Alexis Carrel
1051
222656586
2008-06-30T13:42:29Z
Lansey
660275
Replaced Nobel Prize icon, and its location, with one that appears to be more standard,
{{Infobox Medical Person
|name =Alexis Carrel
|box_width =
|image =Alexis Carrel.jpg
|image_width =200px
|caption =
|birth_date =[[June 28]] [[1873]]
|birth_place =[[Sainte-Foy-lès-Lyon, France|Sainte-Foy-lès-Lyon]], [[Lyon]], [[France]]
|death_date ={{death date and age|1944|11|5|1873|6|28}}
|death_place =
|profession =[[Surgeon]], [[Biologist]], [[Eugenicist]]
|specialism = [[transplantology]], [[thoracic surgery]]
|research_field =
|known_for = New techniques in [[Blood vessel|vascular]] sutures and pioneering work in transplantology and thoracic surgery.
|years_active =
|education =
|religion = Roman Catholic
|work_institutions =[[University of Chicago]]<br>[[Rockefeller University|Rockefeller Institute for Medical Research]].
|prizes = [[Image:Nobel prize medal.svg|20px]] [[Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine]](1912)
|relations =
}}
'''Alexis Carrel''' ([[June 28]], [[1873]] - [[November 5]], [[1944]]) was a [[French people|French]] surgeon, biologist and [[eugenicist]], who was awarded the [[Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine]] in 1912.
== Biography ==
Born in [[Sainte-Foy-lès-Lyon, France|Sainte-Foy-lès-Lyon]], [[Lyon]], Carrel practiced in France and in the United States at the [[University of Chicago]] and the [[Rockefeller University|Rockefeller Institute for Medical Research]]. He developed new techniques in [[Blood vessel|vascular]] sutures and was a pioneer in [[transplantology]] and [[thoracic surgery]]. Alexis Carrel was also a member of [[learned societies]] in the U.S., Spain, Russia, Sweden, the Netherlands, Belgium, France, Vatican City, Germany, Italy and Greece and received honorary doctorates from [[Queen's University Belfast|Queen's University of Belfast]], [[Princeton University]], California, New York, [[Brown University]] and [[Columbia University]]. He collaborated with American physician [[Charles Claude Guthrie]] in work on vascular suture and the transplantation of blood vessels and organs as well as the [[head transplant|head]], and Carrel was awarded the 1912 [[Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine]] for these efforts.<ref> [http://nobelprize.org/medicine/laureates/1912/index.html Nobelprize.org] </ref> Due to his close proximity with [[Jacques Doriot]]'s fascist [[Parti Populaire Français|PPF]] during the 1930s and his role in implementing eugenics policies during Vichy France, he was accused after the Liberation of collaborationism, but died before the trial.
== Contributions to science ==
=== Suturing blood vessels ===
During the [[First World War]] (1914-1918), Carrel and the English chemist [[Henry Drysdale Dakin]] developed the Carrel-Dakin method of treating wounds based on chlorine (Dakin's solution) which, preceding the development of [[antibiotics]], was a major medical advance in the care of traumatic wounds. For this, Carrel was awarded the [[Légion d'honneur]].
=== Organ transplants ===
Carrel co-authored a book with famed pilot [[Charles A. Lindbergh]], ''The Culture of Organs'', and worked with Lindbergh in the mid-1930s to create the "perfusion pump," which allowed living organs to exist outside of the body during surgery. The advance is said to have been a crucial step in the development of [[open-heart surgery]] and [[organ transplants]], and to have laid the groundwork for the [[artificial heart]], which became a reality decades later<ref>[http://www.pbs.org/wnet/redgold/innovators/bio_carrel2.html Red Gold . Innovators & Pioneers . Alexis Carrel | PBS<!-- Bot generated title -->]</ref>. Some critics of Lindbergh claimed that Carrel overstated Lindbergh's role to gain media attention,<ref> (Wallace, ''American Axis'' p. 101) </ref> but other sources say Lindbergh played an important role in developing the device<ref>http://mbbnet.umn.edu/doric/lindbergh.html</ref><ref>http://www.charleslindbergh.com/heart</ref>. Both Lindbergh and Carrel appeared on the cover of [[Time (magazine)|Time magazine]] on [[June 13]], [[1938]].
=== Cellular Senescence ===
Carrel was also interested in the phenomenon of [[senescence]], or aging. He claimed that all cells continued to grow indefinitely, and this became a dominant view in the early twentieth century.<ref name="Fossel2004">{{cite book | url = http://books.google.com/books?id=UYeUk9m9yeQC&pg=PA24&sig=UQYSI7zRB8WYtkV-2yosc6GK28w | title = Cells, Aging, and Human Disease | first = Michael B. | last = Fossel | publisher = Oxford University Press | year = 2004 }}; page 24.</ref> Carrel was especially famous for an experiment<ref>A. Carrel, ''On the permanent life of tissues outside of the organism'', Journal of Experimental Medicine, (1912) 15 pp.516-528.</ref> begun on [[January 17]], [[1912]]. To defend his idea, Carrel placed tissue cultured from an [[embryo]]nic chicken heart in a stoppered [[Pyrex]] flask of his own design, and maintained the living culture for over 20 years with regular supplies of nutrient. This was longer than a chicken's normal lifespan. The experiment, which was conducted at the [[Rockefeller University|Rockefeller Institute for Medical Research]], attracted considerable popular and scientific attention.
Carrel's famous experiment was never fully replicated (although other researchers obtained mutated "immortal" strains), and in the 1960s research by [[Leonard Hayflick]] and [[Paul Moorhead]] proposed that earlier researchers were wrong, and that [[Cellular differentiation|differentiated cells]] can only undergo a limited number of divisions before dying. This is known as the [[Hayflick limit]], and is now a pillar of biology.<ref name="Fossel2004"/>
It is not certain how Carrel obtained his anomalous results. [[Leonard Hayflick]] suggests that the daily feeding of nutrient was continually introducing new living cells to the alleged immortal culture.<ref>{{cite journal | title = Mortality and Immortality at the Cellular Level. A Review. | first = L. | last = Hayflick | journal = Biochemistry (Mosc) | year = 1997 | month = Nov | volume = 62 | issue = 11 | pages = 1180–1190 | url = http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/sites/entrez?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_uids=9467840&dopt=Citation }}</ref> J. A. Witkowski has argued that,<ref>{{cite journal | title = Dr. Carrel's immortal cells. | first = JA | last = Witkowski | url = http://www.pubmedcentral.nih.gov/articlerender.fcgi?artid=1082700 | year = 1980 | volume = 24 | issue = 2 | pages = 129–142 | journal = Medical History | pmid = 6990125 }}</ref> while "immortal" strains of visibly mutated cells have been obtained by other experimenters, a more likely explanation is deliberate introduction of new cells into the culture, possibly without Carrel's knowledge.<ref> Witkowsky explanation is actually based on the account of a visiting medical researcher, Ralph Buchbaum, who reports being told by a technician in Carrel's lab "Dr. Carrel would be so upset if we lost the strain, we just add a few embryo cells now and then". After the first six months, Carrel's colleague Albert Ebeling had actually taken charge of the cultures and published several papers about their development, until they were eventually discarded in 1946. Witkowsky, in "Dr. Carrel's immortal cells", op. cit., quotes Buchbaum's account. At the end Buchbaum writes that "I told this story, of my visit to Carrel's laboratory, to various people. Dr. Bloom (''Buchbaum's director of research in Chicago'')refused to believe it. Others chuckled gleefully. Dr. Carrel was to blame only in that he did not keep on top of what was really going on in the laboratory (mostly, he wrote the papers). Dr. Parker and Dr. Ebeling probably suspected something, hence the "retirement". In the interest of truth and science, the incident should have been thoroughly investigated. If it had been, some heads might have rolled, sacrificed to devotion to a wrong hypothesis - immortality of cell strains.". Witkowsky also reports a Dr. Margaret Murray telling him that "one of Carrel's technicians of that time was passionately anti-fascist and detested Carrel's political and social ideas" and expressing her belief that "that this technician would willingly have discredited Carrel scientifically if possible.".</ref>
=== Honors ===
In 1972, the Swedish Post Office honored Carrel with a stamp that was part of its Nobel stamp series.<ref>[http://nobelprize.org/nobel/stamps/1972.html The Nobel Stamps of 1972<!-- Bot generated title -->]</ref> In 1979, the [[lunar crater]] [[Carrel (crater)|Carrel]] was named after him as a tribute to his scientific breakthroughs.
In February 2002 the Medical University of South Carolina at Charleston, within the celebrations for the Lindbergh 100th birthday established the Lindbergh-Carrel Prize<ref>[http://research.musc.edu/lindbergh/prize.htm Charles Lindbergh Symposium<!-- Bot generated title -->]</ref>, given to major contributors to "development of perfusion and bioreactor technologies for organ preservation and growth". M. E. DeBakey and 9 other scientists<ref>[http://research.musc.edu/lindbergh/laureates.htm Charles Lindbergh Symposium<!-- Bot generated title -->]</ref> received the prize, a bronze statuette espressly created for the event by the Italian artist C. Zoli and named "Elisabeth"<ref>[http://www.fondazionecarrel.org Foundation Alexis Carrel for thoracic and cardiovascular researches<!-- Bot generated title -->]</ref> after Elisabeth Morrow, sister of Lindbergh's wife Anne Morrow, died due to heart disease. Lindbergh in fact was disappointed that contemporary medical technology could not provide an artificial heart pump which would allow for heart surgery on her and that gave the occasion for the first contact between Carrel and Lindbergh.
== ''"Man, The Unknown''" (1935) ==
In 1935, Carrel published a best-selling book titled ''L'Homme, cet inconnu'' (''Man, The Unknown'') which advocated, in part, that mankind could better itself by following the guidance of an elite group of intellectuals, and by implementing a regime of enforced [[eugenics]]. [[Sociology|Sociologist]] [[Roger Caillois]] quoted and paraphrased ''L'Homme, cet inconnu'' in ''The Edge of Surrealism'': " '(p)resent-day [[proletarian]]s owe their status to inherited intellectual and physical defects' (sancta simplicitas). And he [Carrel] suggests that this state of affairs should be accentuated through appropriate measures, so as to correlate social and biological inequalities more precisely. Society would then be directed by a hereditary aristocracy composed of descendants from the Crusaders, the heroes of the Revolution, the great criminals, the financial and industrial magnates" (p. 360).
Carrel advocated the use of [[gas chambers]] to rid humanity of "inferior stock", thus endorsing the [[scientific racism]] [[discourse]]. His endorsement of this idea began in the mid-1930s, prior to the [[Nazi]] implementation of such practices in Germany. In the 1936 German introduction of his book, at the publishers request, he added the following praise of the Nazi regime which did not appear in the editions in other languages:
<blockquote> ''"(t)he German government has taken energetic measures against the propagation of the defective, the mentally diseased, and the criminal. The ideal solution would be the suppression of each of these individuals as soon as he has proven himself to be dangerous."''<ref> Quoted in Reggiani, p. 339 </ref></blockquote>
Carrel also wrote:
<blockquote>''"(t)he conditioning of petty criminals with the whip, or some more scientific procedure, followed by a short stay in hospital, would probably suffice to insure order. Those who have murdered, robbed while armed with automatic pistol or machine gun, kidnapped children, despoiled the poor of their savings, misled the public in important matters, should be humanely and economically disposed of in small euthanasic institutions supplied with proper gasses. A similar treatment could be advantageously applied to the insane, guilty of criminal acts.".''<ref> quoted on p. 11 of Szasz as A.Carrel, ''Man, The Unknown'' (Harper and Brothers, NY; (1950))</ref></blockquote>
== Alexis Carrel under Vichy ==
In 1937, Carrel joined [[Jean Coutrot]]’s ''Centre d’Etudes des Problèmes Humains'' - Coutrot’s aim was to develop what he called an "economic humanism" through "collective thinking." In 1941, through connections to the [[Pétain]] cabinet (specifically, French industrial physicians [[André Gros]] and Jacques Ménétrier) he went on to advocate for the creation of the ''Fondation Française pour l’Etude des Problèmes Humains'' (French Foundation for the Study of Human Problems) which was created by [[decree]] of the collaborationist Vichy regime in 1941, and where he served as 'regent'.<ref> (see Andrés Horacio Reggiani, ''Alexis Carrel, the Unknown: Eugenics and Population Research under Vichy'', as well as Caillois, p. 107) </ref> The foundation was at the origin of the [[October 11]], [[1946]] law, enacted by the [[GPRF]] provisional government, which institutionalized the field of [[occupational medicine]]. It worked on [[demographics]] (Robert Gessain, Paul Vincent, Jean Bourgeois), on [[nutrition]] (Jean Sutter), on habitation (Jean Merlet) and on the first [[opinion poll]]s (Jean Stoetzel). "The foundation was chartered as a public institution under the joint supervision of the ministries of finance and public health. It was given financial autonomy and a budget of forty million francs—roughly one franc per inhabitant—a true luxury considering the burdens imposed by the German Occupation on the nation’s resources. By way of comparison, the whole [[Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique]] (CNRS) was given a budget of fifty million francs."<ref> (Reggiani) [http://fhs.dukejournals.org/cgi/reprint/25/2/331] </ref>
According to Gwen Terrenoire, writing in ''Eugenics in France (1913-1941) : a review of research findings'', "The foundation was a pluridisciplinary centre that employed around 300 researchers (mainly statisticians, psychologists, physicians) from the summer of 1942 to the end of the autumn of 1944. After the [[liberation of Paris]], Carrel was suspended by the Minister of Health; he died in November 1944, but the Foundation itself was "purged", only to reappear in a short time as the [[Institut national d’études démographiques]] (INED) that is still active."<ref> Gwen Terrenoire, "''Eugenics in France (1913-1941) : a review of research findings''", Joint Programmatic Commission [[UNESCO]]-ONG Science and Ethics, 2003) [http://ong-comite-liaison.unesco.org/ongpho/acti/3/2/document/8/pdfen.pdf] </ref> Although Carrel himself died on [[November 5]], [[1944]], most members of his team did move to the INED, which was led by famous [[demographist]] [[Alfred Sauvy]], who coined the expression "[[Third World]]". Others joined [[Robert Debré]]'s "[[Institut national d'hygiène]]" (National Hygiene Institute), which later became the [[INSERM]].
== 1990s-2000s debates concerning Carrel ==
Some scholars, such as [[Lucien Bonnafé]], [[Patrick Tort]] and [[Max Lafont]] have accused Carrel of responsibility for the execution of thousands of mentally ill or impaired patients under Vichy. They argue that this policy was inspired by Carrel's advocacy of eugenics. <!-- Other scholars fasdfthat Carrel merely provided intellectual cover for policies that would have been undertaken with or without his advocacy WHO DOES? -->
Carrel's association with Vichy, and the harshness of his advocacy for eugenics, has led to his descent from fame to obscurity. In recent years, [[Jean-Marie le Pen]], leader of the far-right [[National Front (France)|Front National]] party ("National Front"), has become an advocate for Carrel, referring to him as "the first [[environmentalist]], or, if you will, the first modern ecologist, precisely because he committed himself to defining the relationships of natural harmony.".<ref> [[Jean-Marie Le Pen]], ''L'Espoir'' 133-134, cited in Golson, Fascism's Return) </ref> His writings on eugenics are studied "avidly in the training camps of the National Front".<ref> (Lucien Bonnafé and Patrick Tort, ''L'Homme, cet inconnu? Alexis Carrel, Jean-Marie le Pen et les chambres a gaz'' ISBN 978-2907993142)</ref>
In the 1990s, the attention the National Front's support brought to Carrel's [[fascist]] associations and controversial views created a series of controversies with respect to streets and institutions named in honor of Carrel. Over 20 French cities and towns, including Paris, renamed streets previously named for Carrel. The controversy came to a head in Lyon, the city next to his birthplace, where he studied medicine. One of the four medicine faculties of the university Claude Bernard - Lyon I had been named in his honor in 1968. ''[[Lyon libération]]'' questioned the wisdom of this. In response to this, in May 1995, the Palais des Congrès of Lyon hosted a conference on Carrel and [[scientific racism]] at which several of the participants accused the inquiry commission of [[whitewashing]] the controversial scientist. In early 1996, after five years of embarrassing publicity, the governing board of the University of Lyon decided to rename its school of medicine after [[René Laënnec]], inventor of the [[stethoscope]]."<ref>[http://fhs.dukejournals.org/cgi/reprint/25/2/331 French Historical Studies - Sign In Page<!-- Bot generated title -->]</ref>
In the United States as well as in France, the 1990s were not kind to Carrel's reputation. In an interview for [[Public Broadcasting Service|PBS]]' ''[[The American Experience]]'', historian [[Arthur Schlesinger, Jr.]] blamed Carrel for [[Charles Lindbergh]]'s increasing racism in the 1930s. Schlesinger stated in response to a question concerning the source of Lindbergh's beliefs on this subject: "I suppose he got a lot of it from Alexis Carrel, the French biologist who had a kind of racial mysticism of a sort."<ref> [http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/amex/lindbergh/filmmore/reference/interview/schlesinger03.html PBS, interview with] [[Arthur Schlesinger, Jr.]] </ref>
== Alexis Carrel and Lourdes ==
Alexis Carrel went from being a skeptic of the visions and miracles reported at [[Lourdes]] to being a believer after experiencing a healing he could not explain. <ref name="Jaki">Rev. [[Stanley Jaki]] [http://www.catholicculture.org/library/view.cfm?id=2866 Two Lourdes Miracles and a Nobel Laureate: What Really Happened?]</ref> To the detriment of his career and reputation among his fellow doctors, he steadfastly reiterated his beliefs<ref name="Jaki">[[Stanley Jaki]] [http://www.catholicculture.org/library/view.cfm?id=2866 Rev. Stanislav Jaki Two Lourdes Miracles and a Nobel Laureate: What Really Happened?]</ref>, and even wrote a book describing his experience.<ref>Alexis Carrel, ''The Voyage to Lourdes'' (New York, Harper & Row, 1939).</ref>
== See also ==
*[[Eugenics]]
*[[Charles Lindbergh]]
==External links==
{{wikiquote}}
* [http://crishunt.8bit.co.uk/alexis_carrel.html Web page about Alexis Carrel]
* [http://nobelprize.org/medicine/laureates/1912/press.html Nobel Prize presentation speech to Dr. Carrel]
* [http://nobelprize.org/medicine/laureates/1912/carrel-bio.html Nobel Prize biography of Dr. Carrel]
* [http://www.fondazionecarrel.org Research Foundation entitled to Alexis Carrel]
* [http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,885802,00.html Data from France] Time Magazine, Oct. 16, 1944
* [http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,801605,00.html Death of Alexis Carrel] Time Magazine Nov. 13, 1944
==Sources==
* Carrel, Alexis. ''Man, The Unknown.'' New York and London: Harper and Brothers. 1935.
* Andrés Horacio Reggiani. ''Alexis Carrel, the Unknown: Eugenics and Population Research under Vichy'' (FRENCH HISTORICAL STUDIES 25:2 SPRING 2002)<ref>http://fhs.dukejournals.org/cgi/reprint/25/2/331</ref>
* Wallace, Max. ''The American Axis: Henry Ford, Charles Lindbergh, and the Rise of the Third Reich'' St. Martin's Press, New York, 2003.
* [[Thomas Szasz|Szasz, Thomas]]. ''The Theology of Medicine'' New York: Syracuse University Press, 1977.
* [[Tariq Ali|Ali, Tariq]]. ''Clash of Fundamentalisms'' Verso, London, 2002
* Choueiri, Youssef. ''Islamic Fundamentalism'' Continuum International Publishing Group, London, 2002.
* Walther, Rudolph. ''Die seltsamen Lehren des Doktor Carrel'', DIE ZEIT 31.07.2003 Nr.32 <ref>http://www.zeit.de/2003/32/A-Carrel</ref>
* Bonnafé, Lucien and Tort, Patrick. ''L'Homme, cet inconnu? Alexis Carrel, Jean-Marie le Pen et les chambres a gaz'' Editions Syllepse, 1996. <ref>http://www.amazon.fr/dp/2907993143</ref> ISBN 2907993143
* Abu-Rabi, Ibrahim M. ''Intellectual Origins of Islamic Resurgence'', SUNY Press, Albany, 1996
* Azmeh, Aziz ([[Aziz Al-Azmeh]]). ''Islams and Modernities'' Verso, London, 1993.
* Berman, Paul. ''Terror and Liberalism'' W. W. Norton, 2003
* [[David Zane Mairowitz]]. "''Fascism à la mode: in France, the far right presses for national purity''", Harper's Magazine; 10/1/1997
* Pioneers of Islamic Revival (edited by Ali Rahnema), Zed Books, London 1994
* Schneider, William. Quality and Quantity: The Quest for Biological Regeneration in Twentieth-Century France, Cambridge Studies in the History of Medicine (chap. 7 French eugenics in the thirties; and 10 Vichy and after)
* Terrenoire, Gwen, [[CNRS]]. ''Eugenics in France (1913-1941) : a review of research findings'' Joint Programmatic Commission UNESCO-ONG Science and Ethics, [[March 24]], [[2003]] <ref>http://ong-comite-liaison.unesco.org/ongpho/acti/3/2/document/8/pdfen.pdf</ref>
== References ==
{{Reflist|2}}
{{Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine Laureates 1901-1925}}
{{DEFAULTSORT:Carrel, Alexis}}
[[Category:1873 births]]
[[Category:1944 deaths]]
[[Category:People from Lyon]]
[[Category:Vichy regime]]
[[Category:Nobel laureates in Physiology or Medicine]]
[[Category:Members of the Pontifical Academy of Sciences]]
[[Category:Members of the French Popular Party]]
[[Category:American physicians]]
[[Category:French Roman Catholics]]
[[Category:American eugenicists]]
[[Category:French eugenicists]]
[[Category:French Nobel laureates]]
[[Category:Légion d'honneur recipients]]
[[ar:ألكسي كاريل]]
[[ca:Alexis Carrel]]
[[cs:Alexis Carrel]]
[[de:Alexis Carrel]]
[[et:Alexis Carrel]]
[[el:Αλεξίς Καρέλ]]
[[es:Alexis Carrel]]
[[fr:Alexis Carrel]]
[[hr:Alexis Carrel]]
[[id:Alexis Carrel]]
[[it:Alexis Carrel]]
[[sw:Alexis Carrel]]
[[hu:Alexis Carrel]]
[[nl:Alexis Carrel]]
[[ja:アレクシス・カレル]]
[[pl:Alexis Carrel]]
[[pt:Alexis Carrel]]
[[ro:Alexis Carrel]]
[[ru:Каррель, Алексис]]
[[fi:Alexis Carrel]]
[[sv:Alexis Carrel]]
[[tr:Alexis Carrel]]
[[zh:亚历克西·卡雷尔]]