Alcohol and cancer
2842910
226092457
2008-07-16T20:06:00Z
Linda,LCADC
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{{alcohealth}}
"Considerable evidence suggests a connection between heavy alcohol consumption and increased risk for cancer, with an estimated 2 to 4 percent of all cancer cases thought to be caused either directly or indirectly by alcohol<ref name=Rothman>Rothman, K.J. [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_uids=7383982&dopt=Abstract The proportion of cancer attributable to alcohol consumption] ''Preventive Medicine'' ''9(2)'':174-179, 1980.</ref>" indicates the NIAAA.<ref name=aa21/>" 3.6% of all cancer cases worldwide are related to alcohol drinking, resulting in 3.5% of all cancer deaths."<ref>[http://www.oncolink.com/resources/article.cfm?c=3&s=8&ss=23&id=13383&month=08&year=2006 Burden of alcohol-related cancer substantial]</ref>
== Alcohol as a carcinogen and cocarcinogen ==
The [[International Agency for Research on Cancer]] (Centre International de Recherche sur le Cancer) of the [[World Health Organization]] has classified alcohol as a [[List of IARC Group 1 carcinogens|Group 1 carcinogen]]. Its evaluation states, "There is sufficient evidence for the carcinogenicity of alcoholic beverages in humans.… Alcoholic beverages are carcinogenic to humans (Group 1)."<ref>IARC Monographs on the Evaluation of Carcinogenic Risks to Humans: Volume 44 ''[http://monographs.iarc.fr/ENG/Monographs/vol44/volume44.pdf Alcohol Drinking: Summary of Data Reported and Evaluation]''</ref>
The U.S. [[National Institute on Alcohol Abuse and Alcoholism]] (NIAAA) reports that "Although there is no evidence that alcohol itself is a carcinogen, alcohol may act as a cocarcinogen by enhancing the carcinogenic effects of other chemicals. For example, studies indicate that alcohol enhances tobacco's ability to stimulate tumor formation in rats.<ref>Garro, A.J., and Lieber, C.S. Alcohol and cancer. Annual Review of Pharmacology and Toxicology 30:219-249, 1990</ref> In humans, the risk for mouth, tracheal, and esophageal cancer is 35 times greater for people who both smoke and drink than for people who neither smoke nor drink,<ref>Blot, W.J.; McLaughlin, J.K.; Winn, D.M.; Austin, D.F.; Greenberg, R.S.; Preston-Martin, S.; Bernstein, L.; Schoenberg, J.B.; Stemhagen, A.; and Fraumeni, J.F. [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=Abstract&list_uids=3365707 Smoking and drinking in relation to oral and pharyngeal cancer] ''Cancer Research'' 48(11):3282-3287, 1988</ref> implying a cocarcinogenic interaction between alcohol and tobacco-related carcinogens."<ref name=aa21>[[National Institute on Alcohol Abuse and Alcoholism]] [http://pubs.niaaa.nih.gov/publications/aa21.htm Alcohol and Cancer - Alcohol Alert No. 21-1993]</ref>
The NIAAA states that "Although epidemiologic studies have found a clear association between alcohol consumption and development of certain types of cancer, study findings are often inconsistent and may vary by country and by type of cancer."<ref name=aa21/>
== Possible mechanisms of alcohol as a carcinogen==
In a review, Pöschl and Seitz list some possible mechanisms of alcohol as a carcinogen:
* local effects of alcohol
* acetaldehyde "Studies have suggested that high concentrations of [[acetaldehyde]], which is produced as the body breaks down ethanol, could damage DNA in healthy cells. … Researchers at the [[National Institute on Alcohol Abuse and Alcoholism]] in [[Bethesda]], Maryland, have added weight to this idea by showing that the damage occurs at concentrations of acetaldehyde similar to those in saliva and the gastrointestinal tract while people drink alcohol. Acetaldehyde appears to react with polyamines - naturally occurring compounds essential for cell growth - to create a particularly dangerous type of mutagenic DNA base called a Cr-Pdg adduct…"<ref>''[[New Scientist]]'' article [http://www.newscientist.com/channel/health/mg18725125.600.html "Alcohol's link to cancer explained"]</ref><ref>Jacob A. Theruvathu, Pawel Jaruga, Raghu G. Nath, Miral Dizdaroglu, and P. J. Brooks [http://www.pubmedcentral.nih.gov/articlerender.fcgi?artid=1156964 Polyamines stimulate the formation of mutagenic 1,N2-propanodeoxyguanosine adducts from acetaldehyde] ''Nucleic Acids Res'' 2005; 33(11): 3513–3520. doi: 10.1093/nar/gki661</ref><ref>NIAAA [http://www.niaaa.nih.gov/NewsEvents/NewsReleases/aug3.htm Finding May Explain Link Between Alcohol and Certain Cancers]</ref><ref>Helmut K. Seitz and Peter Becker [http://pubs.niaaa.nih.gov/publications/arh301/38-47.htm Alcohol Metabolism and Cancer Risk]</ref>
* induction of [[CYP2E1]]
* nutritional deficiencies
* interactions with retinoids
* alcohol and methylation
* alcohol and immune surveillance<ref>G. Pöschl and H. K. Seitz [http://alcalc.oxfordjournals.org/cgi/content/full/39/3/155 Alcohol and Cancer] ''Alcohol & Alcoholism'' Vol. 39, No. 3, pp. 155-165, 2004</ref>
Purohita ''et al'' propose an overlapping list:
# production of [[acetaldehyde]], which is a weak mutagen and carcinogen
# induction of [[CYP2E1|cytochrome P450 2E1]] and associated oxidative stress and conversion of procarcinogens to carcinogens
# depletion of [[S-Adenosyl methionine|S-adenosylmethionine]] and, consequently, induction of global DNA hypomethylation;
# induction of increased production of inhibitory guanine nucleotide regulatory proteins and components of extracellular signal-regulated kinase–mitogen-activated protein kinase signaling
# accumulation of iron and associated oxidative stress
# inactivation of the tumor suppressor gene [[BRCA1]] and increased estrogen responsiveness (primarily in breast)
# impairment of retinoic acid metabolism.<ref name=Purohita>Vishnudutt Purohita, Jag Khalsab, Jose Serranoc [http://www.alcoholjournal.org/article/S0741-8329(05)00090-X/abstract Mechanisms of alcohol-associated cancers: introduction and summary of the symposium] ''Alcohol'' Volume 35, Issue 3, Pages 155-160 (April 2005)</ref>
=== Effect of alcohol on the progress of cancer when established===
A study of the influence of alcohol intake on tumor growth of hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) in patients with type C cirrhosis, found that alcohol influenced tumor volume doubling time (TVDT). "In conclusion we found that alcohol intake was closely related to the tumor growth of HCC in patients with type C cirrhosis."<ref>Matsuhashi T, Yamada N, Shinzawa H, Takahashi T [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_uids=8835593&dopt=Abstract Effect of alcohol on tumor growth of hepatocellular carcinoma with type C cirrhosis] ''Intern Med''. 1996 Jun;35(6):443-8</ref>
A study of chick embryos suggests that alcohol stimulates their tumor growth by fueling the production of a growth factor that stimulates blood vessel development in tumors.<ref>''Cancer'' news alert[http://jws-edck.wiley.com:8090/Cancer/News.nsf/Listing+by+Date/D2C1C1C402C994D985256F69006857D4?OpenDocument "Study Provides Clues to Alcohol's Cancer Connection"]</ref><ref>[http://www3.interscience.wiley.com/cgi-bin/abstract/109856883/ABSTRACT Ethanol stimulates tumor progression and expression of vascular endothelial growth factor in chick embryos] Jian-Wei Gu, Amelia Purser Bailey, Amanda Sartin, Ian Makey, Ann L. Brady ''Cancer''
Published Online: [[December 13]] 2004 (DOI: 10.1002/cncr.20781) Print Issue Date: [[January 15]] 2005</ref> A 2006 study in mice showed moderate drinking resulted in larger and more robust tumors.<ref>Wei Tan, Megan Shparago, Amelia P. Bailey and Jian-Wei Gu [http://www.the-aps.org/press/conference/eb06/8.htm Equivalent Of 2-4 Drinks Daily Fuels Blood Vessel Growth, Encourages Cancer Tumors In Mice]</ref>
A study where high amounts of alcohol were given to mice suggests that it accelerates their cancer growth by speeding up the loss of body fat and depressing immune activity - particularly that of 'killer t-cells'.<ref>BBC report [http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/health/1990061.stm Alcohol 'speeds cancer growth']</ref><ref>[http://www.wsunews.wsu.edu/detail.asp?StoryID=3059 WSU Researcher’s Work Indicates Alcohol May Hasten Progression of Cancer]</ref>
== Genetic variation and cancer risk==
A study found that "the [[ADH1C]]*1 allele and genotype ADH1C*1/1 were significantly more frequent in patients with alcohol-related cancers…"<ref>Nils Homann, Felix Stickel, Inke R. König, Arne Jacobs, Klaus Junghanns, Monika Benesova, Detlef Schuppan, Susanne Himsel, Ina Zuber-Jerger, Claus Hellerbrand, Dieter Ludwig, Wolfgang H. Caselmann, Helmut K. Seitz [http://www3.interscience.wiley.com/journal/112141765/abstract Alcohol dehydrogenase 1C*1 allele is a genetic marker for alcohol-associated cancer in heavy drinkers] ''International Journal of Cancer'' Volume 118, Issue 8, Pages 1998 - 2002</ref>
A European study has found two gene variants which offer "significant" protection against mouth and throat cancers.
<ref>[http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/health/7417725.stm Clues to alcohol cancer mystery] [[25 May]] 2008</ref>
Alcohol is a known porphyrinogenic chemical.
Several studies in Europe published on Pubmed have linked the inherited hepatic porphyrias with a predisposition to hepatocellular carcinoma. Typical risk factors for HCC need not be present with the acute hepatic porphyrias, specifically acute intermittent porphyria, variegate porphyria and hereditary coproporphyria.
Porphyria cutanea tarda is also associated with HCC, but with typical risk factors including evidence of hepatotropic viruses, hemochromatosis and alcoholic cirrhosis.
Tyrosinemia Type I, an inherited disorder in tyrosine metabolism impacting the second enzyme in the heme metabolic pathway is associated with a high risk of developing HCC in younger populations, including children.
== Alcohol as a risk factor for specific cancers ==
=== Alcohol consumption is believed to increase risk ===
The WCRF panel report ''Food, Nutrition, Physical Activity and the Prevention of Cancer: a Global Perspective'' finds the evidence "convincing" that alcoholic drinks increase the risk of the following cancers: mouth, pharynx and larynx, oesophagus, colorectum (men), breast (pre- and
postmenopause).<ref name=WCRF>WCRF [http://www.dietandcancerreport.org/downloads/Second_Expert_Report.pdf Food, Nutrition, Physical Activity and the Prevention of Cancer: a Global Perspective]</ref>
==== Head and neck cancers ====
[[Image:Esophageal adenoca.jpg|thumb|200px|right|[[Esophagogastroduodenoscopy|Endoscopic]] image of patient with esophageal adenocarcinoma seen at [[gastro-esophageal junction]].]]
Head and neck cancers, as used in this article, mean cancers of the [[oral cancer|mouth]], [[Esophageal cancer|esophagus]], [[pharynx]] and [[Laryngeal cancer|larynx]]. The U.S. [[National Cancer Institute]] states "Drinking alcohol increases the risk of cancers of the mouth, esophagus, pharynx, larynx, and liver in men and women, … In general, these risks increase after about one daily drink for women and two daily drinks for men. (A drink is defined as 12 ounces of regular beer, 5 ounces of wine, or 1.5 ounces of 80-proof liquor.) … Also, using alcohol with tobacco is riskier than using either one alone, because it further increases the chances of getting cancers of the mouth, throat, and esophagus."<ref>[http://progressreport.cancer.gov/doc_detail.asp?pid=1&did=2007&chid=71&coid=706&mid= Cancer Trends Progress Report - Alcohol Consumption]</ref>
The International Head and Neck Cancer Epidemiology (INHANCE) Consortium co-ordinates a meta-study on the issue.<ref>[http://inhance.iarc.fr/projects.php The International Head and Neck Cancer Epidemiology (INHANCE) Consortium]</ref>
A study looking at laryngeal cancer and beverage type concluded, "This study thus indicates that in the Italian population characterized by frequent wine consumption, wine is the beverage most strongly related to the risk of laryngeal cancer."<ref>Garavello W, Bosetti C, Gallus S, Maso LD, Negri E, Franceschi S, La Vecchia C
[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=pubmed&cmd=Retrieve&dopt=AbstractPlus&list_uids=16374233&query_hl=22&itool=pubmed_docsum Type of alcoholic beverage and the risk of laryngeal cancer] ''Eur J Cancer Prev'' 2006 Feb;15(1):69-73.</ref>
The [[American Cancer Society]] estimates that in 2007, cancer of the oral cavity and pharynx represents 3% of new cancer cases and 7550 deaths. Cancer of the esophagus caused 13,940 deaths and cancer of the larynx 3,660 deaths.<ref name=acs2006>[[American Cancer Society]]. [http://www.cancer.org/downloads/STT/CAFF2007PWSecured.pdf Cancer Facts & Figures 2007]</ref>
According to Centre for Addiction and Mental Health Principal Investigator Dr. Jürgen Rehm, existing research consistently shows a relationship between alcohol consumption and an increased risk for cancer of the esophagus, larynx and oral cavity. Dr. Rehm and his team analyzed epidemiological literature from 1966 to 2006 to further investigate this association and their results, published in the September issue of the ''International Journal of Cancer'', showed that:
* The risk of esophageal cancer nearly doubled in the first two years following alcohol cessation, a sharp increase that may be due to the fact that some people only stop drinking when they are already experiencing disease symptoms. However, risk then decreased rapidly and significantly after longer periods of abstention.
* Risk of head and neck cancer only reduced significantly after 10 years of cessation.
* After more than 20 years of alcohol cessation, the risks for both cancers were similar to those seen in people who never drank alcohol.<ref>Centre for Addiction
and Mental Health [http://www.camh.net/News_events/News_releases_and_media_advisories_and_backgrounders/alcohol_cancer_research.html Alcohol and cancer: is drinking the new smoking?]</ref><ref>[http://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2007/09/070926094722.htm Alcohol And Cancer: Is Drinking The New Smoking?]</ref>
Although they are also located in the head or neck, alcohol consumption is not a risk factor for brain cancer, eye cancer, pituitary gland cancer, thymus cancer, salivary gland cancer, thyroid cancer, nasal cavity and paranasal sinus cancer, or adenoid cancer (see below).
==== Breast cancer ====
[[Image:BreastCancer.jpg|thumb|200px|right|[[Mastectomy]] specimen containing a very large cancer of the breast (in this case, an invasive [[ductal carcinoma]]).]]
Alcohol increases the risk of [[breast cancer]] in women. A review concludes that "studies confirm previous observations that there appears to be an association between alcohol intake and increased risk of breast cancer in women. On balance, there was a weak association between the amount of alcohol consumed and the relative risk."<ref>[http://www.advisorybodies.doh.gov.uk/pdfs/alcbrrev.pdf Review of Alcohol: Association with Breast Cancer]</ref>
The National Institute on Alcohol Abuse and Alcoholism (NIAAA) concludes that "Chronic alcohol consumption has been associated with a small (averaging 10 percent) increase in a woman's risk of breast cancer<ref>Friedenreich, C.M.; Howe, G.R.; Miller, A.B.; and Jain, M.G. [http://aje.oxfordjournals.org/cgi/content/abstract/137/5/512 A cohort study of alcohol consumption and risk of breast cancer] ''American Journal of Edidemiology'' ''137(5)'':512-520, 1993.</ref><ref>Longnecker, M.P.; Berlin, J.A.; Orza, M.J.; and Chalmers, T.C. [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_uids=3392790&dopt=Abstract A meta-analysis of alcohol consumption in relation to risk of breast cancer] ''Journal of the American Medical Association'' 260(5):652-656, 1988</ref>
.<ref>Nasca, P.C.; Baptiste, M.S.; Field, N.A.; Metzger, B.B.; Black, M.; Kwon, C.S.; and Jacobson, H. [http://ije.oxfordjournals.org/cgi/content/abstract/19/3/532 An epidemiological case-control study of breast cancer and alcohol consumption] ''International Journal of Epidemiology'' ''19(3)'':532-538, 1990.</ref> According to these studies, the risk appears to increase as the quantity and duration of alcohol consumption increases. Other studies, however, have found no evidence of such a link<ref>Chu, S.Y.; Lee, N.C.; Wingo, P.A.; and Webster, L.A. [http://aje.oxfordjournals.org/cgi/content/abstract/130/5/867 Alcohol consumption and the risk of breast cancer] ''American Journal of Epidemiology'' ''130(5)'':867-877, 1989.</ref><ref>Schatzkin, A.; Piantadosi, S.; Miccozzi, M.; and Bartee, D. [http://ije.oxfordjournals.org/cgi/content/abstract/18/1/28 Alcohol consumption and breast cancer: A cross-national correlation study] ''International Journal of Epidemiology'' ''18(1)'':28-31, 1989.</ref><ref>Webster, L.A.; Layde, P.M.; Wingo, P.A.; and Ory, H.W. Alcohol consumption and risk of breast cancer. ''Lancet'' ''2(8352)'':724–726, 1983.</ref>
.<ref name=aa21/> " The nature and inconsistency of the evidence has called into question the existence of any causal link between moderate alcohol consumption and breast cancer [http://www2.potsdam.edu/hansondj/HealthIssues/1043263133.html]
The Committee on Carcinogenicity of Chemicals in Food, Consumer Products concludes, "The new research estimates that a woman drinking an average of two units of alcohol per day has a lifetime risk of developing breast cancer 8% higher than a woman who drinks an average of one unit of alcohol per day. The risk of breast cancer further increases with each additional drink consumed per day. … The research also concludes that approximately 6% (between 3.2% and 8.8%) of breast cancers reported in the UK each year could be prevented if drinking was reduced to a very low level (i.e. less than 1 unit/week)."<ref>''[http://www.advisorybodies.doh.gov.uk/pdfs/alco04nontech.pdf Non-Technical Summary]''</ref>
It has been reported that "Two drinks daily increase the risk of getting breast cancer by about 25 percent." (NCI) but the evidence is inconsistent. The [[Framingham study]] has tracked individuals since the 1940s. Data from that research found that drinking alcohol moderately did not increase breast cancer risk.<ref>Wellness Facts. ''Wellness Letter'' (School of Public Health, University of California at Berkeley), 1999, ''15(8)'', 1.</ref> Similarly, research by the Danish [http://www.niph.dk/ National Institute for Public Health] found that moderate drinking had virtually no effect on breast cancer risk.<ref>Petri, A.L., ''et al.'' [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_uids=15252295&dopt=Abstract Alcohol intake, type of beverage, and risk of cancer in pre- and postmenopausal women] ''Alcoholism: Clinical & Experimental Research'', 2004, ''28(7)'', 1084-1090).</ref>
Breast cancer constitutes about 7.3% of all cancers.<ref name=acs2006/> Among women, breast cancer comprises 60% of alcohol-attributable cancers.<ref>Boffetta P. ''et al.'' ([[2006-03-23]]) ''Int J Cancer''. [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=Abstract&list_uids=16557583&query_hl=1&itool=pubmed_docsum "The burden of cancer attributable to alcohol drinking".]</ref> One study suggests that women who frequently drink red wine may have an increased risk of developing breast cancer.<ref>Maggiolini M. ''et al.'' (2005) ''J Mol Endocrinol''. [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=Abstract&list_uids=16216908&query_hl=3&itool=pubmed_docsum "The red wine phenolics piceatannol and myricetin act as agonists for estrogen receptor alpha in human breast cancer cells"]</ref>
Alcohol consumption has been shown to increase the rate of breast cancer in women.<ref name = Room>Prof Robin Room, Thomas Babor, and Jürgen Rehm [http://www.thelancet.com/journals/lancet/article/PIIS0140673605178702/abstract Alcohol and health (abstract)] ''The Lancet'', 365:519-530 DOI:10.1016/S0140-6736(05)17870-2</ref>
A study of 17,647 nurses found that high drinking levels more than doubled risk of breast cancer. "The relative risk of breast cancer was 2.30 … for alcohol intake of 22–27 drinks per week, compared to 1–3 drinks per week. Among alcohol consumers, weekly alcohol intake increased the risk of breast cancer with 2% for each additional drink consumed. Weekend consumption increased the risk with 4% for each additional drink consumed Friday through Sunday." Binge drinking of 4–5 drinks on the last weekday increased risk by 55%.<ref name=Mørch>Lina S. Mørch, Ditte Johansen, Lau C. Thygesen1, Anne Tjønneland, Ellen Løkkegaard, Claudia Stahlberg and Morten Grønbæk [http://eurpub.oxfordjournals.org/cgi/content/abstract/ckm036v1 Alcohol drinking, consumption patterns and breast cancer among Danish nurses: a cohort study] ''The European Journal of Public Health'' doi:10.1093/eurpub/ckm036</ref>
"The findings from this prospective study suggest that moderate alcohol consumption increases breast cancer risk."<ref>Zhang SM, Lee IM, Manson JE, Cook NR, Willett WC, Buring JE [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=pubmed&cmd=Retrieve&dopt=AbstractPlus&list_uids=17204515&query_hl=1&itool=pubmed_DocSum Alcohol consumption and breast cancer risk in the Women's Health Study] ''Am J Epidemiol''. 2007 Mar 15;165(6):667-76. Epub 2007 Jan 4</ref>
A study showed that one or two alcoholic drinks a day increases the risk of breast cancer by 10 per cent compared with light drinkers who drank less than one drink a day. Women who have three or more drinks a day increase their risk of breast cancer by 30 per cent. The type of drink was not a factor.<ref>Jeremy Laurance [http://news.independent.co.uk/health/article3001632.ece Three drinks a day increases risk of breast cancer by a third] ''The Independent'' [[27 September]] 2007</ref> "A typical 50-year-old woman has a five-year breast cancer risk of about 3 percent. If her risk jumps by 30 percent, her individual risk is still only about 4 percent."<ref>Tara Parker-Pope [http://well.blogs.nytimes.com/2007/10/09/at-cocktail-time-shots-of-confusion/ Another quaff of confusion about alcohol]. ''New York Times'' blog [[October 9]], 2007</ref>
One of the largest studies of its kind has found that alcohol is a substantial risk factor for development of the most common type of breast cancer - the 70% of tumors that are classified as positive for both the estrogen and progesterone receptors (ER+/PR+). Researchers report that even moderate alcohol consumption, defined as one or two drinks per day, increased risk of developing this kind of cancer, and the more a woman drank, the higher her risk. Compared to women who did not drink at all, women who had three or more glasses of alcohol daily had as much as a 51% increased risk of ER+/PR+ breast cancer.<ref>[http://www.aacr.org/home/public--media/news-releases.aspx?d=1035 How What and How Much We Eat (And Drink) Affects Our Risk of Cancer]</ref>
"Deaths from heart disease greatly exceed those caused by breast cancer. Each year more than 500,000 American women die of heart disease, compared with 43,500 who die from breast cancer. According to a large long-term study published in December by the American Cancer Society, having one drink a day raises a woman's risk of dying of breast cancer by 11 percent but diminishes overall mortality by 20 percent because of alcohol's protective effects on the heart. Dr. Smith-Warner and her colleagues noted, however, that there are ways other than drinking alcohol to reduce a woman's cardiac risk, including regular exercise, maintaining a normal body weight, controlling blood pressure and cholesterol, not smoking and taking aspirin."<ref>Brody, Jane E. [http://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?res=940CE6D9143FF93BA25751C0A96E958260&sec=health&spon=&pagewanted=1 Studies confirm relationship of alcohol to breast cancer] ''New York Times'', [[February 18]], 1998</ref> However, this statement should not be taken to conclude that the 9 percent difference allows one to justify alcohol use solely because it is good for your heart. The American Institute for Cancer Research states that while evidence that drinking modest amounts of alcohol is associated with a lower risk for coronary heart disease in men, and perhaps women, drinking higher amounts of alcohol raises the risk of cancer along with risks for high blood pressure, stroke, heart disease, birth defects, inflammation of the pancreas, damage to the brain and heart, malnutrition, osteoporosis, accidents, violence and suicide. The American Institute for Cancer Research further states that there are better ways to decrease your heart disease risk, including exercising, reaching and maintaining a healthy weight, lowering saturated fats and trans fats in your diet, controlling blood pressure and not smoking.<ref>[http://www.healthcastle.com/alcoholandcancer.shtml Alcohol and Cancer: What is the link between alcohol and cancer risk?<!-- Bot generated title -->]</ref>
"Folate intake counteracts breast cancer risk associated with alcohol consumption"<ref>Mayo Clinic news release [[June 26]] 2001 [http://www.mayoclinic.org/news2001-rst/857.html "Folate Intake Counteracts Breast Cancer Risk Associated with Alcohol Consumption"]</ref> and "women who drink alcohol and have a high folate intake are not at increased risk of breast cancer".<ref>Boston University [http://www.bu.edu/act/alcoholandhealth/issues/issue_may04/html/04-0506-ellison_baily.html "Folate, Alcohol, and Cancer Risk"]</ref> Those who have a high (200 micrograms or more per day) level of [[folate]] (folic acid or Vitamin B9) in their diet are not at increased risk of breast cancer compared to those who abstain from alcohol.<ref>[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&dopt=Citation&list_uids=10235158 "A prospective study of folate intake and the risk of breast cancer"]</ref> A study of over 17,000 Australian women aged 40-69 over a period of about ten years found that those who consumed 40 grams of alcohol (about three to four drinks) per day have a higher risk of breast cancer than do women who abstain from alcohol.
However, in women who take 200 micrograms of folate or folic acid (Vitamin B9) every day, the risk of breast cancer drops below that of alcohol abstainers. <ref> Baglietto, Laura, ''et al''. Does dietary folate intake modify effect of alcohol consumption on breast cancer risk? Prospective cohort study. ''British Medical Journal'', August 8, 2005 </ref> See [[Folic acid]] for more.
A study on mice suggests that, when breast cancer is established, drinking as little as two alcoholic drinks a day increases the growth rate of tumors. Alcohol causes cancer cells' blood vessels to grow which in turn fuels the growth of the tumor, a process known as [[angiogenesis]].<ref>BBC News [http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/health/6611009.stm?ls Drinking 'fuels growth of tumour'] 1 May 2007</ref>
===== Breast cancer in men =====
Male breast cancer is uncommon and, in Western populations, the incidence is less than one case per 100,000 men.<ref>[http://www.cancerindex.org/clinks3m.htm Male Breast Cancer]</ref> There is no evidence to suggest that the effect of alcohol varies between genders.
"Heavy alcohol intake increases the risk of breast cancer in men."<ref>[http://www.cancer.org/docroot/CRI/content/CRI_2_4_2X_What_are_the_risk_factors_for_male_breast_cancer_28.asp?sitearea= What Are the Risk Factors for Breast Cancer in Men?]</ref> "If you drink heavy amounts of alcohol, you have a greater risk of breast cancer."<ref>[http://www.mayoclinic.com/health/male-breast-cancer/DS00661/DSECTION=4 Male breast cancer: Risk factors]</ref>
==== Colorectal cancer ====
[[Image:Colon cancer 2.jpg|thumb|200px|right|[[Colectomy]] specimen containing an invasive [[colorectal carcinoma]] (the crater-like, reddish, irregularly-shaped tumor).]]
[[Colorectal cancer]] refers to cancers of the colon or rectum. Colorectal cancer constitutes about 9.7% of all cancers.<ref name=acs2006/> The WCRF panel report ''Food, Nutrition, Physical Activity and the Prevention of Cancer: a Global Perspective'' finds the evidence "convincing" that alcoholic drinks increase the risk of colorectal cancer in men<ref name=WCRF/> The [[National Cancer Institute]] states, "Heavy alcohol use may also increase the risk of colorectal cancer" <ref>[[National Cancer Institute]] (NCI) Cancer Trends Progress Report [http://progressreport.cancer.gov/doc_detail.asp?pid=1&did=2007&chid=71&coid=706&mid= Alcohol Consumption]</ref>
The NIAAA reports that, "Epidemiologic studies have found a small but consistent dose-dependent association between alcohol consumption and colorectal cancer<ref>Longnecker, M.P. Alcohol consumption in relation to risk of cancers of the breast and large bowel. ''Alcohol Health & Research World'' ''16(3)':223-229, 1992.</ref><ref>Longnecker, M.P.; Orza, M.J.; Adams, M.E.; Vioque, J.; and Chalmers, T.C. [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&dopt=Citation&list_uids=2151680 A meta-analysis of alcoholic beverage consumption in relation to risk of colorectal cancer] ''Cancer Causes and Control'' ''1(1)'':59-68, 1990.</ref>even when controlling for fiber and other dietary factors.<ref>Kune, S.; Kune, G.A.; and Watson, L.F. [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_uids=3808969&dopt=Abstract Case-control study of alcoholic beverages as etiological factors: The Melbourne Colorectal Cancer Study] ''Nutrition and Cancer'' ''9(1)'':43-56, 1987.</ref><ref>Potter, J.D., and McMichael, A.J. [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_uids=3007842&dopt=Abstract Diet and cancer of the colon and rectum: A case-control study] ''Journal of the National Cancer Institute'' ''76(4)'':557-569, 1986.</ref> Despite the large number of studies, however, causality cannot be determined from the available data."<ref name=aa21/>
"Heavy alcohol use may also increase the risk of [[colorectal cancer]]" (NCI). One study found that "People who drink more 30 grams of alcohol per day (and especially those who drink more than 45 grams per day) appear to have a slightly higher risk for colorectal cancer."<ref>[http://www.annals.org/cgi/content/summary/140/8/603 Alcohol Consumption and the Risk for Colorectal Cancer]</ref><ref>[http://www.annals.org/cgi/reprint/140/8/603.pdf Alcohol Intake and Colorectal Cancer: A Pooled Analysis of 8 Cohort Studies]</ref> Another found that "The consumption of one or more alcoholic beverages a day at baseline was associated with approximately a 70% greater risk of colon cancer."<ref>Boston University [http://www.bu.edu/act/alcoholandhealth/issues/issue_may05/saitz_su.html "Alcohol May Increase the Risk of Colon Cancer"]</ref><ref>Su LJ, Arab L. [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=Abstract&list_uids=15623458 Alcohol consumption and risk of colon cancer: evidence from the National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey I Epidemiologic Follow-Up Study]. ''Nutr and Cancer''. 2004;50(2):111–119.</ref><ref>Cho E, Smith-Warner SA, Ritz J, van den Brandt PA, Colditz GA, Folsom AR, Freudenheim JL, Giovannucci E, Goldbohm RA, Graham S, Holmberg L, Kim DH, Malila N, Miller AB, Pietinen P, Rohan TE, Sellers TA, Speizer FE, Willett WC, Wolk A, Hunter DJ [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?itool=abstractplus&db=pubmed&cmd=Retrieve&dopt=abstractplus&list_uids=15096331 Alcohol intake and colorectal cancer: a pooled analysis of 8 cohort studies] ''Ann Intern Med'' 2004 Apr 20;140(8):603-13</ref>
One study found that "While there was a more than twofold increased risk of significant colorectal neoplasia in people who drink spirits and beer, people who drank wine had a lower risk. In our sample, people who drank more than eight servings of beer or spirits per week had at least a one in five chance of having significant colorectal neoplasia detected by screening colonoscopy.".<ref>Joseph C. Anderson, Zvi Alpern, Gurvinder Sethi, Catherine R. Messina, Carole Martin, Patricia M. Hubbard, Roger Grimson, Peter F. Ells, and Robert D. Shaw [http://www.amjgastro.com/showContent.asp?DID=4&SessionGUID=B9E28C55-3C9E-4DAC-9DBD-A5DECC905F45&id=ajg_4183292005&type=abstract Prevalence and Risk of Colorectal Neoplasia in Consumers of Alcohol in a Screening Population] ''Am J Gastroenterol'' Volume 100 Issue 9 Page 2049 Date September 2005</ref>
Other research suggests that "to minimize your risk of developing colorectal cancer, it's best to drink in moderation"<ref name=aa21/>
The EPIC study suggests that "people who drink 15 grams of alcohol a day - equivalent to about two units - have about a 10 percent increased risk of bowel cancer. Those who drank more than 30 grams of alcohol - equivalent to three to four units which is less than a couple of pints of strong lager - increased their bowel cancer risk by around 25 per cent."
<ref>[http://info.cancerresearchuk.org/news/pressreleases/2007/july/345512 Booze boosts bowel cancer risk]</ref><ref>[http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/health/6921998.stm Alcohol link to bowel cancer risk]</ref>
A study found, "The proportion of patients with adenomas was 29.6% in abstainers, 22.1% in moderate drinkers, and 36.7% in heavy drinkers." It concluded "Consumption of less than seven alcohol drinks per week does not increase the risk of having a colorectal adenoma. We found evidence in this study that moderate alcohol consumption among long-term smokers may potentially decrease the risk of an adenoma compared to abstainers."<ref>Austin GL, Galanko JA, Martin CF, Sandler RS. [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17510802 Moderate alcohol consumption protects against colorectal adenomas in smokers] Dig Dis Sci. 2008 Jan;53(1):116-22. PMID: 17510802</ref>
A Japanese study concluded, "One fourth of colorectal cancer cases in men were attributable to an alcohol intake of ≥23 g/day."<ref>Tetsuya Mizoue, Manami Inoue, Kenji Wakai, Chisato Nagata, Taichi Shimazu, Ichiro Tsuji, Tetsuya Otani, Keitaro Tanaka, Keitaro Matsuo, Akiko Tamakoshi, Shizuka Sasazuki, Shoichiro Tsugane [http://aje.oxfordjournals.org/cgi/content/abstract/kwn073 Alcohol Drinking and Colorectal Cancer in Japanese: A Pooled Analysis of Results from Five Cohort Studies] A''merican Journal of Epidemiology'' doi:10.1093/aje/kwn073</ref>
Drinking may be a cause of earlier onset of colorectal cancer.<ref>Brown, Anthony J. [http://www.oncolink.com/resources/article.cfm?c=3&s=8&ss=23&id=12988&month=03&year=2006 Alcohol, tobacco, and male gender up risk of earlier onset colorectal cancer]</ref>
=== Heavy alcohol consumption appears to increase risk ===
==== Liver cancer ====
[[Image:hepatocellular carcinoma 1.jpg|thumb|200px|right|Hepatocellular carcinoma in an individual that was [[hepatitis C]] positive. [[Autopsy]] specimen.]]
The NIAAA reports that "Prolonged, heavy drinking has been associated in many cases with primary [[Hepatocellular carcinoma|liver cancer]]." However, it is liver cirrhosis, whether caused by alcohol or another factor, that is thought to induce the cancer."<ref>Takada, A.; Takase, S.; and Tsutsumi, M. Alcohol and hepatic carcinogenesis. In: Yirmiya, R., and Taylor, A.N., eds. ''Alcohol, Immunity, and Cancer''. Boca Raton, FL: CRC Press, 1993. pp. 187-209.</ref><ref>Villa, E.; Melegari, M.; and Manenti, F. Alcohol, viral hepatitis, and hepatocellular carcinoma. In: Watson, R.R., ed. ''Alcohol and Cancer''. Boca Raton, FL: CRC Press, 1992. pp. 151–165</ref>
"The chances of getting [[Hepatocellular carcinoma|liver cancer]] increase markedly with five or more drinks per day" (NCI). (Drinking coffee may reduce the risk. "Coffee drinking was inversely associated with HCC regardless of its aetiology."<ref>Umberto Gelattia, Loredana Covoloa, Michela Franceschinia, Francesco Piralia, Alessandro Taggerb, Maria Lisa Riberoc, Paola Trevisia, Claudia Martellia, Giuseppe Nardia, Francesco Donatoa [http://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0168827805000127 Coffee consumption reduces the risk of hepatocellular carcinoma independently of its aetiology: a case-control study] ''Journal of Hepatology'' Volume 42, Issue 4, April 2005, Pages 528-534 doi:10.1016/j.jhep.2004.11.039</ref> "These data support the hypothesis that there is an ingredient in coffee that protects against cirrhosis, especially alcoholic cirrhosis."<ref>Arthur L. Klatsky; Cynthia Morton; Natalia Udaltsova; Gary D. Friedman [http://archinte.ama-assn.org/cgi/content/abstract/166/11/1190 Coffee, Cirrhosis, and Transaminase Enzymes] ''Arch Intern Med'' 2006;166:1190-1195</ref>)
In areas of Africa and Asia, liver cancer afflicts 50 or more people per 100,000 per year, usually associated with cirrhosis caused by hepatitis viruses. In the United States, liver cancer is relatively uncommon, afflicting approximately 2 people per 100,000, but excessive alcohol consumption is linked to as many as 36% of these cases by some investigators<ref name=Rothman/><ref>Duffy, S.W., and Sharples, L.D. Alcohol and cancer risk. In: Duffy, J.L., ed. ''Alcohol and Illness: The Epidemiological Viewpoint''. Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press, 1992. pp. 64-127.'</ref><ref name=aa21/> "Mortality rates of hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) are high in Italy compared with other Western countries. … Overall, 61% of HCC were attributable to HCV [hepatitis C virus], 13% to HBV [hepatitis B virus], and 18% to heavy alcohol drinking."<ref>Franceschi S, Montella M, Polesel J, La Vecchia C, Crispo A, Dal Maso L, Casarin P, Izzo F, Tommasi LG, Chemin I, Trepo C, Crovatto M, Talamini R [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=pubmed&cmd=Retrieve&dopt=AbstractPlus&list_uids=16614109&query_hl=22&itool=pubmed_docsum Hepatitis viruses, alcohol, and tobacco in the etiology of hepatocellular carcinoma in Italy] ''Cancer Epidemiol Biomarkers Prev'' 2006 Apr;15(4):683-9</ref> A study in the province of [[Brescia]], northern Italy concluded, "On the basis of population attributable risks (AR), heavy alcohol intake seems to be the single most relevant cause of HCC in this area (AR: 45%), followed by HCV (AR: 36%), and HBV (AR: 22%) infection."<ref>Donato F, Tagger A, Chiesa R, Ribero ML, Tomasoni V, Fasola M, Gelatti U, Portera G, Boffetta P, Nardi G
[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?itool=abstractplus&db=pubmed&cmd=Retrieve&dopt=abstractplus&list_uids=9303486 Hepatitis B and C virus infection, alcohol drinking, and hepatocellular carcinoma: a case-control study in Italy. Brescia HCC Study] ''Hepatology'' 1997 Sep;26(3):579-84</ref>
Liver and intrahepatic bile duct cancers combined account for about 2.8% of all cancers.<ref name=acs2006/>
==== [[Ovarian cancer]] ====
"Associations were also found between alcohol consumption and cancers of the ovary …, but only for 50 g and 100 g a day."<ref name=bandolier/> "Thus, the results of this study suggest that relatively elevated alcohol intake (of the order of 40 g per day or more) may cause a modest increase of epithelial ovarian cancer risk."<ref>La Vecchia C, Negri E, Franceschi S, Parazzini F, Gentile A, Fasoli M. [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=pubmed&cmd=Retrieve&dopt=AbstractPlus&list_uids=1432017&query_hl=2&itool=pubmed_DocSum Alcohol and epithelial ovarian cancer] ''J Clin Epidemiol'' 1992 Sep;45(9):1025-30.</ref> "This pooled analysis does not support an association between moderate alcohol intake and ovarian cancer risk."<ref>J M Genkinger, D J Hunter, D Spiegelman, K E Anderson, J E Buring, J L Freudenheim, R A Goldbohm, L Harnack, S E Hankinson, S C Larsson, M Leitzmann, M L McCullough, J Marshall, A B Miller, C Rodriguez, T E Rohan, A Schatzkin, L J Schouten, A Wolk, S M Zhang and S A Smith-Warner [http://www.nature.com/bjc/journal/v94/n5/abs/6603020a.html Alcohol intake and ovarian cancer risk: a pooled analysis of 10 cohort studies] ''British Journal of Cancer'' (2006) 94, 757-762. doi:10.1038/sj.bjc.6603020</ref>
=== Evidence is inconsistent and inconclusive===
==== [[Endometrial cancer]] ====
[[Image:Endometrial adenocarcinoma gross.jpg|thumb|200px|right|An ''endometrial adenocarcinoma'' invading the uterine muscle.]]
There's scientific medical consensus that alcohol doesn't increase the chance for having endometrial cancer. The National Cancer Institute <ref> http://www.cancer.gov/cancertopics/pdq/treatment/endometrial/patient</ref> and other authoritative scientific medical groups such as the American Cancer Society<ref>http://www.cancer.org/docroot/CRI/content/CRI_2_4_2X_What are_the_risk_factors_for_endometrial-cancer.asp?rnav+cri</ref> the American Academy of Famuily Physicians<ref>http://familydoctor.org/online/famdocen/home/common/cancer/types/021.html#ArticleParsysMiddleColumn0002</ref> and the Sloan-Kettering Cancer Center<ref>http://www,mskcc.org/mskcc/html/13172.cfm</ref> do not consider alcohol a risk for endometrial cancer, based on the totality of available evidence.
"Thirteen studies to date have reported on the relationship between endometrial cancer and alcohol consumption. Only two of these studies have reported that endometrial cancer incidence is associated with consumption of alcohol; all the others have reported either no definite association, or an inverse association." (Six studies showed an inverse association; that is, drinking was associated with a lower risk of endometrial cancer) "…if such an inverse association exists, it appears to be more pronounced in younger, or premenopausal, women."<ref>UK Department of Health ''[http://www.advisorybodies.doh.gov.uk/pdfs/alcend.pdf Review of Alcohol: Association with Endometrial Cancer]'' p8</ref> "Our results suggest that only alcohol consumption equivalent to 2 or more drinks per day increases risk of endometrial cancer in postmenopausal women."<ref>Veronica Wendy Setiawan, Kristine R. Monroe, Marc T. Goodman, Laurence N. Kolonel, Malcolm C. Pike, Brian E. Henderson [http://www3.interscience.wiley.com/cgi-bin/abstract/116311064/ABSTRACT Alcohol consumption and endometrial cancer risk: The multiethnic cohort] ''International Journal of Cancer'' Volume 122, Issue 3 , Pages 634 - 638 10.1002/ijc.23072</ref>
Endometrial plus all other uterine cancers account for about 1.9% of all cancers.<ref name=acs2006/>
====[[Gallbladder cancer]]====
"It is concluded that high intake of alcoholic beverages is associated with the development of liver and gall bladder cancers among workers."<ref>Ji JianGuang, Couto, E., Hemminki, K [http://www.cababstractsplus.org/google/abstract.asp?AcNo=20053137041 Incidence differences for gallbladder cancer between occupational groups suggest an etiological role for alcohol] ''Int J Cancer'' 2005 Sep 1;116(3):492-3.</ref>. <!-- "Variation in the risk for liver and gallbladder cancers in socioeconomic and occupational groups in Sweden with etiological implications". Int Arch Occup Environ Health 78 (8): 641-9) -->
A study of female gallbladder cancer patients in [[Kerala]], [[India]] found that 10% consumed alcohol.<ref>PANDEY M.; SHUKLA V. K. [http://cat.inist.fr/?aModele=afficheN&cpsidt=15068448 Lifestyle, parity, menstrual and reproductive factors and risk of gallbladder cancer] ''European journal of cancer prevention'' 2003, vol. 12, no4, pp. 269-272 </ref> Another study found no relationship between alcohol consumption and the disease.<ref>Zatonski WA, La Vecchia C, Przewozniak K, Maisonneuve P, Lowenfels AB, Boyle P [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_uids=1612778&dopt=Abstract Risk factors for gallbladder cancer: a Polish case-control study] ''Int J Cancer'' 1992 Jul 9;51(5):707-11 PMID: 1612778</ref>
"There was no clear association between alcohol consumption and the risk. … Drinking may pose an elevated risk among men, but that seems to be less true among women."<ref>Yagyu K, Kikuchi S, Obata Y, Lin Y, Ishibashi T, Kurosawa M, Inaba Y, Tamakoshi A; JACC Study Group [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/sites/entrez?db=pubmed&uid=17955487&cmd=showdetailview&indexed=google Cigarette smoking, alcohol drinking and the risk of gallbladder cancer death: a prospective cohort study in Japan] ''Int J Cancer'' 2008 Feb 15;122(4):924-9 PMID: 17955487</ref>
==== [[Leukemia]] ====
[[Leukemia]] (British spelling: leukaemia). There is no association between drinking alcohol and adult leukemia.
“Results from the few studies that have examined the association between alcohol use during pregnancy and childhood leukemia are conflicting,” reported a study that found an association."<ref>Boston University [http://www.bu.edu/act/alcoholandhealth/issues/issue_may06/guerriero_menegaux.htm Can Drinking During Pregnancy Raise the Risk of Childhood Leukemia?]</ref> A review published by the National Cancer Institute placed maternal alcohol consumption during pregnancy in the category of “suggestive” and asserts that it is “unlikely to be an important risk factor.” <ref>Malcolm A. Smith, Lynn A. Gloeckler Ries, James G. Gurney, Julie A. Ross [http://seer.cancer.gov/publications/childhood/leukemia.pdf Leukemia] ''SEER Pediatric Monograph'' National Cancer Institute</ref>
Leukemia constitutes about 7.8% of all cancers.<ref name=acs2006/>
==== [[Lung cancer]] ====
Drinking isn't a risk for lung cancer according to the analyses of scientific research by the American Lung Association <ref>http://www.lungusa.org/site/pp.asp?c=dvLUK9O0E&b=35427#what</ref> and other medical groups that have analyzed the totality of medical evidence <ref> http://www.cancer.gov/cancertopics/wyntk/lung/page4</ref> <ref>http://www.cancer.org/docroot/CRI/content/CRI_2_2_2X_What_causes_Non-small_Cell_Lung_Cancer.asp?sitearea=</ref> <ref>http://www.cancer.org/docroot?CRI/CRI_What_Causes_Small_Cell_Lung_Cancer.asp?sitearea+</ref><ref> http://www.ascocancerfoundation.org/patient/Cancer+Types/Lung+Cancer</ref>
"Globally, lung cancer is the most frequent malignancy in males, while it is the fifth most common cancer in females." [http://64.233.161.104/search?q=cache:nYLpSqhqaGUJ:www.emedicine.com/med/topic1336.htm+oat+cell+cancer&hl=en&gl=us&ct=clnk&cd=1] It is a major cause of death, constituting about 28.8% of all cancers.<ref name=acs2006/> The NIAA reports that “A few studies have linked chronic heavy drinking with cancers of the stomach, pancreas, and '''lungs''' (International Agency for Research on cancer). However, the association is consistently weak and the majority of studies have found no association (International Agency for Research on Cancer).”<ref name=aa21/>
Chronic heavy alcohol consumption possibly increases the risk of lung cancer, but the evidence is inadequate to date.<ref name=ccnsw>Cancer Council New South Wales [http://www.cancercouncil.com.au/editorial.asp?pageid=1775 Alcohol and Cancer]</ref>
Commenting on a study by Freudenheim ''et al''<ref>Freudenheim JL, Ritz J, Smith-Warner SA, ''et al.'' [http://www.ajcn.org/cgi/content/abstract/82/3/657 Alcohol consumption and risk of lung cancer: a pooled analysis of cohort studies]. ''Am J Clin Nutr''. 2005;82(3):657–667.</ref> R. Curtis Ellison MD writes, "This study, like others, suggests a weak, positive association between consuming larger amounts of alcohol (>2 drinks a day) and lung cancer risk."<ref>Boston University [http://www.bu.edu/act/alcoholandhealth/issues/issue_jan06/ellison_freudenheim.htm Alcohol Consumption and Lung Cancer: Are They Connected?]</ref>
====[[Malignant melanoma]]====
Alcohol isn't among the risks for malignant melanoma identified by the National Cancer Institute <ref>http://www.cancer.gov/cancertopics/wyntk/skin/page4</ref> and other medical organizations<ref>http://www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/ency/article/000850.html#Causes,%20incidence,%20and%20risk%20factors</ref><ref>http:www.skincancer.org/melanoma/index.php</ref><ref>http://www.ascocancerfoundation.org/patient/Cancer+Types/Melanoma</ref> after their assessments of the published scientific evidence.
"In interview data from the U.S.A.'s Third National Cancer Survey, alcohol ingestion was associated with a higher occurrence of cancers of the breast, thyroid, and [[malignant melanoma]]. Data from other studies support the first two associations."<ref name=prolactin>Williams RR. [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_uids=57445&dopt=Abstract Breast and thyroid cancer and malignant melanoma promoted by alcohol-induced pituitary secretion of prolactin, T.S.H. and M.S.H.] Lancet. 1976 May 8;1(7967):996-9</ref> "High alcohol consumption was associated with an increased risk for melanoma, which remained after adjustment for confounders…".<ref>Amy E. Millen, Margaret A. Tucker, Patricia Hartge, Allan Halpern, David E. Elder, DuPont Guerry, IV4, Elizabeth A. Holly, Richard W. Sagebiel Nancy Potischman [http://cebp.aacrjournals.org/cgi/content/full/13/6/1042 Diet and Melanoma in a Case-Control Study] ''Cancer Epidemiology Biomarkers & Prevention'' Vol. 13, 1042-1051, June 2004</ref> Other studies suggest there is no association for melanoma. "The risk of malignant melanoma was not influenced by alcohol consumption or smoking habits."<ref>Westerdahl J, Olsson H, Masback A, Ingvar C, Jonsson N [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_uids=8624275&dopt=Abstract Risk of malignant melanoma in relation to drug intake, alcohol, smoking and hormonal factors] ''Br J Cancer'' 1996 May;73(9):1126-31.</ref> "There was no evidence that … alcohol or polyunsaturated fats were associated with an increased risk."<ref>Kirkpatrick, Constance S.; White, Emily; Lee, John A.H. [http://aje.oxfordjournals.org/cgi/content/abstract/139/9/869 Case-Control Study of Malignant Melanoma in Washington State] ''American Journal of Epidemiology'' Vol. 139, No. 9: 869-880</ref>
There is no association between alcohol and Nonmelanoma [[skin cancer]].
==== [[Non-Hodgkin lymphoma]] (NHL) ====
Some studies find no association between alcohol and NHL. "Alcohol does not appear to be a major etiologic factor for overall NHL, nor its common subtypes."<ref>Ellen T. Chang, Karin Ekström Smedby, Shumin M. Zhang, Henrik Hjalgrim, Mads Melbye, Åke Öst, Alicja Wolk, Hans-Olov Adami1 and Bengt Glimelius [http://www.springerlink.com/content/r53456v694617208/ Alcohol intake and risk of non-Hodgkin lymphoma in men and women] ''Cancer Causes and Control'' Volume 15, Number 10 / December, 2004 pp1067-1076 DOI 10.1007/s10552-004-2234-2</ref> "NHL was not associated with smoking or alcohol, but collaborative studies could further investigate the risks of rarer WHO subtypes following these exposures."<ref>Eleanor V Willett, Alexandra G. Smith, Gareth J. Dovey, Gareth J. Morgan, Jan Parker and Eve Roman [http://www.springerlink.com/content/q5680600v5133715/ Tobacco and Alcohol Consumption and the Risk of Non-Hodgkin Lymphoma] ''Cancer Causes and Control'' Volume 15, Number 8 / October, 2004 771-780 DOI 10.1023/B:CACO.0000043427.77739.60</ref>
Some studies suggest a higher risk of NHL from alcohol. "…beer drinkers showed an increased OR of 5.5 (95% 1.1-26.7) in men. It could be concluded that … beer and 'mate' drinking are risk factors for NHL in the Uruguayan population."<ref>De Stefani E, Fierro L, Barrios E, Ronco A [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/9652731?dopt=Abstract Tobacco, alcohol, diet and risk of non-Hodgkin's lymphoma: a case-control study in Uruguay] ''Leuk Res''. 1998 May;22(5):445-52 PMID: 9652731</ref>
Other studies have suggested a protective effect in some groups. "The results of this large-scale European study … did not support an association between tobacco and NHL and suggested a protective effect of alcohol on development of NHL for men and in non-Mediterranean countries."<ref>Herve Besson, Paul Brennan, Nikolaus Becker, Alexandra Nieters, Silvia De Sanjosé, Rebeca Font, Marc Maynadié, Lenka Foretova, Pierluigi L. Cocco, Anthony Staines, Martine Vornanen, Paolo Boffetta [http://www3.interscience.wiley.com/cgi-bin/abstract/112550036/ABSTRACT Tobacco smoking, alcohol drinking and non-Hodgkin's lymphoma: A European multicenter case-control study (Epilymph)] ''International Journal of Cancer'' Volume 119, Issue 4 , Pages 901 - 908</ref> "These data suggest that moderate alcohol consumption is inversely associated with the risk of NHL in older women and the amount of alcohol consumed, rather than the type of alcoholic beverages, appears to be the main effect determinant."<ref>Chiu BC, Cerhan JR, Gapstur SM, Sellers TA, Zheng W, Lutz CT, Wallace RB, Potter JD [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/10424754?dopt=Abstract Alcohol consumption and non-Hodgkin lymphoma in a cohort of older women] ''Br J Cancer'' 1999 Jul;80(9):1476-82</ref> In contrast, another study concluded, "These data show that consumption of wine, but not of beer or spirits, is associated with a reduced NHL risk."<ref>Nathaniel C. Briggs, Robert S. Levine, Linda D. Bobo, William P. Haliburton, Edward A. Brann and Charles H. Hennekens [http://aje.oxfordjournals.org/cgi/content/abstract/156/5/454 Wine Drinking and Risk of Non-Hodgkin’s Lymphoma among Men in the United States: A Population-based Case-Control Study] ''Am J Epidemiol'' 2002; 156:454-462. PMID: 12196315</ref>
A meta-review concluded, "People who drink alcoholic beverages might have a lower risk of NHL than those who do not, and this risk might vary by NHL subtype. Further study designs are needed to determine whether confounding lifestyle factors or immunomodulatory effects of alcohol explain this association."<ref>Morton LM, Zheng T, Holford TR, Holly EA, Chiu BC, Costantini AS, Stagnaro E, Willett EV, Dal Maso L, Serraino D, Chang ET, Cozen W, Davis S, Severson RK, Bernstein L, Mayne ST, Dee FR, Cerhan JR, Hartge P; InterLymph Consortium [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=Abstract&list_uids=15992695&query_hl=1 Alcohol consumption and risk of non-Hodgkin lymphoma: A pooled analysis] ''Lancet Oncology'', June 8, 2005.</ref>
"In the present study, heavy tobacco smoking, and particularly, heavy alcohol drinking were associated with poor survival in NHL patients. Our findings strongly encourage physicians to advice NHL patients to stop smoking and diminish alcohol consumption to obtain improvements in the course of NHL."<ref>Renato Talamini, Jerry Polesel, Michele Spina, Emanuela Chimienti, Diego Serraino, Antonella Zucchetto, Ernesto Zanet, Silvia Franceschi, Umberto Tirelli [http://www3.interscience.wiley.com/cgi-bin/abstract/117356350/ABSTRACT The impact of tobacco smoking and alcohol drinking on survival of patients with non-Hodgkin lymphoma] ''International Journal of Cancer'' Volume 122, Issue 7, Pages 1624 - 1629</ref>
The cancer is the sixth most common in the USA.
==== [[Prostate cancer]] ====
The Prostate Cancer Foundation <ref>http://www.prostatecancerfoundation.org/atf/cf/%7B705B3273-F2EF-4EF6-A653-E15C5D8BB6B1%7D/IntroProstateCancer.pdf</ref> and other research groups <ref>http://www.cancer.org/docroot/CRI_2_2_2X_
+ what_causes_prostate_cancer_36.asp?rnav=cri </ref> <ref>http://www.ascocancerfoundation.org/patient/Cancer+Types/Prostate+Cancer</ref><ref> http://mayoclinic.com/health/prostate-cancer/DS00043/DSECTION=4</ref> have evaluated the medical research literature and concluded that alcohol isn't a risk for prostate cancer.
"Associations were also found between alcohol consumption and cancers of the ovary and prostate, but only for 50 g and 100 g a day."<ref name=bandolier>[http://www.jr2.ox.ac.uk/bandolier/booth/hliving/alccan.html Alcohol consumption and cancer risk]</ref> However, one study concludes, "In contrast to the majority of previous studies, we found a positive association between moderate alcohol consumption and the risk of prostate cancer. Liquor, but not wine or beer, consumption was positively associated with prostate cancer."<ref>Sesso, Howard D; Paffenbarger Jr, Ralph S; Lee, I-Min [http://ije.oxfordjournals.org/cgi/content/full/30/4/749 Alcohol consumption and risk of prostate cancer: The Harvard Alumni Health Study] International Journal of Epidemiology 2001;30:749-755</ref>
The [[Fred Hutchinson Cancer Research Center]] "found that men who consumed four or more glasses of red wine per week reduced their risk of prostate cancer by 50 percent". They "found no significant effects — positive nor negative — associated with the consumption of beer or hard liquor and no consistent risk reduction with white wine, which suggests that there must be a beneficial compound in red wine that other types of alcohol lack. That compound … may be an antioxidant called [[resveratrol]], which is abundant in the skins of red grapes.".<ref>[[Fred Hutchinson Cancer Research Center]] press release [http://www.fhcrc.org/about/ne/news/2004/09/22/red_wine.html A Glass of Red Wine a Day May Keep Prostate Cancer Away]</ref><ref>Schoonen WM, Salinas CA, Kiemeney LA, Stanford JL. [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=Abstract&list_uids=15386436 Alcohol consumption and risk of prostate cancer in middle-aged men] ''Int J Cancer''. 2005 Jan 1;113(1):133-40.</ref>
Prostate cancer accounts for about 4.8% of all cancers.<ref name=acs2006/>
==== [[Thyroid cancer]] ====
Alcohol isn't considered a risk for thyroid cancer by the American Thyroid Association <ref>http://www.thyroid.org/patients/patient_brochures/cancer_of_thyroid.html</ref> and other medical organizations that have evaluated the existing research evidence. <ref>http://www.cancer.gov/cancertopics/wyntk/thyroid/page5</ref><ref>http://www.cancer.org/docroot/CRI/content/CRI_2_4_2X_
+ what_are_the_risk_factors_for_thyroid_cancer_43.asp?sitearea=</ref>
"In interview data from the U.S.A.'s Third National Cancer Survey, alcohol ingestion was associated with a higher occurrence of cancers of the breast, thyroid, and malignant melanoma. Data from other studies support the first two associations."<ref name=prolactin/> Another study suggests that drinking in moderation significantly reduces the risk of some malignant tumors such as thyroid cancer in women.<ref>Rossing, M.A., Cushing, K.L., Voight, L.F., and Wicklund, K.G. [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_uids=10615843&dopt=Abstract Risk of papillary thyroid cancer in women in relation to smoking and alcohol consumption] ''Epidemiology'', 2000, ''11'', 49-54.</ref> However, another study concludes, "A reduced risk associated with alcohol was eliminated after adjustment for smoking…".<ref>Mack WJ, Preston-Martin S, Dal Maso L, Galanti R, Xiang M, Franceschi S, Hallquist A, Jin F, Kolonel L, La Vecchia C, Levi F, Linos A, Lund E, McTiernan A, Mabuchi K, Negri E, Wingren G, Ron E. [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=citation&list_uids=14674742 A pooled analysis of case-control studies of thyroid cancer: cigarette smoking and consumption of alcohol, coffee, and tea.] Cancer Causes Control. 2003 Oct;14(8):773-85.</ref>
===Alcohol consumption is not suspected to increase risk===
==== [[Bile duct]] cancer ====
"The use of alcohol and coffee was not related to risk of extrahepatic bile duct cancer."<ref>Stella Yen, Chung-Cheng Hsieh, Brian Macmahon [http://www3.interscience.wiley.com/cgi-bin/abstract/112684044/ABSTRACT Extrahepatic bile duct cancer and smoking, beverage consumption, past medical history, and oral-contraceptive use] ''Cancer'' Volume 59, Issue 12 , Pages 2112 - 2116</ref><!--
AU: Stella Yen, Chung-Cheng Hsieh, Brian Macmahon
TI: Extrahepatic bile duct cancer and smoking, beverage consumption, past medical history, and oral-contraceptive use
SO: Cancer
VL: 59
NO: 12
PG: 2112-2116
YR: 1987
CP: Copyright © 1987 American Cancer Society
ON: 1097-0142
PN: 0008-543X
AD: Department of Epidemiology, Harvard School of Public Health, Boston, Massachusetts
DOI: 10.1002/1097-0142(19870615)59:12<2112::AID-CNCR2820591226>3.0.CO;2-H
US: http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/1097-0142(19870615)59:12<2112::AID-CNCR2820591226>3.0.CO;2-H --> "We found limited evidence for an excess risk of intrahepatic, but not for extrahepatic, biliary duct cancer."<ref>Hannah Kuper, Weimin Ye, Ulrika Broomé, Anders Romelsjö, Lorelei A. Mucci, Anders Ekbom, Hans-Olov Adami, Dimitrios Trichopoulos, Olof Nyrén [http://www3.interscience.wiley.com/cgi-bin/abstract/106597418/ABSTRACT The risk of liver and bile duct cancer in patients with chronic viral hepatitis, alcoholism, or cirrhosis] ''Hepatology'' Volume 34, Issue 4 , Pages 714 - 718</ref>
==== [[Bladder cancer]] ====
The consensus of scientific medical opinion is that alcohol doesn't increase the risk for bladder cancer. The National Cancer Institutehttp://www.cancer.gov/cancertopics/wyntk/bladder/page4</ref> and other medical organizations<ref>http://www.cancer.org/docroot/CRI/content/CRI_2_4_2X-What_are_therisk_factors_for_bladder_cancer_44.asp</ref><ref>http://www.oncolink.com/types/article.cfm?c=21&s=66&ss=768&id=9464</ref><ref>http://www.cancer.net/patient/Cancer+Types/Bladder+Cancer</ref><ref>hppt://www.cancerhelp.org.uk/help/default.asp?page_2695#risk</ref> have determined that alcohool doesn't increase the chance of getting bladder cancer based on their analyses of the scientific data
"Our data suggest that total and beverage-specific alcohol consumption are not associated with an increased risk of bladder cancer."<ref>Djousse L, Schatzkin A, Chibnik LB, D'Agostino RB, Kreger BE, Ellison RC. [http://jncicancerspectrum.oxfordjournals.org/cgi/content/full/jnci;96/18/1397 Alcohol consumption and the risk of bladder cancer in the Framingham Heart Study]. ''J Natl Cancer Inst.'' 2004 Sep 15;96(18):1397-400.</ref> A Dutch study concludes, "The results of this study do not suggest an important association between alcohol consumption and bladder cancer risk."<ref>Zeegers, Maurice P. A.; Volovics, Alex; Dorant, Elisabeth; Goldbohm, R. Alexandra; van den Brandt, Piet A. [http://aje.oxfordjournals.org/cgi/content/full/153/1/38 Alcohol Consumption and Bladder Cancer Risk: Results from the Netherlands Cohort Study] ''American Journal of Epidemiology'' Vol. 153, No. 1 : 38-41</ref>
Bladder cancer represents about 2.3% of all cancers.
==== [[Pancreatic cancer]] ====
That drinking isn't a behavior that increases the risk for pancreatic cancer is the consensus of medical judgment. The Pancreatic Cancer Center at Johns Hopkins University<ref>http://pathology.jhu.edu/pancreas/BasicRisk.php?area=ba</ref>and other health groups <ref>http://cancer.gov/cancertopics/wyntk/pancreas/page4</ref><ref>http://www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/pancreaticcancer.html</ref><ref>http://www.cancer.net/patient/Cancer+Types/Pancreatic+Cncer</ref> after reviewing the medical research evidence.
"A few studies have linked chronic heavy drinking with cancers of the stomach, pancreas, and lungs. However, the association is consistently weak and the majority of studies have found no association", write the NIAAA,<ref name=aa21/> citing the [[International Agency for Research on Cancer]]..<ref>[[American Cancer Society]] [http://www.cancer.org/docroot/NWS/content/update/NWS_1_1xU_Coffee_and_Alcohol_Do_Not_Pose_a_Risk_for_Pancreatic_Cancer.asp Coffee and Alcohol Do Not Pose a Risk for Pancreatic Cancer]</ref> Alcohol has been reported as a possible risks in some (but not in most) studies.<ref>Ahlgren, J. D., ''et al''. [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_uids=8623060&dopt=Abstract Epidemiology and risk factors in pancreatic cancer] ''Seminars in Oncology'', 1996, ''23(2)'', 241-250.</ref> Drinking alcohol excessively is a cause of [[acute pancreatitis]] and [[chronic pancreatitis]]. "About 7 out of 10 cases of chronic pancreatitis are due to long term heavy drinking. Chronic pancreatitis is a known risk factor for cancer of the pancreas. But chronic pancreatitis that is due to alcohol doesn't increase risk as much as other types of chronic pancreatitis. So if there is a link with alcohol and pancreatic cancer risk, it is only very slight."<ref>[[Cancer Research UK]] [http://www.cancerhelp.org.uk/help/default.asp?page=3102#alcohol Pancreatic cancer risks and causes]</ref>
Pancreatic cancer constitutes about 5.7% of all cancers.
==== [[Stomach cancer]] ====
As indicated above, the NIAA reports that “A few studies have linked chronic heavy drinking with cancers of the '''stomach''', pancreas, and lungs (International Agency for Research on cancer). However, the association is consistently weak and the majority of studies have found no association (International Agency for Research on Cancer).”<ref name=aa21/>
Alcohol consumption, even when chronic and heavy, probably does not affect the risk of stomach cancer.<ref name=ccnsw/>
==== [[Vulva]]r cancer ====
The medical research evidence doesn't indicate that alcohol increases the risk of developing vulvar cancer, according to reviews of the existing research by the National Cancer Institute<ref>http:www.cancer.gov/cancertopics/pdg/treatment/vulvar/patient/#Keypoint2</ref>and other major organizations<ref>http://www.cancer.org/docroot/cri/content/cri_2_4_2x_what_are_the_risk_factors_for_vulvar_cancer_45.asp</ref><ref>http://www.oncolink.org21%ss=804&id=9509</ref><ref>http://familydoctor.org/online/famdocen/home/common/cancer/types/753.html</ref>
"No consistent association emerged between milk, meat, liver, alcohol and coffee consumption and risk of vulvar cancer."<ref>Parazzini F, Moroni S, Negri E, La Vecchia C, Dal Pino D, Cavalleri E [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=pubmed&cmd=Retrieve&dopt=AbstractPlus&list_uids=8635034&query_hl=2&itool=pubmed_DocSum Selected food intake and risk of vulvar cancer] ''Cancer'' 1995 Dec 1;76(11):2291-6.</ref>
===Alcohol consumption might reduce risk===
==== [[Hodgkin's lymphoma]] (HL) ====
One study concluded, "Our study indicates a protective effect of alcohol consumption for nonsmoking HL cases."<ref>{{cite journal |last=Gorini |first=G |authorlink= |coauthors=E Stagnaro, V Fontana, L Miligi, V Ramazzotti, D Amadori, S Rodella, R Tumino, P Crosignani, C Vindigni, A Fontana, P Vineis, and A Seniori Costantini |year=2007 |month= |title=Alcohol consumption and risk of Hodgkin's lymphoma and multiple myeloma: a multicentre case–control stud |journal=Annals of Oncology |volume=18 |issue=1 |pages=143–148 |doi=10.1093 |url=http://annonc.oxfordjournals.org/cgi/content/abstract/18/1/143 |accessdate= |quote=|format=abstract|pmid=17047000|doi_brokendate=2008-06-23 }}</ref>
==== [[Kidney]] cancer ([[Renal cell carcinoma]]) (RCC)====
"Moderate alcohol consumption was associated with a lower risk of renal cell cancer among both women and men in this pooled analysis."<ref>Jung Eun Lee, David J. Hunter, Donna Spiegelman, Hans-Olov Adami, Demetrius Albanes, Leslie Bernstein, Piet A. van den Brandt, Julie E. Buring, Eunyoung Cho, Aaron R. Folsom, Jo L. Freudenheim, Edward Giovannucci, Saxon Graham, Pamela L. Horn-Ross, Michael F. Leitzmann, Marjorie L. McCullough, Anthony B. Miller, Alexander S. Parker, Carmen Rodriguez, Thomas E. Rohan, Arthur Schatzkin, Leo J. Schouten, Mikko Virtanen, Walter C. Willett, Alicja Wolk, Shumin M. Zhang, Stephanie A. Smith-Warner [http://jnci.oxfordjournals.org/cgi/content/abstract/99/10/801 Alcohol Intake and Renal Cell Cancer in a Pooled Analysis of 12 Prospective Studies] ''JNCI Journal of the National Cancer Institute'' 2007 99(10):801-810; doi:10.1093/jnci/djk181</ref> "This pooled analysis found an inverse association between alcohol drinking and RCC. Risks continued to decrease even above eight drinks per day (i.e. >100 g/day) of alcohol intake, with no apparent levelling in risk."<ref>C. Pelucchi, C. Galeone, M. Montella, J. Polesel, A. Crispo, R. Talamini, E. Negri1, V. Ramazzotti, M. Grimaldi, S. Franceschi and C. La Vecchia [http://annonc.oxfordjournals.org/cgi/content/abstract/mdm590v1 Alcohol consumption and renal cell cancer risk in two Italian case–control studies] ''Annals of Oncology'' doi:10.1093/annonc/mdm590</ref>
"Results from our prospective cohort study of middle-aged and elderly women indicate that moderate alcohol consumption may be associated with decreased risk of RCC."<ref>Rashidkhani, B., Åkesson, A., Lindblad, P, and Wolk, A. [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_uids=15957170&dopt=Abstract Alcohol consumption and risk of renal cell carcinoma: A prospective study of Swedish women] ''International Journal of Cancer'', 2005 (December 10), ''117(5)'', 848–853</ref>
A small study concluded that its "findings suggest an inverse association of alcohol consumption and RCC development among women but not among men."<ref>Alexander S. Parker, James R. Cerhan, Charles F. Lynch, Abby G. Ershow and Kenneth P. Cantor [http://aje.oxfordjournals.org/cgi/content/full/155/5/455 Gender, Alcohol Consumption, and Renal Cell Carcinoma] ''American Journal of Epidemiology'' Vol. 155, No. 5 : 455-462</ref> Another small study concluded that "No significant relationship emerged, nor any differences between the sexes."<ref>Pelucchi C, La Vecchia C, Negri E, Talamini R, Franceschi S. [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=retrieve&db=pubmed&list_uids=12457106&dopt=Abstract Alcohol drinking and renal cell carcinoma in women and men] ''Eur J Cancer Prev'' 2002 Dec;11(6):543-5</ref>
=== Alcohol not listed as a risk factor ===
{{col-begin}}
{{col-2}}
* Acute lymphocystic leukemia [http://www.cancer.gov/cancertopics/wyntk/leukemia/page6]
* Acute myeloid leukemia [http://www.cancer.gov/cancertopics/wyntk/leukemia/page6]
* [[Adenoid]] cancer [http://www.healthsystem.virginia.edu/internet/cancer/teampages/moskaluk/ACChome.cfm#e&e] [http://www.oralcancerfoundation.org/facts/rare/ac/index.htm]
* [[Adrenal gland]] cancer [http://www.cancer.gov/cancertopics/types/adrenocortical]
* [[Anal cancer]] [http://www.cancer.gov/cancertopics/pdq/treatment/anal/patient]
* [[Appendix cancer]]<ref>People Living With Cancer [http://www.plwc.org/portal/site/PLWC/menuitem.6067beb2271039bcfd748f68ee37a01d/?vgnextoid=ffb6ea7105daa010VgnVCM100000ed730ad1RCRD&vgnextfmt=cancer Appendix Cancer]</ref>
* [[Bartholin's gland]] cancer Carol A. Johnson, Bartholin's gland cancer, American Family Physician, April, 1989.
* Basal cell carcinoma [http://www.cancer.org/docroot/CRI/content/CRI_2_4_2X_What_are_the_risk_factors_for_skin_cancer_51.asp]
* [[Bile duct]] cancer [http://www.cancer.gov/cancertopics/pdq/treatment/bileduct/patient]
* [[Bladder]] cancer [http://www.cancer.gov/cancertopics/wyntk/bladder/page4]
* [[Bone cancer]] [http://www.cancer.gov/cancertopics/types/bone]
* [[Brain cancer]] [http://www.cancer.gov/cancertopics/wyntk/brain/page8]
* [[Central nervous system]] cancer (craniopharyngioma) [http://www.oncolink.com/types/article.cfm?c=14&s=77&ss=782&id=9488]
* [[Cervical cancer]] [http://www.yourdiseaserisk.harvard.edu/hccpquiz.pl?lang=english&func=show&quiz=cervical&page=risk_list]
* Chordoma [http://chordomafoundation.org/chordoma]
* Chrondosarcoma [http://www.cancer.gov/cancertopics/factsheet/sites-types/bone]
* Chronic lymphocystic leukemia [http://www.cancer.gov/cancertopics/wyntk/leukemia/page6]
* Chronic myeloid leukemia [http://www.cancer.gov/cancertopics/wyntk/leukemia/page6]
* Ewing's family of tumors [http://www.cancer.gov/cancertopics/pdq/treatment/ewings/patient]
* Extragonal germ cell cancer [http://www.cancer.gov/cancertopics/pdq/treatment/extragonadal-germ-cell/patient#Keypoint2]
* Extrahepatic [[bile duct cancer]] [http://www.cancer.gov/cancertopics/pdq/treatment/bileduct/patient]
* [[Eye cancer]] [http://www.cancer.gov/cancertopics/pdq/treatment/retinoblastoma/patient] [http://www.cancer.gov/cancertopics/pdq/treatment/intraocularmelanoma/patient]
* [[Fallopian tube]] cancer [http://www.oncolink.com/types/article.cfm?c=6&s=49&ss=801&id=9502]
* Gastrointestinal carcinoid tumors [http://www.cancer.org/docroot/CRI/content/CRI_2_4_2X_What_are_the_risk_factors_for_gastrointestinal_carcinoid_tumors.asp?rnav=cri]
* Gastrointestinal stromal cell tumors [http://www.cancer.org/docroot/CRI/content/CRI_2_4_2X_What_are_the_risk_factors_for_Gastrointestinal_Stromal_Tumors.asp?rnav=cri]
* Hairy cell leukemia [http://www.cancer.gov/cancertopics/pdq/treatment/hairy-cell-leukemia/patient/#Keypoint2]
* [[Kaposi's sarcoma]] [http://www.cancer.gov/cancertopics/pdq/treatment/kaposis/patient]
{{col-break}}
* [[Lung]] cancer [http://www.cancer.gov/cancertopics/wyntk/lung/page4]
* [[Melanoma]] [http://www.cancer.org/docroot/CRI/content/CRI_2_4_2X_What_are_the_risk_factors_for_melanoma_50.asp]
* Malignant [[mesothelioma]] [http://www.cancer.gov/cancertopics/pdq/treatment/malignantmesothelioma/patient]
* Multiple myeloma [http://www.cancer.gov/cancertopics/wyntk/myeloma/page4]
* [[Nasal cavity]] and paranasal sinus cancer [http://www.cancer.gov/cancertopics/pdq/treatment/paranasalsinus]
* Osteosarcoma [http://www.cancer.gov/cancertopics/factsheet/sites-types/bone]
* [[Carcinoma of the penis|Penile cancer]][http://www.cancer.gov/cancertopics/pdq/treatment/penile/patient]
* [[Pancreas]] or pancreatic cancer [http://www.cancer.gov/cancertopics/wyntk/pancreas/page4]
* [[Pituitary gland]] cancer [http://www.oncolink.com/types/article.cfm?c=4&s=9&ss=819&id=9538]
* [[Pleuropulmonary blastoma]] [http://www.cancer.gov/cancertopics/pdq/treatment/unusual-cancers-childhood/Patient/page3#Section_27]
* [[Prostate]] cancer [http://www.cancer.gov/cancertopics/wyntk/prostate/page4]
* Retinoblastoma [http://www.mayoclinic.com/health/retinoblastoma/DS00786/DSECTION=4]
* [[Salivary gland]] cancer [http://www.cancer.org/docroot/cri/content/cri_2_2_2x_what_causes_salivary_gland_cancer_can_it_be_prevented_54.asp?sitearea=cri]
* Sipple's syndrome [http://cancerweb.ncl.ac.uk/cgi-bin/omd?Sipple's+syndrome]
* [[Skin cancer]] [http://www.cancer.gov/cancertopics/pdq/treatment/skin/patient#Keypoint2]
* [[Small intestine]] cancer [http://www.cancer.gov/cancertopics/pdq/treatment/smallintestine/patient#Keypoint3]
* Soft tissue cancers [http://www.cancer.gov/cancertopics/factsheet/Sites-Types/soft-tissue-sarcoma]
* [[Spine]] or spinal cancer [http://www.back.com/causes-tumors.html]
* Squamous cell carcinoma [http://www.cancer.org/docroot/CRI/content/CRI_2_4_2X_What_are_the_risk_factors_for_skin_cancer_51.asp]
* [[Stomach]] cancer [http://www.cancer.gov/cancertopics/wyntk/stomach/page4]
* [[Testicular cancer]][http://www.cancer.gov/cancertopics/pdq/treatment/testicular/patient#Keypoint2]
* [[Thymus]] cancer [http://www.cancer.org/docroot/cri/content/cri_2_4_2x_what_are_the_risk_factors_for_thymus_cancer_42.asp?sitearea=ped]
* [[Thyroid]] cancer [http://www.cancer.gov/cancertopics/wyntk/thyroid/page5]
* Transitional cell cancer of renal pelvis and ureter [http://www.oncolink.com/types/article.cfm?c=21&s=68&ss=544&id=9090#_1]
* [[Urethra]] or urethral cancer [http://www.urologychannel.com/urethralcancer/riskfactors.shtml]
* [[Vagina]]l cancer [http://www.cancer.gov/cancertopics/pdq/treatment/vaginal/patient#Keypoint2]
* Wilms tumor [http://www.cancer.org/docroot/CRI/content/CRI_2_4_2X_What_are_the_risk_factors_for_Wilms_tumor_46.asp]
{{col-end}}
== Recommended maximum alcohol intake ==
{{main|Recommended maximum intake of alcoholic beverages}}
As outlined above, there is no recommended alcohol intake with respect to cancer risk alone as it varies with each individual cancer. See [[Recommended maximum intake of alcoholic beverages]] for a list of governments' guidances on alcohol intake which, for a man, range from 140–280g per week.
One meta-analysis suggests that risks of cancers may start below the recommended levels. "Risk increased significantly for drinkers, compared with non-drinkers, beginning at an intake of 25 g (< 2 standard drinks) per day for the following: cancers of the oral cavity and pharynx (relative risk, RR, 1.9), esophagus (RR 1.4), larynx (RR 1.4), breast (RR 1.3), liver (RR 1.2), colon (RR 1.1), and rectum (RR 1.1)"<ref>[http://www.bu.edu/act/alcoholandhealth/issues/issue_sept04/html/92004saitz_corrao.html Alcohol and Serious Consequences: Risks Increase Even With “Moderate” Intake]</ref><ref>Corrao G, Bagnardi V, Zambon A, et al. [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=Abstract&list_uids=15066364 A meta-analysis of alcohol consumption and the risk of 15 diseases] Prev Med. 2004;38(5):613–619</ref>
<!-- Alternatively, the actual quantities of alcohol associated with negative effects may be substantially higher than generally reported because participants in medical research studies tend to underestimate and underreport their usual amounts of alcohol consumption.<ref>Purdue, L., and Shoemaker, W. ''The French Paradox and Beyond''. Sonoma, CA: Renaissance Publishing, 1992, p. 57.</ref> -->
===Relative health risks===
An increase in risk of a particular cancer through drinking needs to balanced against the benefits of '''moderate''' drinking on reducing heart attacks. See [[Alcohol and cardiovascular disease]] for more. There are, of course, many ways of reducing your risk of a heart attack either without, or in addition to, drinking alcohol, such as controlling your weight, eating an appropriate diet, and exercising. Balancing such risks is a personal decision that should be discussed with one’s own physician.
==References==
{{reflist|2}}
* International Agency for Research on Cancer. IARC Monographs on the Evaluation of Carcinogenic Risks to Humans. Vol. 44. United Kingdom: World Health Organization, 1988.
==External links==
;Government and international bodies
* International: [[International Agency for Research on Cancer]] [http://www.iarc.fr/ home page]
* Australia: ''Cancer Control Bulletin'' [http://www.sesiahs.health.nsw.gov.au/publications/cancerControl/26%20Alcohol.PDF Alcohol and cancer risk] (PDF format)
* Canada: [[Public Health Agency of Canada]] / Agence de santé publique du Canada [http://www.phac-aspc.gc.ca/publicat/cbci-iccs01/index.html Review of Lifestyle and Environmental Risk Factors for Breast Cancer] (Contents and Introduction) [http://www.phac-aspc.gc.ca/publicat/cbci-iccs01/pdf/cbci_summary_report.pdf PDF] (full report in PDF format)
* UK: Committee on Carcinogenicity of Chemicals in Food, Consumer Products [http://www.advisorybodies.doh.gov.uk/COC/alco04.htm Consumption of alcoholic beverages and risk of breast cancer]
* UK: Committee on Carcinogenicity of Chemicals in Food, Consumer Products [http://www.advisorybodies.doh.gov.uk/alcbrst.htm Evidence for association between consumption of alcoholic beverages and breast cancer]
* US: [[National Institute on Alcohol Abuse and Alcoholism]] [http://pubs.niaaa.nih.gov/publications/aa21.htm Alcohol Alert No. 21-1993 Alcohol and cancer]
* US: [http://www.cancer.gov National Cancer Institute]
* US: National Toxicology Program ''Report on Carcinogens, Eleventh Edition'' [http://ntp.niehs.nih.gov/ntp/roc/eleventh/profiles/s007alco.pdf Alcoholic Beverage Consumption] (PDF)
* US: Ohio Department of Health [http://www.odh.ohio.gov/ASSETS/8BF4AFA3FB6849749452C92F4BCD1B45/Alcohol.pdf Alcohol and cancer] (PDF format)
;Cancer charities
* Australia: The Cancer Council Australia [http://www.cancer.org.au//File/Cancersmartlifestyle/Alcoholandcancerprevention.pdf Alcohol and cancer prevention]
* Australia: The Cancer Council Victoria [http://www.cancervic.org.au/preventing-cancer/avoid-alcohol Alcohol & cancer risk]
* Australia: Cancer Council New South Wales [http://www.cancercouncil.com.au/editorial.asp?pageid=1775 Alcohol and Cancer]
* New Zealand: Cancer Society of New Zealand [http://www.cancernz.org.nz/Uploads/CSNZ_PS_Alcohol.pdf Alcohol and cancer]
* United Kingdom: [[Cancer Research UK]]: [http://info.cancerresearchuk.org/healthyliving/alcohol/?a=5441 Alcohol and cancer]
* United Kingdom: [[Cancer Research UK]]: [http://info.cancerresearchuk.org/healthyliving/alcohol/howdoweknow/ Alcohol and cancer: the evidence]
* USA: [[American Cancer Society]] [http://www.cancer.org/docroot/nws/content/update/nws_1_1xu_alcohol_increases_hormone_levels__raising_breast_cancer_risk.asp "Alcohol Increases Hormone Levels, Raising Breast Cancer Risk"]
;Other sites
* Toronto Cancer Prevention Coalition Alcohol Work Group [http://www.apolnet.ca/resources/pubs/rpt_Alcohol&Cancer.pdf Report on the Links between Alcohol and Cancer] (PDF format)
* Alcohol in Moderation [http://www.drinkingandyou.com/site/uk/health/cancer.htm Alcohol & Cancer]
* [http://www.healthcastle.com/alcoholandcancer.shtml Alcohol and Cancer]
;Science sites
* [[Fred Hutchinson Cancer Research Center]] [http://www.fhcrc.org/about/ne/news/2003/10/30/alcohol.html Alcohol Use Increases the Risk of Hormonally Sensitive Breast Cancers in Postmenopausal Women]
[[Category:Alcohol abuse|Cancer]]
[[Category:Oncology]]
[[Category:IARC Group 1 carcinogens]]