although up to 1 in 70 is a carrier of albinism genes.<ref name="Albinism Answers"> [http://www.answers.com/topic/albinism "Albinism"] by Carol A. Turkington at answers.com</ref>
===Classification===
There are two main categories of albinism in humans:
* In '''[[oculocutaneous albinism]]''' (despite its Latin-derived name meaning "eye-and-skin" albinism), pigment is lacking in the eyes, skin and hair. (The equivalent mutation in non-humans also results in lack of melanin in the fur, scales or feathers.) People with oculocutaneous albinism can have anywhere from no pigment at all to almost-normal levels.
* In '''[[ocular albinism]]''', only the eyes lack pigment. People who have ocular albinism have generally normal skin and hair color, and many even have a normal eye appearance.
Other conditions include albinism as part of their presentation. These include [[Hermansky-Pudlak syndrome]], [[Chediak-Higashi syndrome]], [[Griscelli syndrome]], [[Waardenburg syndrome]], and [[Tietz syndrome]]. These conditions are sometimes classified with albinism. <ref name="urlILDS - ICD10">{{cite web |url=http://web.ilds.org/icd10_list.php?VIEW=1&START_CODE=E70.3&START_EXT=14 |title=ILDS - ICD10 |format= |work= |accessdate=}}</ref>
== Symptoms and conditions associated with albinism ==
{{Refimprovesect|date=November 2007}}
[[Genetic testing]] can confirm albinism and what variety it is, but offers no medical benefits except in the cases of non-OCA disorders (see below) that cause albinism ''along with'' other medical problems which may be treatable. The ''symptoms'' of albinism can be treated by various methods detailed below.
Eye conditions common in albinism may include:
* [[Pathologic nystagmus|Nystagmus]], irregular rapid movement of the eyes back and forth, or in circular motion.
* [[Strabismus]], eye misalignment ("crossed eyes" or "lazy eye").
* Refractive errors such as [[myopia]] or [[hyperopia]] and especially [[astigmatism (eye)|astigmatism]] are more likely<ref name="Albinism_Diagnosis"> [http://bjo.bmj.com.ezproxy.auckland.ac.nz/cgi/content/full/82/2/189 "Albinism: Modern molecular diagnosis"]</ref>
* [[Photophobia]], [[hypersensitivity]] to bright light and glare.
* Foveal hypoplasia, underdevelopment of the [[fovea]], the center of the [[retina]]
* [[Optic nerve hypoplasia]], underdevelopment of the optic nerve
* Abnormal decussation (crossing) of the optic nerve fibers in the [[optic chiasm]]<ref name="Optometry_Albinism"> [http://www.revoptom.com/HANDBOOK/SECT58a.HTM "Albinism - Review of Optometry Online"]</ref>
* [[Amblyopia]], decrease in acuity of one or both eyes due to poor transmission to the brain, often due to other conditions such as [[strabismus]].
[[Image:Albinistic girl papua new guinea.jpg|thumb|left|240px|Albinistic girl from [[Papua New Guinea]]]]
Organisms with albinism usually have impaired vision due to one or more of the listed conditions. While a person with albinism may suffer from common refractive errors like nearsightedness or farsightedness, the visual problems particularly associated with albinism arise from a poorly-developed [[retinal pigment epithelium]] (RPE) due to the lack of melanin {{Fact|date=February 2007}}. This degenerate RPE causes foveal [[hypoplasia]] (a failure in the development of normal [[fovea]]e), which results in eccentric fixation and lower visual acuity, and often a minor level of strabismus. Nystagmus is usually seen, as is [[photophobia]] or light sensitivity (see below).
The [[Iris (anatomy)|iris]] is a [[sphincter]] with pigmented tissue (which makes up the color of the eyes) that contracts to limit the amount of light that can enter through the pupil and relaxes again to allow for better vision in darkness. This mechanism can be observed in humans and mammals (like in cat's eyes) and is needed because too much light is uncomfortable or even painful and decreases vision. In people with albinism, the iris does not have enough pigment to block the light, thus the decrease of pupil diameter is only partially successful in reducing the amount of light that enters the eye. {{Fact|date=February 2007}}. Additionally, the improper development of the RPE, which in normal eyes absorbs most of the reflected sunlight, further increases glare due to light scattering within the eye.<ref name="Optometry_Albinism"> [http://www.revoptom.com/HANDBOOK/SECT58a.HTM "Albinism - Review of Optometry Online"]</ref> The resulting sensitivity (photophobia) generally leads to a dislike of and discomfort in bright light, but does not prevent people with albinism enjoying the outdoors, especially when using sunglasses and/or brimmed hats.<ref name="Facts_Albinism"> [http://albinism.med.umn.edu/facts.htm "Facts about Albinism"], by Dr. Richard King et al. </ref>
The lack of pigment also makes the skin unusually sensitive to sunlight and thus susceptible to [[sunburn]], so people with albinism should either avoid prolonged exposure to bright sunlight or protect their skin.
==Treatment of the symptoms==
Albinism is a condition that cannot be "cured" per se, but small things can be done to improve the quality of life for those affected. Most importantly to improve vision, protect the eyes from bright lights, and avoid skin damage from sunlight. The extent and success rate of these measures depend on the type of albinism and severity of the symptoms; in particular, people with ocular albinism are likely to have normally-pigmented skin, and thus do not need to take special precautions against skin damage.
===Surgical treatment===
For the most part, treatment of the eye conditions consists of visual rehabilitation.{{Fact|date=February 2007}} Surgery is possible on the ocular muscles to decrease [[nystagmus]], [[strabismus]] and common refractive errors like [[astigmatism (eye)|astigmatism]]. Strabismus surgery may improve the appearance of the eyes.{{Fact|date=February 2007}} [[Nystagmus]]-damping surgery can also be performed, to reduce the "shaking" of the eyes back and forth.<ref name="Surgical management of nystagmus">[http://www.pubmedcentral.nih.gov.ezproxy.auckland.ac.nz/articlerender.fcgi?artid=1279676, by John Lee]{{Clarifyme|date=March 2008}}<!--What the heck is this? Use {{Cite web}} to provide source details.--></ref> The effectiveness of all these procedures varies greatly and depends on individual circumstances. More importantly, since surgery will not restore a normal RPE or foveae, surgery will not provide fine binocular vision.{{Fact|date=February 2007}} In the case of [[esotropia]] (the "crossed eyes" form of strabismus), surgery may help vision by expanding the [[visual field]] (the area that the eyes can see while looking at one point).{{Fact|date=February 2007}} <!-- citation tagging temporarily stops here -->
===Vision aids===
[[Glasses]] and other vision aids, [[large-print]] materials and [[closed captioning]], as well as bright but angled reading lights, can help individuals with albinism, even though their vision cannot be corrected completely. Some albinistic people do well using [[bifocals]] (with a strong reading lens), prescription reading glasses, and/or hand-held devices such as [[Magnifying glass|magnifiers]] or [[monocular]]s.<ref name="Facts_Albinism"> {{cite web |url=http://albinism.med.umn.edu/facts.htm |title=Facts about Albinism}} |first=Richard |last=King}} </ref> [[Contact lenses]] may be colored to block light transmission through the <!--commenting out unexplained term for now: aniridic -->iris. Some use [[bioptics]], glasses which have small telescopes mounted on, in, or behind their regular lenses, so that they can look through either the regular lens or the telescope. Newer designs of bioptics use smaller light-weight lenses. Some [[United States of America|US]] states allow the use of bioptic telescopes for driving motor vehicles. (See also [[NOAH]] bulletin "Low Vision Aids".)<!-- Link that. Where is it? -->
Although still disputed among the experts,{{Who|date=July 2007}} many [[ophthalmology|ophthalmologists]] recommend the use of glasses from early childhood onward to allow the eyes the best development possible.
[[Optometry|Optometrists]] or ophthalmologists who are experienced in working with [[low vision]] patients can recommend various optical aids. Some low-vision clinics provide these aids on trial loan, with instruction in their use.
=== Sun protection ===
It is vital that people with albinism use sunscreen when exposed to sunlight to prevent premature skin aging or [[skin cancer]]. This poses a problem for those who cannot afford [[sunscreen]], especially in regions with high exposure to sunlight, as in Africa.
Use of [[sunglasses]] and hats with wide brims can make the glare outside bearable. Other things that can help people with albinism are avoiding sudden changes of the lighting situation (switching the light on in complete darkness), using dimmable switches and adding tint to car windows or blinds to normal windows. Lights should be yellowish rather than blue{{Fact|date=December 2007}} and not point towards the usual position of a person with albinism (like their seat at a table).{{Fact|date=December 2007}}
==Misconceptions==
While some of the very rare albinism disorders that are coupled with deafness and immunodeficiency appear to be linked with inbreeding,<ref name="OMIM1" /> the vast majority of sufferers of common albinism are not the product of such unions; the more usual albinism genes are widespread enough that they can easily produce albinistic offspring from parents that are not related.
A common misconception is that albinistic individuals of a species are sterile; they are in fact fully capable of reproducing. It is also thought by many that people with albinism live short life spans. This is not true in general, but may be a distorted view of a more reasonable fact that people with albinism have a higher risk of skin cancer if they do not use proper skin protection when in the sun. (Some very rare variants of albinism are lethal by adulthood or sooner, but they are so little-known by the general public that they are unlikely to have contributed to this belief.)
It has also been misunderstood that a person or other animal with albinism will become blind halfway through life; this is incorrect.
==Culture==
{{Expand-section|date=June 2008}}<!--These section needs a subsection on NON-FOLKLORIC and NON-POP-CULTURE cultural reactions and handling of albinism and people with albinism, followed by an "In popular culture" subheading to separate it from the material below. -->
[[Zāl]] ({{lang-fa|زال}}) was an Iranian Knight, and perhaps the most famous Iranian with albinism. He is mentioned in "[[The Book of Kings]]" or [[Shahnameh]] as a warrior of ancient Persia (currently Iran). He was born with white hair, and therefore his parents called him Zāl. In [[Persian language|Persian (Farsi)]] ''Zaall'' refers to those who suffer from albinism. Zāl was the son of Sām and the grandson of Nariman, both heroes of ancient Iran and protectors of Motherland Iran or "Iran-zamin." Because of his defect, Zāl was rejected by his father. He was left as an infant upon Mountain Damavand, which has the highest geographic peak in Iran. The mythical Simurgh (a very large and wise bird which darkens the sky when flying - it has been said that the Phoenix of Western literature is derived from this bird) found the baby and took him to her nest, where Zāl lived until being reunited with his family. Soon after rejoining his family, Zāl married Rudaba; their child was the greatest Iranian hero, Rostam. The mighty and wise Simurgh gave Zāl three feathers to burn when in trouble. She would appear as soon as the feathers were lit.
[[Image:Afro brazilian albino pride.jpg|thumb|right|250px| [[Afro-Brazilian]] albino pride parade during [[Bahia]] carnival]]
In physical terms, humans with albinism commonly have vision problems and need sun protection. They also face social challenges as the condition is often a source of ridicule, discrimination or even fear.{{Fact|date=April 2007}}
Due to albinism's effect on one's outward appearance, cultures around the world have developed many superstitions regarding people with albinism, who are believed by some to have [[Magic (paranormal)|magical]] powers or to be able to tell the future,{{Fact|date=February 2007}} also a common theme in fiction ''(see [[Albinism in popular culture]] for examples)''. For example, in [[Zimbabwe]], modern [[folklore]] posits that sexual intercourse with an albinistic person will cure one of [[HIV]], leading to the [[rape]] (and subsequent HIV infection) of women with albinism in that region.<ref>[http://ipsnews.net/interna.asp?idnews=14122 ipsnews.net]{{Clarifyme|date=March 2008}}<!--This is not a proper reference citation; use {{Cite web}} to provide source details.--></ref> In [[Tanzania]] in 2008, President [[Jakaya Mrisho Kikwete|Kikwete]] publicly condemned [[witchdoctor]]s for killing albinos for their body parts which are thought to bring good luck. 19 albinos had been murdered between March 2007 and April 2008<ref>[http://www.timesonline.co.uk/tol/news/world/article3671165.ece Times]</ref>. In [[Jamaica]], people with albinism were historically degraded, and regarded as "[[curse]]d".{{Fact|date=April 2007}} A long-standing American [[urban legend]] is that of alleged "albino colonies" in rural [[New Jersey]].
Portrayals of people with albinism in [[literature]] and [[film]]s are rarely positive. This fact is sometimes referred to as the ''"evil albino" stereotype'', or ''albino bias''. While this stereotype is common, in recent years a few more positive roles have also been cast for mock-albino actors and occasionally genuinely albinistic ones.
A number of real people with albinism have become famous, including historical figures such as [[Emperor Seinei]] of Japan, and [[Oxford University|Oxford]] don [[William Archibald Spooner]]; actor/comedian [[Victor Varnado]]; musicians such as [[Johnny Winter|Johnny]] and [[Edgar Winter]], [[Yellowman|Winston "King Yellowman" Foster]], [[Brother Ali]], and [[Piano Red|Willie "Piano Red" Perryman]]; even a fashion model, [[Connie Chiu]]. [[Big Brother 9 (UK)]] contestant [[Darnell Swallow]] is also an albino, and spoke alot to other housemates regarding this and he maintains that he just wants to be accepted. He even has a blue jumper with the words ''Don't Label Me. Respect Me.'' on it.
There have also been some well-known albino animals, including [[Humpback Whale#Migaloo|Migaloo]], a whale off the coast of Australia; [[Copito de Nieve]] (''Little Snowflake'' in [[Spanish language|Spanish]]) a [[Barcelona Zoo]] gorilla; Snowdrop, a [[Bristol Zoo]] penguin; and the sperm whale [[Mocha Dick]], the inspiration for Herman Melville's novel ''[[Moby-Dick]]''.
{{main|Albinism in popular culture}}
==See also==
* [[Leucism]], a condition similar to albinism in animals, characterized by reduced pigmentation in general
* [[Melanism]] (or melanosis), unusually dark melanin pigmentation
* [[Xanthochromism]], unusually yellow pigmentation
* [[Vitiligo]] (or leukoderma), the patchy loss of skin pigmentation
<!--Article doesn't exist yet: * [[Axanthism]], lack of yellow pigmentation-->
* [[Albinism in popular culture]]
* [[Albinism in birds]]
* [[List of Mendelian traits in humans]]
* [[Ukerewe Island]]
==References==
{{reflist|2}}
==External links==
{{Wiktionarypar|Albino}}
{{Commons|Albinism}}
{{Wikisource1911Enc|Albino}}
===Albinism in humans===
==== Albinism support organizations ====
* [http://www.positiveexposure.org Positive Exposure]—Non-profit organization founded by photographer Rick Guidotti, "dedicated to celebrating the spirit of difference". Focuses on genetic conditions, especially albinism.
* [http://www.hpsnetwork.org/ Hermansky-Pudlak Syndrome Network] (US-based)
* [http://www.albinism.org NOAH]—National Organization for Albinism and Hypopigmentation (USA); also has an online support group
* [http://albinism.med.umn.edu/ International Albinism Center] (research project based at the University of Minnesota, USA)
* [http://www.albinism.org.uk Albinism Fellowship] (UK and Ireland)
* [http://www.albinismaustralia.org AFA]—Albinism Fellowship of Australia
* [http://www.albino-alliance.com Albino Alliance] A support group/forum for people living with albinism in Australia
* [http://www.thealbinofoundation.com TAF]—The Albino Foundation (Nigeria & USA)
* [http://albinismo.es ALBA]—Asociación de Ayuda a Personas con Albinismo [Aid Association to Persons with Albinism] (Spain) {{es icon}}
* [http://www.albinismo.org OLA]—Organización Latinoamericana de Albinismo [Latin-American Albinism Organization] (Mexico) {{es icon}}
* [http://albinizm.ru/ Albinizm.ru community site] {{ru icon}}
* [http://www.parentofachildwithalbinism.com Parent of a Child with Albinism] Information based on a parent's personal experiences in having a child with albinism.
==== Other ====
* [http://www.goldenalbinism.com/ "The Golden Child: People of African Ancestry with Albinism"]
* [http://www.michaelstevenson.com/contemporary/exhibitions/hugo/albino.htm Portraits of people with albinism] by Pieter Hugo
* Albino Help Center; offshoot of the Albino Association of America - located 14436 Washington Ave, Cedarburg, WI 53012
===Albinism in animals===
[[Image:Albino cobra closeup.jpg|thumb|right|200px|Albino cobra. It retains some yellow and red pigment, because it is not also [[Axanthism|axanthic]].]] [[Image:Rat albino.JPG|thumb|100px|An albino rat, due to its reddish colored eyes]]
* [http://www.messybeast.com/albinism/albino-index.htm Albino and white mammals and birds]
* [http://allaboutfrogs.org/weird/strange/albino.html Albino frogs]
* [http://freshaquarium.about.com/cs/cyprinids2/p/albinotigerbarb.htm Albino tiger barb fish]
* [http://animal-world.com/encyclo/fresh/catfish/acory.php Albino catfish] (''[[Corydoras paleatus]]'')
* [http://www.roadsideamerica.com/set/squirrels.html Albino squirrels]
* [http://tortoiseforum.org/albino-red-foot-t-1359.html Albino redfoot tortoise] (''[[Geochelone carbonaria]]'')
{{Amino acid metabolic pathology}}
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