Algeria
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[[WP:UNDO|Undid]] revision 226162929 by [[Special:Contributions/121.210.120.244|121.210.120.244]] ([[User talk:121.210.120.244|talk]])
{{Infobox Country
|native_name= <big> الجمهورية الجزائرية الديمقراطية الشعبية</big>
''Al-Jumhūrīyah al-Jazā’irīyah ad-Dīmuqrāṭīyah ash-Sha’bīyah''
''République Algérienne Démocratique et Populaire''
|conventional_long_name =People's Democratic Republic of Algeria
|common_name = Algeria
|national_anthem = [[Kassaman]]''{{spaces|2}}<small>(Arabic)<br/>''The Pledge''</small>
|national_motto = <big> من الشعب و للشعب </big>{{spaces|2}}<small>([[Arabic language|Arabic]])<br/>"From the people and for the people"</small>
|image_flag = Flag of Algeria.svg
|image_coat = Coat of arms of Algeria.svg
|symbol_type = Emblem
|image_map = Location Algeria.svg
|official_languages = [[Arabic language|Arabic]]
|regional_languages = [[Berber languages|Berber]], [[French language|French]]
|capital = [[Algiers]]
|latd=36 |latm=42 |latNS=N |longd=3 |longm=13 |longEW=E
|largest_city = capital
|government_type = [[presidential system|Presidential Republic]]
|leader_title1 = [[President of Algeria|President]]
|leader_name1 = [[Abdelaziz Bouteflika]]
|leader_title2 = [[Prime Minister of Algeria|Prime Minister]]
|leader_name2 = [[Ahmed Ouyahia]]
|sovereignty_type = [[History of Algeria|Establishment]]
|established_event1 = [[Hammadid]] dynasty
|established_date1 = from 1014
|established_event2 = [[Ottoman Empire|Ottoman]] rule
|established_date2 = from 1516
|established_event3 = [[French colonial empires|French]] rule
|established_date3 = from 1830
|established_event4 = Independence from [[France]]
|established_date4 = [[July 5]], [[1962]]
|area_rank = 11th
|area_magnitude = 1 E12
|area_km2 = 2381740
|area_sq_mi = 919595 <!--Do not remove per [[WP:MOSNUM]]-->
|percent_water = negligible
|population_estimate = 33,333,216 <!--July 2007-->
|population_estimate_year = 2007
|population_estimate_rank = 35th
|population_census = 29,100,867
|population_census_year = 1998
|population_density_km2 = 14
|population_density_sq_mi = 36 <!--Do not remove per [[WP:MOSNUM]]-->
|population_density_rank = 196th
|GDP_PPP_year = 2006
|GDP_PPP = $253.4 billion
|GDP_PPP_rank = 38th
|GDP_PPP_per_capita = $8,100 (2007 est.)
|GDP_PPP_per_capita_rank = 88th
|GDP_nominal = $131.026 billion
|GDP_nominal_rank = 48th
|GDP_nominal_year = 2007
|GDP_nominal_per_capita = $3,825
|GDP_nominal_per_capita_rank = 84th
|HDI_year = 2007
|HDI = {{increase}} 0.733
|HDI_rank = 104th
|HDI_category = <font color="#ffcc00">medium</font>
|Gini = 35.3
|Gini_year = 1995
|Gini_category = <font color="#ffcc00">medium</font>
|currency = [[Algerian dinar]]
|currency_code = DZD
|time_zone = [[Central European Time|CET]]
|utc_offset = +1
|time_zone_DST = not observed
|utc_offset_DST =
|demonym = Algerian
|cctld = [[.dz]]
|calling_code = 213
|footnote1 = [[French language|French]] is equally used as an administrative language though not on an official basis. [[Algerian Arabic]], an Arabic vernacular is the most common native language. [[Berber languages]], are recognized as "[[national language]]s", and are co-official in [[Kabylia]] (specifically the [[Kabyle language]].)}}
'''Algeria''' ('''{{lang|ar|الجزائر}}''', ''Al Jaza'ir'' {{IPA2|ælʤæˈzæːʔir}}, [[Berber languages|Berber]]: [[Image:Algeria in Tifinagh.svg]], ''Dzayer'' {{IPA|[ˈdzæjər]}}), officially the '''People's Democratic Republic of Algeria''', is a nation in [[North Africa]]. It is the second largest country on the African continent<ref name="cia">[https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/ag.html ''CIA World Factbook'']</ref> and the 11th largest country in the world in terms of total area.<ref>''CIA World Factbook'' [https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/rankorder/2147rank.html Rank Order - Area]</ref> It is bordered by [[Tunisia]] in the northeast, [[Libya]] in the east, [[Niger]] in the southeast, [[Mali]] and [[Mauritania]] in the southwest, a few kilometers of the [[Western Sahara]] in the west, [[Morocco]] in the northwest, and the [[Mediterranean Sea]] in the north.
Algeria is a member of the [[United Nations]], [[African Union]], [[Arab League]], and [[OPEC]]. It also contributed towards the creation of the [[Arab Maghreb Union]]. [[Constitution of Algeria|Constitutionally]], Algeria is defined as an [[Arab]], and [[Berber people|Amazigh]] (Berber) country.<ref>http://www.apn-dz.org/apn/english/constitution96/preambule.htm Constitution 1996</ref>
== Etymology ==
''Al-jazā’ir'' is itself a truncated form of the city's older name '''jazā’ir banī mazghannā''', "the islands of (the tribe) Bani Mazghanna", used by early medieval geographers such as [[al-Idrisi]] and [[Yaqut al-Hamawi]].
== History ==
{{main|History of Algeria}}
=== Ancient history ===
[[Image:Roman Arch of Trajan at Thamugadi (Timgad), Algeria 04966r.jpg|thumb|left|Roman arch of Trajan at Thamugadi (Timgad), Algeria]]
Algeria has been inhabited by Berbers (or Imazighen) since at least [[10,000 BC]]. After 1000 BC, the [[Carthage|Carthaginians]] began establishing settlements along the coast. The Berbers seized the opportunity offered by the [[Punic Wars]] to become independent of Carthage, and Berber kingdoms began to emerge, most notably [[Numidia]]. In 200 BC, however, they were once again taken over, this time by the [[Roman Republic]]. When the [[Western Roman Empire]] collapsed, Berbers became independent again in many areas, while the [[Vandals]] took control over other parts, where they remained until expelled by the generals of the [[List of Byzantine Emperors|Byzantine Emperor]], [[Justinian I]]. The [[Byzantine Empire]] then retained a precarious grip on the east of the country until the coming of the Arabs in the eighth century.
=== Middle Ages ===
According to historians of the Middle Ages, the Berbers were divided into two branches, from their ancestor Mazigh. The two branches, Botr and Barnès, were also divided into tribes, with each [[Maghreb]] region made up of several tribes.<ref>Histoire des Berbères et des dynasties musulmanes de l'Afrique Septentrionale De Ibn Khaldūn, William MacGuckin</ref><ref> http://books.google.fr/books?id=H3RBAAAAIAAJ&pg=PR2&dq=in+khaldoun#PPR15,M1</ref> Several Berber dynasties emerged during the Middle Ages.<ref>http://books.google.fr/books?id=H3RBAAAAIAAJ&pg=PR115&dq=ibn+khaldoun#PPR10,M1</ref> <ref> Histoire des Berbères et des dynasties musulmanes de l'Afrique Septentrionale De Ibn Khaldūn, William MacGuckin</ref>
The [[Almohad dynasty|Almohad]]s were able to unify the Maghreb. The Berbers of the Middle Ages also contributed to the Arabization of the Maghreb.<ref>Les langues de la Méditerranée De Robert Bistolfi</ref>
=== Islamization and Berber ('''Amaari''') dynasties ===
Having converted the [[Kutama]] of [[Kabylie]] to its cause, the [[Shia Islam|Shia]] [[Fatimid]]s overthrew the [[Rustamid]]s, and conquered Egypt, leaving Algeria and Tunisia to their Zirid vassals. When the latter rebelled and adopted [[Sunni]]sm, the Shia Fatimids sent in the [[Banu Hilal]], a populous Arab tribe, to weaken them. This initiated the [[Arabization]] of the region. The [[Almoravid]]s and [[Almohad]]s, Berber dynasties from the west founded by religious reformers, brought a period of relative peace and development; however, with the Almohads' collapse, Algeria became a battleground for their three [[successor state]]s, the Algerian [[Zayyanid]]s, Tunisian [[Hafsid]]s, and Moroccan [[Marinid]]s. In the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries, the [[Spanish Empire]] started attacking and subsuming a few Algerian coastal settlements.
===Ottoman rule===
Algeria was brought into the [[Ottoman Empire]] by [[Hayreddin Barbarossa]] and his brother [[Oruç Reis|Aruj]] in 1517, and they established Algeria's modern boundaries in the north and made its coast a base for the [[Barbary pirate|Ottoman corsairs]]; their [[privateer]]ing peaked in [[Algiers]] in the 1600s. Piracy on [[United States|American]] vessels in the Mediterranean resulted in the [[First Barbary War|First]] (1801–1805) and [[Second Barbary War]] (1815) with the United States. The piracy acts forced people captured on the boats into [[slavery]]; alternatively when the pirates attacked coastal villages in southern and western Europe the inhabitants were forced into [[Arab slave trade|slavery]].[http://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Gazetteer/Topics/history/American_and_Military/Barbary_Pirates/Britannica_1911*.html Barbary Pirates — Encyclopaedia Britannica, 1911]
Raids by [[Barbary pirate]]s on Western Europe did not cease until 1816, when a [[Royal Navy]] raid, assisted by six Dutch vessels, destroyed the port of Algiers and its fleet of Barbary ships.
[[Spain|Spanish]] occupation by the king and the [[Benabbas family of Sevilla]] of Algerian ports at this time was a source of concern for the local inhabitants.
===French colonization===
[[Image:Constantine Algerien 002.jpg|thumb|left|250px|Constantine, Algeria 1840]]
{{main|French rule in Algeria}}
On the pretext of a slight to their consul, the [[France|French]] invaded [[Algiers]] in 1830.<ref>{{cite book |author=Alistair Horne, |title=A Savage War of Peace: Algeria 1954-1962 (New York Review Books Classics) |publisher=NYRB Classics |location=1755 Broadway, New York, NY 10019 |year=2006 |pages=29-30 |isbn=1-59017-218-3 |oclc= |doi=}}</ref> The conquest of Algeria by the [[France|French]] was long and particularly violent, and it resulted in the disappearance of about a third of the Algerian population.<ref>{{fr icon}} - [http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k103772b http://gallica.bnf.fr/], La démographie figurée de l'Algérie, op.cit., p.260 et 261.</ref> France was responsible for the extermination of 1 million Algerians. According to [[Olivier Le Cour Grandmaison]], the [[France|French]] pursued a policy of extermination against the Algerians.
The [[France|French]] conquest of Algeria was slow due to intense resistance from such people as [[Emir Abdelkader]], [[Ahmed Bey]] and [[Lalla Fatma N'Soumer|Fatma N'Soumer]]. Indeed, the conquest was not technically complete until the early 1900s when the last [[Tuareg]] were conquered.
Meanwhile, however, the French made Algeria an integral part of France, a status that would end only with the collapse of the [[French Fourth Republic|Fourth Republic]] in 1958. Tens of thousands of settlers from France, Spain, [[Italy]], and [[Malta]] moved in to farm the Algerian coastal plain and occupied significant parts of Algeria's cities. These settlers benefited from the French government's confiscation of communal land, and the application of modern agricultural techniques that increased the amount of arable land.<ref>{{cite book |author=Alistair Horne, |title=A Savage War of Peace: Algeria 1954-1962 (New York Review Books Classics) |publisher=NYRB Classics |location=1755 Broadway, New York, NY 10019 |year=2006 |pages=32 |isbn=1-59017-218-3 |oclc= |doi=}}</ref> Algeria's social fabric suffered during the occupation: literacy plummeted,<ref>[http://www.country-data.com/cgi-bin/query/r-365.html Country Data]</ref> while land confiscation uprooted much of the population.
Starting from the end of the nineteenth century, people of European descent in Algeria (or natives like [[Spanish people]] in [[Oran]]), as well as the native Algerian [[Jew]]s (typically [[Sephardic]] in origin), became full French citizens. After Algeria's 1962 independence, they were called ''[[pied-noir|Pieds-Noirs]]''; ("Pieds Noirs" meaning "black feet", referring to the fact that the Europeans wore black shoes on their feet). In contrast, the vast majority of [[Muslim]] Algerians (even veterans of the French army) received neither French citizenship nor the right to vote.
===Post-independence===
In 1954, the [[National Liberation Front (Algeria)|National Liberation Front]] (FLN) launched the [[Algerian War of Independence]] which was a [[guerrilla warfare|guerrilla]] campaign. By the end of the war, newly elected [[President of France|President]] [[Charles de Gaulle]], understanding that the age of empire was ending, held a [[referendum|plebiscite]], offering Algerians three options. Unfortunately, he promised the pieds-noirs that Algeria would remain French, and that they should stay and invest in the colony. This resulted in a landslide vote for complete independence from France. Over one million people, 10% of the population, then fled the country for France and Italy in just a few months in mid-1962. These included most of the 1,025,000 ''Pieds-Noirs'', as well as 81,000 ''[[Harki]]s'' (pro-French Algerians serving in the French Army). In the days proceeding the bloody conflict, a group of Algerian Rebels opened fire on a marketplace in Oran killing numerous innocent civilians, mostly women. This event is known as the Saint Bartholomew Massacre.
<!-- no separate rationale for this article [[|thumb|right|''[[The Battle of Algiers (film)|The Battle of Algiers]]'' is a movie about an important battle of the [[Algerian War of Independence]].]] -->
Algeria's first president was the FLN leader [[Ahmed Ben Bella]]. He was overthrown by his former ally and defence minister, [[Houari Boumédienne]] in 1965. Under Ben Bella the government had already become increasingly [[socialism|socialist]] and [[Authoritarianism|authoritarian]], and this trend continued throughout Boumédienne's government. However, Boumédienne relied much more heavily on the army, and reduced the sole legal party to a merely symbolic role. [[Agriculture]] was [[collective farming|collectivised]], and a massive [[industrialization]] drive launched. [[Oil]] extraction facilities were nationalized. This was especially beneficial to the leadership after the [[1973 oil crisis]]. However, the Algerian economy became increasingly dependent on oil which led to hardship when the price collapsed during the [[1980s oil glut]].
In foreign policy, while Algeria shares much of its history and cultural heritage with neighbouring Morocco, the two countries have had somewhat hostile relations with each other ever since Algeria's independence. Reasons for this include Morocco's [[Greater Morocco|disputed claim to portions of western Algeria]] (which led to the [[Sand War]] in 1963), Algeria's support for the [[Polisario Front]] for its right to [[Self-determination|self-determination]], and Algeria's hosting of [[Sahrawi]] refugees within its borders in the city of [[Tindouf]].
Within Algeria, dissent was rarely tolerated, and the state's control over the [[Mass media|media]] and the outlawing of political parties other than the FLN was cemented in the repressive constitution of 1976.
Boumédienne died in 1978, but the rule of his successor, [[Chadli Bendjedid]], was little more open. The state took on a strongly [[bureaucratic]] character and [[Political corruption|corruption]] was widespread.
The modernization drive brought considerable [[demography|demographic]] changes to Algeria. Village traditions underwent significant change as [[urbanization]] increased. New industries emerged, agricultural employment was substantially reduced. [[Education]] was extended nationwide, raising the [[literacy]] rate from less than 10% to over 60%. There was a dramatic increase in the [[fertility rate]] to 7-8 children per mother.
Therefore by 1980, there was a very youthful population and a housing crisis. The new generation struggled to relate to the cultural obsession with the war years and two conflicting protest movements developed: communists, including Berber identity movements; and Islamic 'intégristes'. Both groups protested against [[one-party rule]] but also clashed with each other in universities and on the streets during the 1980s. Mass protests from both camps in Autumn 1988 forced Bendjedid to concede the end of one-party rule. Elections were planned to happen in 1991.
In December 1991, the [[Islamic Salvation Front]] won the [[Algerian National Assembly elections, 1991|first round]] of the country's first multi-party elections. The military then intervened and cancelled the second round. It forced then-president Bendjedid to resign and banned all political parties based on religion (including the Islamic Salvation Front). A political conflict ensued, leading Algeria into the violent [[Algerian Civil War]].
More than 160,000 people were killed between [[17 January]] [[1992]] and June 2002. Most of the deaths were between militants and government troops, but a great number of civilians were also killed. The question of who was responsible for these deaths was controversial at the time amongst academic observers; many were claimed by the [[Armed Islamic Group]]. Though many of these massacres were carried out by Islamic extremists, the Algerian regime also used the army and foreign mercenaries to conduct attacks on men, women and children and then proceeded to blame the attacks upon various Islamic groups within the country.<ref>[http://www.khilafah.com/kcom/analysis/africa/an-overview-of-recent-events-in-algeria.html Khilafah - An overview of recent events in Algeria<!-- Bot generated title -->]</ref>
[[Image:Algiers coast.jpg|thumb|left|240px|[[Algiers]]]]
Elections resumed in 1995, and after 1998, the war waned. On [[27 April]] [[1999]], after a series of short-term leaders representing the [[military]], [[Abdelaziz Bouteflika]], the current president, was elected.<ref>[http://www.arab.de/arabinfo/algehis.htm Arabic German Consulting] www.Arab.de (accessed [[4 April]] [[2006]])</ref>
By 2002, the main guerrilla groups had either been destroyed or surrendered, taking advantage of an [[amnesty]] program, though sporadic fighting continued in some areas (See [[Islamic insurgency in Algeria (2002–present)]]).
The issue of [[Berber languages|Berber language]] and identity increased in significance, particularly after the extensive [[Kabyle people|Kabyle]] protests of 2001 and the near-total boycott of local elections in [[Kabylie]]. The government responded with concessions including naming of Tamazight (Berber) as a national language and teaching it in schools.
Much of Algeria is now recovering and developing into an [[emerging economy]]. The high prices of oil and [[gas]] are being used by the new government to improve the country's [[infrastructure]] and especially improve [[industry]] and agricultural land. Recently, overseas investment in Algeria has increased{{Fact|date=January 2008}}.
==Geography==
[[Image:Algeria Topography.png|right|thumb|300px|Topographic map of Algeria]]
{{main|Geography of Algeria}}
Most of the coastal area is hilly, sometimes even mountainous, and there are a few natural [[harbour]]s. The area from the coast to the [[Tell Atlas]] is fertile. South of the Tell Atlas is a [[steppe]] landscape, which ends with the [[Saharan Atlas]]; further south, there is the [[Sahara]] desert. The [[Ahaggar Mountains]] (Arabic: جبال هقار), also known as the Hoggar, are a highland region in central Sahara, southern Algeria. They are located about 1,500 km (932 miles) south of the capital, Algiers and just west of [[Tamanghasset]].
[[Algiers]], [[Oran, Algeria|Oran]] , [[Constantine, Algeria|Constantine]], and [[Annaba]] are Algeria's main cities.
===Climate and hydrology===
Northern Algeria is in the [[temperate]] zone and has a mild, [[Mediterranean climate]]. Its broken [[topography]], however, provides sharp local contrasts in both prevailing temperatures and incidence of rainfall. Year-to-year variations in climatic conditions are also common.
In the Tell Atlas, temperatures in summer average between 21 and 24 °C and in winter drop to 10 to 12 °C. Winters are not particularly cold, but the humidity level is high. In eastern Algeria, the average temperatures are somewhat lower, and on the [[steppe]]s of the [[High Atlas]] plateaux, winter temperatures are only a few degrees above freezing. A prominent feature of the climate in this region is the [[sirocco]], a dusty, choking south wind blowing off the desert, sometimes at gale force. This wind also occasionally reaches into the coastal Tell.<ref name=cia/>
[[Image:Hoggar3.jpg|thumb|250px|left|The [[Ahaggar Mountains]]]]
In Algeria, only a relatively small corner of the torrid Sahara lies across the [[Tropic of Cancer]] in the [[tropics|torrid zone]]. In this region even in winter, midday desert temperatures can be very hot. After sunset, however, the clear, dry air permits rapid loss of heat, and the nights are cool to chilly. Enormous daily ranges in temperature are recorded.
The highest temperature recorded in Tindouf is 135.4°F (57.4°C) and is probaly the highest reliable temperature ever recorded in Algeria under standard conditions.
Rainfall is fairly abundant along the coastal part of the Tell Atlas, ranging from 400 to 670 mm annually, the amount of precipitation increasing from west to east. [[Precipitation (meteorology)|Precipitation]] is heaviest in the northern part of eastern Algeria, where it reaches as much as 1000 mm in some years. Farther inland, the rainfall is less plentiful. [[Prevailing winds]] that are easterly and north-easterly in summer change to westerly and northerly in winter and carry with them a general increase in precipitation from September through December, a decrease in the late winter and spring months, and a near absence of rainfall during the summer months. Algeria also has [[Erg (landform)|ergs]], or sand dunes between mountains, which in the summer time when winds are heavy and gusty, temperatures can get up to {{convert|110|°F|°C|abbr=on}}.
== Politics ==
{{main|Politics of Algeria}}
[[Image:President-abdelaziz-bouteflika.JPG|thumb|180px|left|[[Abdelaziz Bouteflika]], [[President of Algeria]].]]
The head of state is the [[President of Algeria]], who is elected to a five year term and is constitutionally limited to two terms. Algeria has universal [[suffrage]] at 18 years of age.<ref name=cia/> The President is the head of the Council of Ministers and of the High Security Council. He appoints the [[Prime Minister of Algeria|Prime Minister]] who is also the head of government. The Prime Minister appoints the Council of Ministers.
The Algerian [[parliament]] is [[bicameral]], consisting of a lower chamber, the ''National People's Assembly (APN)'', with 380 members; and an upper chamber, the ''Council Of Nation'', with 144 members. The APN is elected every five years.
Under the 1976 [[constitution]] (as modified 1979, and amended in 1988, 1989, and 1996) Algeria is a multi-party state. All parties must be approved by the Ministry of the Interior. To date, Algeria has had more than 40 legal political parties. According to the constitution, no political association may be formed if it is "based on differences in religion, language, race, gender or region."
==Foreign relations and military==
{{main|Foreign relations of Algeria|Military of Algeria|}}
[[Image:ANP.gif|50px|left]]
[[Image:Corvette algérienne.jpg|right|thumb|''Djebel Chinoise'' class corvette ''El Kirch'' (353) built by ECRN in [[Mers-el-Kebir]] and operated by the Algerian National Navy]]
The military of Algeria is comprised of the [[National Popular Army]] (ANP), the [[Algerian National Navy]] (MRA), and the [[Algerian Air Force]] (QJJ), plus the Territorial Air Defense Force.<ref name="cia"/> It is the direct successor of the [[Armée de Libération Nationale]] (ALN), the armed wing of the nationalist National Liberation Front, which fought French colonial [[military occupation|occupation]] during the Algerian War of Independence (1954-62). The commander-in-chief of the military is the president, who is also Minister of National Defense. Total personnel includes 147,000 active, 150,000 reserve, and 187,000 paramilitary staff (2008 estimate).<ref name=IISS_TMB>{{cite book |title=The Military Balance 2008 |author=Hackett, James (ed.)|others=International Institute for Strategic Studies |date=[[February 5]], [[2008]]|publisher=Europa |isbn=978-1857434613| url=http://www.zawya.com/printstory.cfm?storyid=v51n20-1TS05&l=134200080519|accessdate=2008-07-16}} </ref> Service in the military is compulsory for men aged 19-30, for a total of eighteen months (six training and twelve in civil projects).<ref name="cia"/> The total military expenditure in 2006 was estimated variously at 2.7% of GDP (3,096 million),<ref name=IISS_TMB/> or 3.3% of GDP.<ref name="cia"/>
Algeria is a leading military power in [[North Africa]] and has its force oriented toward its western ([[Morocco]]) and eastern ([[Libya]]) borders. Its primary military supplier has been the former [[Soviet Union]], which has sold various types of sophisticated equipment under military trade agreements, and the [[People's Republic of China]]. Algeria has attempted, in recent years, to diversify its sources of military material. Military forces are supplemented by a 45,000-member [[gendarmerie]] or rural police force under the control of the president and 30,000-member ''Sûreté nationale'' or Metropolitan [[police]] force under the Ministry of the Interior.
In 2007, the Algerian Air Force signed a deal with [[Russia]] to purchase 49 [[MiG-29]]SMT and 6 MiG-29UBT at an estimated $1.5 Billion. They also agreed to return old [[fixed-wing aircraft|airplane]]s purchased from the [[Former USSR]]. Russia is also building 2 636-type diesel [[submarines]] for Algeria.<ref>{{cite web
|url=http://www.breitbart.com/article.php?id=070614062644.0d1z4l69&show_article=1
|title=Venezuela's Chavez to finalise Russian submarines deal"
|publisher=Breitbart
|date=[[2007-06-14]]
|accessdate=2008-07-16}}</ref>
==Maghreb Arab Union==
Tensions between Algeria and [[Morocco]] in relation to the [[Western Sahara]] have put great obstacles in the way of tightening the [[Maghreb Arab Union]], which was nominally established in 1989 but carried little practical weight with its coastal neighbors.<ref>[http://www.arabicnews.com/ansub/Daily/Day/990219/1999021906.html Bin Ali calls for reactivating Arab Maghreb Union, Tunisia-Maghreb, Politics, 2/19/1999] www.arabicnews.com (accessed [[4 April]] [[2006]]) </ref>
== Provinces and districts ==
{{main|Provinces of Algeria|Districts of Algeria}}
{{see|Municipalities of Algeria}}
[[Image:Algeria wilayas.png|thumb|250px|left|Map of the provinces of Algeria numbered according to the official order]]
Algeria is currently divided into 48 [[provinces of Algeria|province]]s ([[wilaya]]s), 553 [[districts of Algeria|district]]s ([[daïra]]s) and 1,541 [[municipalities of Algeria|municipalities]] ([[Municipalities of Algeria|commune]]s, [[baladiyah]]s). Each province, district, and municipality is named after its [[capital|seat]], which is mostly also the largest city.
According to the Algerian constitution, a province is ''a territorial collectivity enjoying some economic freedom''. The [[People's Provincial Assembly]] is the political entity governing a province, which has a "president", who is elected by the members of the assembly. They are in turn elected on [[universal suffrage]] every five years. The "[[Wāli#Algerian term|Wali]]" ([[Prefect]] or [[governor]]) directs each province. This person is chosen by the [[Algerian President]] to handle the PPA's decisions.
The administrative divisions have changed several times since independence. When introducing new provinces, the numbers of old provinces are kept, hence the non-alphabetical order. With their official numbers, currently (since 1983) they are:<ref name=cia/>
{| border="0"
|-----
|
<br/><small>1</small> [[Adrar Province|Adrar]]
<br/><small>2</small> [[Chlef Province|Chlef]]
<br/><small>3</small> [[Laghouat Province|Laghouat]]
<br/><small>4</small> [[Oum el-Bouaghi Province|Oum el-Bouaghi]]
<br/><small>5</small> [[Batna Province|Batna]]
<br/><small>6</small> [[Béjaïa Province|Béjaïa]]
<br/><small>7</small> [[Biskra Province|Biskra]]
<br/><small>8</small> [[Béchar Province|Béchar]]
<br/><small>9</small> [[Blida Province|Blida]]
<br/><small>10</small> [[Bouira Province|Bouira]]
<br/><small>11</small> [[Tamanghasset Province|Tamanghasset]]
<br/><small>12</small> [[Tébessa Province|Tébessa]]
|
<br/><small>13</small> [[Tlemcen Province|Tlemcen]]
<br/><small>14</small> [[Tiaret Province|Tiaret]]
<br/><small>15</small> [[Tizi Ouzou Province|Tizi Ouzou]]
<br/><small>16</small> [[Algiers Province|Algiers]]
<br/><small>17</small> [[Djelfa Province|Djelfa]]
<br/><small>18</small> [[Jijel Province|Jijel]]
<br/><small>19</small> [[Sétif Province|Sétif]]
<br/><small>20</small> [[Saida Province|Saida]]
<br/><small>21</small> [[Skikda Province|Skikda]]
<br/><small>22</small> [[Sidi Bel Abbes Province|Sidi Bel Abbes]]
<br/><small>23</small> [[Annaba Province|Annaba]]
<br/><small>24</small> [[Guelma Province|Guelma]]
|
<br/><small>25</small> [[Constantine Province|Constantine]]
<br/><small>26</small> [[Médéa Province|Médéa]]
<br/><small>27</small> [[Mostaganem Province|Mostaganem]]
<br/><small>28</small> [[M'Sila Province|M'Sila]]
<br/><small>29</small> [[Mascara Province|Mascara]]
<br/><small>30</small> [[Ouargla Province|Ouargla]]
<br/><small>31</small> [[Oran Province|Oran]]
<br/><small>32</small> [[El Bayadh Province|El Bayadh]]
<br/><small>33</small> [[Illizi Province|Illizi]]
<br/><small>34</small> [[Bordj Bou Arréridj Province|Bordj Bou Arréridj]]
<br/><small>35</small> [[Boumerdès Province|Boumerdès]]
<br/><small>36</small> [[El Tarf Province|El Tarf]]
|
<br/><small>37</small> [[Tindouf Province|Tindouf]]
<br/><small>38</small> [[Tissemsilt Province|Tissemsilt]]
<br/><small>39</small> [[El Oued Province|El Oued]]
<br/><small>40</small> [[Khenchela Province|Khenchela]]
<br/><small>41</small> [[Souk Ahras Province|Souk Ahras]]
<br/><small>42</small> [[Tipasa Province|Tipasa]]
<br/><small>43</small> [[Mila Province|Mila]]
<br/><small>44</small> [[Aïn Defla Province|Aïn Defla]]
<br/><small>45</small> [[Naama Province|Naama]]
<br/><small>46</small> [[Aïn Témouchent Province|Aïn Témouchent]]
<br/><small>47</small> [[Ghardaïa Province|Ghardaïa]]
<br/><small>48</small> [[Relizane Province|Relizane]]
|}
== Economy ==
{{main|Economy of Algeria}}
The fossil fuels energy sector is the backbone of Algeria's economy, accounting for roughly 60% of budget revenues, 30% of [[Gross domestic product|GDP]], and over 95% of export earnings. The country ranks fourteenth in [[petroleum]] reserves, containing {{convert|11.8|Goilbbl|m3}} of proven oil reserves with estimates suggesting that the actual amount is even more. The U.S. [[Energy Information Administration]] reported that in 2005, Algeria had 160 trillion cubic feet (Tcf) of proven [[natural gas]] reserves, the eighth largest in the world.<ref name="eia">[http://www.eia.doe.gov/emeu/cabs/algeria.html Algeria Country Analysis Brief], EIA, March 2005. Retrieved [[18 Jan]] [[2007]].</ref>
Algeria’s financial and economic indicators improved during the mid-1990s, in part because of policy reforms supported by the [[International Monetary Fund]] (IMF) and [[debt]] rescheduling from the [[Paris Club]]. Algeria’s finances in 2000 and 2001 benefited from an increase in [[oil]] prices and the government’s tight fiscal policy, leading to a large increase in the trade surplus, record highs in foreign exchange reserves, and reduction in [[foreign debt]]. The government's continued efforts to diversify the economy by attracting foreign and domestic [[investment]] outside the energy sector have had little success in reducing high [[unemployment]] and improving living standards, however. In 2001, the government signed an Association Treaty with the [[European Union]] that will eventually lower tariffs and increase trade. In March 2006, [[Russia]] agreed to erase $4.74 billion of Algeria's [[Soviet Union|Soviet]]-era debt<ref>[http://www.brtsis.com/ Brtsis, brief on Russian defence, trade, security and energy<!-- Bot generated title -->]</ref> during a visit by [[President of Russia|President]] [[Vladimir Putin]] to the country, the first by a Russian leader in half a century. In return, president [[Bouteflika]] agreed to buy $7.5 billion worth of combat planes, air-defense systems and other arms from Russia, according to the head of Russia's state arms exporter [[Rosoboronexport]].<ref> {{cite news |title=Russia agrees Algeria arms deal, writes off debt |publisher=Reuters |date=[[March 11]] [[2006]] |url=http://za.today.reuters.com/news/NewsArticle.aspx?type=businessNews&storyID=2006-03-11T082958Z_01_BAN130523_RTRIDST_0_OZABS-ECONOMY-RUSSIA-ALGERIA-20060311.XML}}</ref><ref>{{fr icon}} {{cite news |title=La Russie efface la dette algérienne |publisher=Radio France International |date=[[March 10]] [[2006]] |url=http://www.rfi.fr/actufr/articles/075/article_42379.asp}}</ref>
Algeria also decided in 2006 to pay off its full $8bn (£4.3bn) debt to the [[Paris Club]] group of rich creditor nations before schedule. This will reduce the Algerian foreign debt to less than $5bn in the end of 2006. The [[Paris Club]] said the move reflected Algeria's economic recovery in recent years.
== Agriculture ==
Since Roman times Algeria has been noted for the fertility of its soil. 25% of Algerians are employed in the agricultural sector.<ref>[https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/ag.html#Econ CIA factbook]</ref>
A considerable amount of [[cotton]] was grown at the time of the [[United States]]' [[American Civil War|Civil War]], but the industry declined afterwards. In the early years of the twentieth century efforts to extend the cultivation of the plant were renewed. A small amount of [[cotton]] is also grown in the southern oases. Large quantities of a vegetable that resembles [[mane|horsehair]], an excellent fibre, are made from the leaves of the dwarf palm. The [[olive]] (both for its fruit and oil) and [[tobacco]] are cultivated with great success.
More than 7,500,000 acres (30,000 km²) are devoted to the cultivation of [[cereal grain]]s. The [[Tell Atlas|Tell]] is the grain-growing land. During the time of [[France|French]] rule its productivity was increased substantially by the sinking of [[Artesian aquifer|artesian wells]] in districts which only required water to make them fertile. Of the crops raised, [[wheat]], [[barley]] and [[oat]]s are the principal cereals. A great variety of [[vegetable]]s and [[fruit]]s, especially [[citrus]] products, are exported. Algeria also exports [[fig]]s, [[date (fruit)|dates]], [[esparto|esparto grass]], and [[cork (material)|cork]]. It is the largest [[oat]] market in Africa.
Algeria is known for Bertolli's [[olive oil]] spread, although the spread has an Italian background.
== Demographics ==
[[Image:Algeria demography.png|thumb|300px|right|Demographics of Algeria, Data of [[FAO]], year 2005; number of inhabitants in thousands.]]
{{main|Demographics of Algeria}}
The current population of Algeria is 33,333,216 (July 2007 est.).<ref name=cia/>
About 70% of Algerians live in the northern, coastal area; the minority who inhabit the [[Sahara]] are mainly concentrated in [[oasis|oases]], although some 1.5 million remain [[nomad]]ic or partly nomadic. Almost 30% of Algerians are under 15. Algeria has the fourth lowest [[List of countries and territories by fertility rate|fertility rate]] in the [[Greater Middle East]] after [[Cyprus]], [[Tunisia]], and [[Turkey]].
97% of the population is classified ethnically as [[Berber people|Berber]]/[[Arab]] and religiously as [[Sunni Muslim]], the few non-Sunni Muslims are mainly [[Ibadi]]s, representing 1.3%, from the [[Mzab|M'Zab]] valley. (See also [[Islam in Algeria]].) A mostly foreign [[Roman Catholic Church|Roman Catholic]] community of about 45,000 people exists, along with about 350,000 [[Protestant]] Christians, and some 500 [[Jewish]]. The [[History of the Jews in Algeria|Jewish community of Algeria]], which once constituted 2% of the total population, has substantially decreased due to emigration, mostly to [[France]] and [[Israel]].
Europeans account for less than 1% of the population, inhabiting almost exclusively the largest metropolitan areas. However, during the colonial period there was a large (15.2% in 1962) European population, consisting primarily of [[French people]], in addition to [[Spaniards]] in the west of the country, [[Italians]] and [[Maltese people|Maltese]] in the east, and other Europeans in smaller numbers known as ''[[Pied-noir|pieds-noirs]]'', concentrated on the coast and forming a majority in cities like [[Annaba|Bône]], [[Oran]], [[Sidi Bel Abbès]], and [[Algiers]]. Almost all of this population left during or immediately after the country's independence from France.
[[Image:Desert Flower NGM-v31-p261.jpg|thumb|left|A Dancer in [[Biskra]], published in March 1917 National Geographic.]]
Housing and medicine continue to be pressing problems in Algeria. Failing infrastructure and the continued influx of people from rural to urban areas has overtaxed both systems. According to the [[UNDP]], Algeria has one of the world's highest per housing unit occupancy rates for housing, and government officials have publicly stated that the country has an immediate shortfall of 1.5 million housing units.{{Fact|date=February 2008}}
Women make up 70 percent of Algeria’s lawyers and 60 percent of its judges. Women dominate medicine. Increasingly, women are contributing more to household income than men. Sixty percent of university students are women, according to university researchers.<ref>[http://www.nytimes.com/2007/05/26/world/africa/26algeria.html A Quiet Revolution in Algeria: Gains by Women - New York Times<!-- Bot generated title -->]</ref>
It is estimated that 95,700 [[refugees]] and [[asylum]] seekers have sought refuge in Algeria. This includes roughly 90,000 from [[Morocco]] and 4,100 from Former [[Palestine]]. <ref>[U.S. Committee for Refugees and Immigrants. "World Refugee Survey 2008." Available Online at: http://www.refugees.org/countryreports.aspx?id=2116. pp.34<!-- Bot generated title -->]</ref>
=== Ethnic groups ===
Most Algerians are [[Berber people|Berber]] or [[Arab]], by language or identity, but almost all Algerians are Berber in origin.<ref name=cia/> Today, the Arab-Berber issue is often a case of self-identification or identification through language and culture, rather than a racial or ethnic distinction. The Berber people are divided into several ethnic groups, [[Kabyle]] in the mountainous north-central area, [[Chaoui]] in the eastern [[Atlas Mountains]], [[Mozabite]]s in the [[M'zab]] valley, and [[Tuareg]] in the far south. Small pockets of Black African populations also are in Algeria. Turkish Algerians represent 5% of the population and live mainly in the big cities. {{Fact|date=February 2008}}
However, in a recent genetic study by Standford University, Arabs and Berbers were found to have more genetic similarities than was once believed. <ref>http://hpgl.stanford.edu/publications/AJHG_2004_v74_p1023-1034.pdf</ref> The [[Human Y-chromosome DNA haplogroup|Y-chromosome DNA haplogroup]]s that characterize both Arabs and Berbers are [[Haplogroup E1b1b (Y-DNA)|E1b1b]] and [[Haplogroup J (Y-DNA)|J]] (found in 70% of Middle Eastern people and 90% in North Africa). This has led scientists to conclude that North Africa has a higher genetic affinity with Arab populations than was previously hypothesized. Southern Algerians are most genetically closely linked with Arabs from Gulf countries, such as Saudi Arabia, Yemen and the UAE. Northern Algerians are most genetically linked with Arabs from Lebanon, Palestine, Syria and Jordan and some Gulf countries.
A more recent and thorough study by Arredi et al. (2004) which analyzed populations from Algeria concludes that the North African pattern of Y-chromosomal variation (including both E1b1b and J haplogroups) is largely of Neolithic origin, which suggests that the Neolithic transition in this part of the world was accompanied by demic diffusion of Afro-Asiatic–speaking pastoralists from the Middle East. This Neolithic origin was later confirmed by Myles et al. (2005), which in turn suggests that "contemporary Berber populations possess the genetic signature of a past migration of pastoralists from the Middle East". <ref>[http://www.springerlink.com/content/x428750458w4080r/ SpringerLink - Journal Article<!-- Bot generated title -->]</ref>
=== Languages ===
{{main|Languages of Algeria}}
[[Image:Kabylia-3lingual sign.jpg|thumb|185px|left|Trilingual welcome sign in the Isser Municipality (Boumerdès), written in [[Arabic language|Arabic]], [[Kabyle language|Kabyle]] ([[Tifinagh]]), and [[French language|French]].]]
Most Algerians speak [[Algerian Arabic]]. Arabic is spoken natively in [[dialect]]al form ("[[Algerian Arabic|Darja]]") by some 65 percent of the population.<ref name=tlfq>{{fr icon}} - [http://www.tlfq.ulaval.ca/AXL/AFRIQUE/algerie-1demo.htm http://www.tlfq.ulaval.ca/AXL/], [[Jacques Leclerc (linguiste)|Jacques Leclerc]], L’aménagement linguistique dans le monde. CIRAL (Centre international de recherche en aménagement linguistique).</ref> However, in the media and on official occasions the spoken language is [[Standard Arabic]].
The [[Berber people|Berber]]s (or [[Imazighen]]), who form approximately 45 percent of the population,<ref name=tlfq/> largely speak one of the various dialects of [[Tamazight]] as opposed to Arabic. But a majority can use both Berber and Algerian Arabic. [[Arabic language|Arabic]] remains Algeria's only [[official language]], although [[Tamazight]] has recently been recognized as a [[national language]] alongside it.<ref>{{fr icon}} - [http://www.apn-dz.org/apn/french/constitution96/loi02_03.htm « Loi n° 02-03 portant révision constitutionnelle »], adopted on 10 April 2002.</ref>
[[Ethnologue]] counts eighteen living languages within Algeria, splitting both Arabic and Tamazight into several different languages, as well as including [[Korandje language|Korandje]], which is unrelated to Arabic or Tamazight.<ref>[http://www.ethnologue.com/show_country.asp?name=DZ Gordon, Raymond G., Jr. (ed.), 2005. Ethnologue: Languages of the World, 15th ed., Dallas, Texas: SIL International.] (accessed [[4 April]] [[2006]]).</ref>
The language issue is politically sensitive, particularly for the Berber [[minority]], which has been disadvantaged by state-sanctioned [[Arabization]]. [[Language politics]] and Arabization have partly been a reaction to the fact that 130 years of [[France|French]] [[colonialism|colonization]] had left both the state [[bureaucracy]] and much of the educated upper class completely [[Francophone]], as well as being motivated by the [[Arab nationalism]] promoted by successive Algerian governments.
[[French language|French]] is still the most widely studied [[foreign language]], and most Algerians are fluent in French though it is usually not spoken in daily circumstances. Since [[independence]], the government has pursued a policy of linguistic Arabization of [[education]] and bureaucracy, with some success, although many [[university]] courses continue to be taught in French. Recently, schools have started to incorporate French into the curriculum as early as children start to learn Arabic, as many Algerians are fluent in French. French is also used in media and commerce.
== Education ==
[[Image:Casbah alger.jpg|right|250px|thumb|Young inhabitants of Algiers in the streets of the [[Casbah|Kasbah of Algiers]].]]
Education is officially compulsory for children between the ages of 6 and 15. In the year 1997, there was an outstanding amount of teachers and students in primary schools.
In Algeria there are 10 universities, 7 colleges, and 5 institutes for higher learning. The University of Algiers (founded in 1909), which is located in the capital of Algeria, Algiers has about 267,142 students.<ref>[http://www.nationsencyclopedia.com/Africa/Algeria-EDUCATION.html Algeria - Education<!-- Bot generated title -->]</ref> The Algerian school system is structured into Basic, General Secondary, and Technical Secondary levels:
; Basic: Ecole fondamentale (Fundamental School)<br/>Length of program: 10 years<br/>Age range: age 6 to 15 old<br/>Certificate/diploma awarded: Brevet d'Enseignement Moyen B.E.M.
; General Secondary: Lycée d'Enseignement général (School of General Teaching) , lycées polyvalents (General-Purpose School) <br/>Length of program: 3 years<br/>Age range: age 15 to 18<br/>Certificate/diploma awarded: Baccalauréat de l'Enseignement secondaire </br>(Bachelor's Degree of Secondary School)
; Technical Secondary: Lycées d'Enseignement technique (Technical School)<br/>Length of program: 3 years<br/>Certificate/diploma awarded: Baccalauréat technique (Technical Bachelor's Degree)
== Culture ==
{{main|Culture of Algeria}}
[[Image:Monument of the Martyrs 01 Algiers.jpg|thumb|left|The Monument of the Martyrs (Maquam E’chahid) in Algiers]]
[[Image:Algiers mosque.jpg|thumb|right|The El Jedid [[Mosque]] in Algiers]]
Modern Algerian literature, split between Arabic and French, has been strongly influenced by the country's recent history. [[List of Algerian writers|Famous novelists]] of the twentieth century include [[Mohammed Dib]], [[Albert Camus]], and [[Kateb Yacine]], while [[Assia Djebar]] is widely translated. Among the important novelists of the 1980s were [[Rachid Mimouni]], later vice-president of Amnesty International, and [[Tahar Djaout]], murdered by an [[Islamist]] group in 1993 for his secularist views.<ref>[http://www.frenchpubagency.com/?fuseaction=people.main&pid=517 Tahar Djaout] French Publishers' Agency and France Edition, Inc. (accessed [[4 April]] [[2006]]) </ref>
In philosophy and the humanities, [[Jacques Derrida]], the father of [[deconstruction]], was born in [[El Biar]] in [[Algiers]]; [[Malek Bennabi]] and [[Frantz Fanon]] are noted for their thoughts on [[decolonization]]; [[Augustine of Hippo]] was born in [[Tagaste]] (modern-day [[Souk Ahras]]); and [[Ibn Khaldun]], though born in [[Tunis]], wrote the [[Muqaddima]] while staying in Algeria.
Algerian culture has been strongly influenced by [[Islam in Algeria|Islam]], the main religion. The works of the [[Sanusi]] family in pre-colonial times, and of Emir [[Abdelkader]] and Sheikh [[Ben Badis]] in colonial times, are widely noted. The Latin author [[Apuleius]] was born in [[Madaurus]] (Mdaourouch), in what later became Algeria.
The [[Music of Algeria|Algerian musical]] genre best known abroad is [[raï]] , a pop-flavored, opinionated take on folk music, featuring international stars such as [[Khaled (musician)|Khaled]] and [[Cheb Mami]]. in Algeria itself the style: ( [[raï]] ) remains the most popular,but the older generation still prefer ("shaabi", Dahmane Elharrashi its King..) while the tuneful melodies of [[Kabyle]] music, exemplified by [[Idir]], [[Ait Menguellet]], or [[Lounès Matoub]], have a wide audience. For more classical tastes, [[Andalusian classical music|Andalusi music]], brought from [[Al-Andalus]] by [[Morisco]] refugees, is preserved in many older coastal towns. For a more modern style, the English born and of Algerian descent, [[Potent C]] is gradually becoming a success for younger generations. Encompassing a mixture of folk, raï, and British hip hop it is a highly collective and universal genre.
Although {{cite web |url= http://algeria-raï.com/ |title=“[[raï]]" }} is welcomed and praised as a glowing cultural emblem for Algeria, there was time when raï’s come across critical cultural and political conflictions with Islamic and government policies and practices, post-independency. Thus the distribution and expression of raï music became very difficult. However, “then the government abruptly reversed its position in mid-1985. In part this was due to the lobbying of a former liberation army officer turned pop music impresario, Colonel Snoussi, who hoped to profit from raï if it could be mainstreamed.”<ref>Gross, Joan, David McMurray, and Ted Swedenburg. "Arab Noise and Ramadan Nights: Raï, Rap, and Franco-Maghrebi Identities." Diaspora 3:1 (1994): 3- 39. [Reprinted in The Anthropology of Globalization: A Reader, ed. by Jonathan Xavier and Renato Rosaldo. </ref> In addition, given both nations’ relations, Algerian government was pleased with the music’s growing popularity in France. Although the music is ore widely accepted on the political level, it still faces severe conflictions with the populace of Islamic faith in Algeria.
In painting, [[Mohammed Khadda]]<ref>[http://www.khadda.com/ Mohammed Khadda] official site (accessed [[4 April]] [[2006]]) </ref> and [[M'Hamed Issiakhem]] have been notable in recent years.
{{seealso|List of Algerian writers}}
== Landscapes and monuments of Algeria ==
<gallery>
Image:Chrea-Algeria.jpg |Mountain of Chrea near the city of Blida (north).
Image:Alger-night.jpg | street of Zighout Youcef in Algiers (north)
Image:Tassili-Hogar.JPG | Mountains of Hoggar in the Algerian Sahara(2000 km in the south of Algiers)
Image:Tikjda-Algeria.JPG | Mountains of Tikjda near the city of Tizi Ouzou (north).
Image:Timgad10.JPG | Roman ruins of Timgad (north-eastern)
Image:Oran - Algeria.jpg | Place of November 1st in the city of Oran(north-western)
Image:Ghardaïa.JPG | Overview of the city of Ghardaïa (south)
Image:Annaba-Algérie.JPG | Overview of the city of Annaba(north-eastern).
Image:Mascara-Algeria.JPG | City of Mascara(north-western)
Image:Bejaïa-littoral.JPG | Tichy's beach in Bejaïa (north).
Image:Pont suspendu-constantine-Algeria.jpg| Hanging bridge of the city of Constantine
Image:Algérie-El Kantara.jpg | El-Kantara in Biskra (south).
</gallery>
==UNESCO World Heritage Sites in Algeria==
There are several [[UNESCO]] [[World Heritage Sites]] in Algeria including [[Al Qal'a of Beni Hammad]], the first capital of the [[Hammadid]] empire; [[Tipasa]], a Phoenician and later Roman town; and [[Djémila]] and [[Timgad]], both [[Ancient Rome|Roman]] ruins; [[M'Zab Valley]], a limestone valley containing a large urbanized [[oasis]]; also the [[Casbah]] of [[Algiers]] is an important citadel. The only natural [[World Heritage Sites]] is the [[Tassili n'Ajjer]], a mountain range.
==See also==
{{Algeria topics|state=uncollapsed}}
{{wikiatlas|Algeria}}
==References==
{{reflist|2}}
==Bibliography==
* Ageron, Charles-Robert (1991). ''Modern Algeria. A History from 1830 to the Present''. Translated from French and edited by Michael Brett. London: Hurst. ISBN 086543266X.
* Aghrout, Ahmed and Bougherira, Redha M. (2004). ''Algeria in Transition: Reforms and Development Prospects''. Routledge. ISBN 041534848X
* Bennoune, Mahfoud (1988). ''The Making of Contemporary Algeria: Colonial Upheavals and Post-Independence Development, 1830–1987''. Cambridge U.K.: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0521301505.
* [[Frantz Fanon|Fanon, Frantz]] (1966). ''The Wretched of the Earth''. Grove Press. ASIN B0007FW4AW, ISBN 0802141323 (2005 paperback).
* [[Alistair Horne|Horne, Alistair]] (1977). ''A Savage War of Peace: Algeria 1954-1962''. Viking Adult. ISBN 0670619647, ISBN 1-59017-218-3 (2006 reprint)
* Roberts, Hugh (2003). ''The Battlefield: Algeria, 1988–2002. Studies in a Broken Polity''. London: Verso. ISBN 185984684X.
* Ruedy, John (1992). ''Modern Algeria: The Origins and Development of a Nation''. Bloomington: Indiana University Press. ISBN 0253349982.
* Stora, Benjamin (2001). ''Algeria, 1830–2000. A Short History''. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press. ISBN 0801437156.
==External links==
{{sisterlinks|Algeria}}
* {{dmoz|Regional/Africa/Algeria|Algeria}}
*[http://www.jaxey.com/vb/t989 Photos From Algeria] (Arabic)
*[http://www.el-mouradia.dz El Mouradia official presidential site] (in French and Arabic)
*[http://www.apn-dz.org/apn/english/index.htm National People's Assembly] official parliamentary site
* {{CIA World Factbook link|ag|Algeria}}
*{{wikitravel}}
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[[ta:அல்ஜீரியா]]
[[kab:Dzayer]]
[[te:అల్జీరియా]]
[[th:ประเทศแอลจีเรีย]]
[[vi:Algérie]]
[[tg:Алҷазоир]]
[[tr:Cezayir]]
[[uk:Алжир]]
[[ur:الجزائر]]
[[vec:Algeria]]
[[vo:Laljerän]]
[[wa:Aldjereye]]
[[wo:Alseeri]]
[[ts:Algeria]]
[[yi:אלדזשיר]]
[[yo:Algeria]]
[[diq:Cezayir]]
[[zea:Alherije]]
[[zh:阿尔及利亚]]