Alpine skiing 39576 225623407 2008-07-14T16:38:42Z Hairy Dude 274535 /* See also */ don't pipe "see also" links; rm link to US team article ([[WP:CSB|systemic bias]]) {{cleanup-rewrite}} [[Image:Skier-carving-a-turn.jpg|right|thumb|Alpine skier carving a turn on piste]] '''Alpine skiing''' (or '''downhill skiing''') is a recreational activity and [[sport]] involving sliding down [[snow]]-covered hills with long [[ski]]s attached to each foot. Alpine skiing evolved from [[cross-country skiing]] when [[ski lift]] [[infrastructure]] was developed at [[Ski resort|mountain resorts]] to tow skiers back to the top of slopes, thus making it possible to repeatedly enjoy skiing down steep, long slopes that would be otherwise tiring to climb up. The sport is popular wherever the combination of snow, mountain slopes, and a sufficient [[tourist]] infrastructure can be built up, including parts of [[Europe]], [[North America]], [[Australia]] and [[New Zealand]], the [[South American|South America]] [[Andes]], and [[East Asia]] (mainly [[South Korea]] and [[Japan]], although the popularity of skiing is increasing in [[China]] as well). The main technical challenges faced by skiers are simply how to control the direction and speed of their descent. Typically, novice skiers use a technique called the "[[snowplough turn|snowplough/snowplow]]" to turn and stop by pointing one or both skis inward, but more advanced skiers use more difficult but more elegant and speedier methods. One popular method of turning is called [[parallel turn]]; it involves keeping both skis parallel to each other while altering the weight distribution between them in order to turn them in any particular direction. The angle of the ski in relation to the slope (called edge angle) is also important as it determines the resistance ([[friction]]) created by the edges of the skis. Modern advanced skiing technique is dominated by "carving." To carve, a skier rolls his or her knees from side to side while keeping the upper body and hips facing down the hill, so that only the knees and feet are turned. This method of turning allows modern skis to turn using the radial properties of the edges of the ski without skidding or slowing down, creating a smooth arc. To maintain the line of a parabolic ski, one must lean one's center of mass into the turn. As skiers gain confidence, they may tackle steeper, longer and more uneven slopes (including off-piste and ungroomed runs) at higher speeds. In North America, the easiest ski runs are marked by green circles, and are typically fairly flat and smooth. Sometimes known as bunny slopes, they are usually groomed by specially equipped [[snowcat]]s every night. A blue square marks slopes of medium difficulty; they are steeper than green circles and may be left in a natural state rather than machine-groomed. A black diamond run is steeper than a blue square and often involves challenging terrain such as [[mogul (skiing)|moguls]], double fall lines, or [[Glade Skiing|gladed]] sections. A double black diamond is for experts only; these trails are steep, rarely groomed and often left in a completely natural state. There is no standard for these designations, however, and each ski resort determines them relative to their own terrain difficulty. So, for instance, a blue-square (mid-level) trail at one ski mountain may be markedly more difficult than a black-diamond (expert) trail at another mountain. In Europe the system is based on colour alone. North American green circles, blue squares, black diamonds, and double blacks correspond to European green, blue, red, and black trails, respectively. ==Competitions== [[Image:Airforce skiing at keystone colorado.jpg|right|thumb|Members of the U.S. Air Force skiing (and snowboarding) at [[Keystone Resort]]'s 14th Annual SnoFest]] Various alpine skiing competitions have developed in the [[history of skiing]]. Broadly speaking, competitive skiing is broken up into two disciplines: racing and [[Freestyle skiing|freestyle]]. Racing involves making fast turns around gates in an attempt to attain the fastest overall time down one or two runs of a race course. Elite competitive skiers participate in the annual [[Alpine skiing World Cup|World Cup]] series, as well as the quadrennial [[Winter Olympic Games|Olympic Games]] and the biennial [[Alpine World Skiing Championships|World Championships]]. [[Slalom skiing|Slalom]] (SL), [[Giant Slalom skiing|giant slalom (GS)]], [[Super Giant Slalom skiing|super giant slalom (super-G)]], and [[downhill]] (DH) are the four racing disciplines, with downhill being the fastest event and slalom being the most technical. There is also a [[Alpine skiing combined|"combined"]] event that includes one downhill run and two slalom runs on a single day. In 2005, the [[International Ski Federation|FIS]] (Fédération Internationale de Ski) introduced a new event to the World Cup calendar called the [[super combined]], or super combi, consisting of one shortened downhill run and just one slalom run. That year, the FIS also introduced an alpine team racing event at the [[Alpine World Ski Championships 2005|World Championships]] in [[Bormio]], [[Italy]]. Ski racing is controlled by a set of rules which are enforced by FIS. These rules include such things as regulation ski sizes, sidecuts, boot heights, binding risers and many other things which all ensure one particular skier has no advantage over another however these regulations are constantly being pushed by ski manufacturers using new technologies. Next year (2008) these regulations are set to be changed in order to make it harder for racers to complete a race course. Some changes include increasing the minimum ski length and also the sidecut which will make the ski turn less tightly. [[Freestyle skiing]] incorporates events such as [[Mogul (skiing)|moguls]], aerials, and sometimes "[[newschool skiing|new-school]]" events such as [[halfpipe]], big air, [[slopestyle]], and [[skiercross]]. Together with [[extreme skiing]], new-school freestyle skiing is also sometimes known as [[freeskiing]]. Until relatively recently, freestyle competitions also included an event called ballet, later renamed "acro-ski." In addition to racing and freestyle, other types of alpine skiing competitions exist. One discipline administered by the FIS but not usually considered part of racing is [[speed skiing]], in which competitors strive to achieve the highest total speed in a straight line, with no gates or turns. Numerous non-FIS competitions have emerged over the years. More traditional events include ''gelandesprung'' jumping ([[ski jumping]] for distance on alpine equipment), and "[[powder 8]]" contests; among the more recent introductions are "big mountain" or "[[extreme skiing]]" contests, in which athletes start at the top of a mountain and ski a route down that involves wide, fast turns as well as cliff drops. The competitors are judged on the technical difficulty of their routes and any tricks they perform on the way down the hill. === Organization of alpine ski competition === Ski competition rules and scheduling are managed internationally by the [[International Ski Federation]] (FIS) based in [[Switzerland]]. Each participating nation worldwide is represented by a national association that manages the sport in that respective nation. In the United States, alpine skiing competition is managed by the [[U.S. Ski and Snowboard Association]] (USSA). The USSA organizes all levels of skiing competition from grassroots through the U.S. Ski Team and the Olympics. [[Image:Nastar-racers.jpg|right|thumb|Recreational Ski Racers at a NASTAR race]] === NASTAR === One group involved in the organization of ski racing in the United States is [[NASTAR]]. Developed by Ski Magazine in 1968, National Standard Race, or [http://www.nastar.com NASTAR], provides many skiers with their first look at racing – and their first experience. Many ski resorts have permanent NASTAR courses and timing equipment. To quote the organization “Our mission is simple - to provide a fun, competitive and easily accessible racing program that, through the development of a handicap system, allows racers of all ages and abilities a means to compare their race results to other competitors across the country regardless of when and where they race.” NASTAR also employs a system where participants can compare their times to those of top [[U.S. Ski Team]] racers who serve as NASTAR pacesetters including [[Steven Nyman]], Jimmy Cochran and [[Kaylin Richardson]]. Once a year the best NASTAR racers gather at Steamboat in [[Steamboat Springs]], CO for the national championships. == Ski trail ratings == === North America === [[Image:Tahoe.JPG|thumbnail|right|Man skiing slope overlooking [[Lake Tahoe]]]] In North America, a color–shape rating system is used to indicate the difficulty of trails (otherwise known as slopes or [[piste]]s). Australian ski slopes also share the same rating system. There is no governing body that assigns difficulty ratings to ski trails. Instead, [[ski resort]]s assign ratings to their own trails, marking a given trail according to its relative difficulty when compared with other trails at that resort. As a result, identically-pitched trails at different resorts can have different ratings. Some skiers and snowboarders may interpret this as manipulation of ratings of their slopes to appeal to as wide an audience as possible; in fact, it is an attempt by ski areas to conform to the trail rating conventions. Although slope gradient is the primary consideration in assigning a trail rating, other factors come into play — including trail width, normal [[snow]] conditions and whether or not the resort regularly [[Snow grooming|groom]]s the trail. {| class="wikitable" cellpadding="6" border="0" style="text-align:center;clear:both" |+ <big>'''Ski trail difficulty ratings in North America'''</big> ! Trail&nbsp;Rating !! Symbol !! Level&nbsp;of&nbsp;difficulty !! Description |- | '''Green circle''' | [[Image:Ski trail rating symbol-green circle.svg|64px|Green Circle]] | Easiest | style="text-align:left;" | The easiest [[piste]]s at a mountain. Green Circle trails are generally wide and groomed, typically with slope [[Grade (slope)|gradients]] ranging from 6% to 25%<ref name="appG"> {{cite web | url = http://www.fs.fed.us/r6/mthood/projects/timberline-express/Appendices/Appendix%20G%20-%20Timberline%20Mountain%20Specifications%20Summary/Appendix%20G%20-%20Timberline%20Mountain%20Specifications%20Summary.pdf | title = Appendix G: Mountain Specifications Summary, Draft Environmental Impact Statement for The Timberline Express Proposal | format = pdf | date = March 2005 | pages = 26 | accessdate = 2006-12-10 | publisher = [[United States Department of Agriculture|USDA]], [[USFS|U.S. Forest Service]], Mount Hood National Forest }}</ref> (a 100% slope is a 45 degree angle). |- | '''Blue square''' | [[Image:Ski trail rating symbol-blue square.svg|64px|Blue Square]] | Intermediate | style="text-align:left;" | Intermediate difficulty slopes with [[Grade (slope)|grades]] commonly ranging from 25% to 40%.<ref name="appG"/> These slopes are usually groomed. Blue Square runs comprise the bulk of pistes at most ski areas, and are usually among the most heavily-trafficked. |- | '''Black diamond''' | [[Image:Ski trail rating symbol-black diamond.svg|64px|Black Diamond]] | Difficult | style="text-align:left;" | Amongst the most difficult at a given mountain. Black Diamond trails tend to be steep (typically 40% and up)<ref name="appG"/> and may or may not be groomed, though the introduction of [[snowcat|winch-cat]]s has made the grooming of steep slopes both possible and more frequent. |- | '''Double black diamond''' | [[Image:Ski trail rating symbol-double black diamond.svg|64px|Double Black Diamond]] | Expert | style="text-align:left;" | These trails are even more difficult than Black Diamond, due to exceptionally steep slopes and other hazards such as narrow trails, exposure to wind, and the presence of obstacles such as steep drop-offs or trees. They are intended only for the most experienced skiers. This trail rating is fairly new; by the 1980s, technological improvements in trail construction and maintenance, coupled with intense marketing competition, led to the creation of a Double Black Diamond rating. |- | '''Variations''' | [[Image:Ski trail rating symbol-square diamond.svg|64px|Blue Square/Black Diamond]] | Various | style="text-align:left;" | Variations such as doubling a symbol to indicate increased difficulty, or combining two different symbols to indicate intermediate difficulty are occasionally used. One example is a diamond overlapping a square to indicate a trail rating between a Blue Square and a Black Diamond. [[Mont Tremblant]] in Canada utilizes two blue squares right next to each other to indicate the same thing. Many resorts in [[Summit County, Colorado|Summit County]], [[Colorado]] use a double diamond with an "EX" in the center to mark a trail even more difficult than a double diamond. The combination of symbols is comparatively rare at U.S. ski areas; most ski resorts stick to the standard 4-symbol progression. |- | '''Terrain parks''' | [[Image:Ski trail rating symbol-terrain park.svg|64px|Terrain Park]] | Various | style="text-align:left;" | [[Terrain park]]s are whole or portions of trails that can offer a variety of jumps, [[half-pipe]]s, and other special "extreme" sporting obstacles beyond traditional [[Mogul (skiing)|mogul]]s. The trails are typically represented by an orange rectangle with rounded corners. Usually, the terrain park will carry its own trail rating, indicating the level of challenge. A terrain park with a Black Diamond or Double Black Diamond rating would contain greater and more challenging obstacles than a park with a Blue Square rating. |} Triple black diamond trails can be found in certain ski resorts, such as Black Hole in [[Smuggler's Notch]], Vermont. There are also unrated slopes, generally as hard as or harder than double blacks. One such example is the Palmer Glacier on Mount Hood, Oregon. === Europe === In Europe, pistes are classified by a similar, colour-coded system, although shapes are not always used (sometimes all ratings are circles). The ratings are: ; Green: (Spain, France, Scandinavia, UK) Learning or "Beginner" slopes. These are usually not marked trails, but tend to be large open, gently sloping areas at the base of the ski area. ; Blue: An easy trail, similar to the North American Green Circle, and are almost always groomed, or on so shallow a slope as not to need it. ; Red: An intermediate slope. Steeper, or narrower than a blue slope, these are usually groomed, unless the narrowness of the trail prohibits it. ; Black: An expert slope. Steep, may or may not be groomed, or may be groomed for moguls. "Black" can be a very wide classification, ranging from a slope marginally more difficult than a "Red" to very steep avalanche chutes like the infamous Couloirs of [[Courchevel]]. France tends to have a higher limit between red and black. ;Orange: (Austria, Switzerland, certain other areas) Extremely difficult. ;Double-black: (Scandinavia) Extremely difficult. ; Yellow: In recent years, many resorts reclassified some black slopes to yellow slopes. This signifies a skiroute, an ungroomed and unpatrolled slope which is actually off-piste skiing in a marked area. Famous examples are the Stockhorn area in [[Zermatt]] and the Tortin slopes in [[Verbier]]. In Austria, skiroutes are usually marked with orange squares instead. Alpine slope classification in Europe is less rigidly tied to slope angle than in North America. A lower angle slope may be classified as more difficult than a steeper slope if, for instance, it is narrower and/or requires better skiing ability to carry speed through flatter sections while controlling speed through sharp hairpin turns, off-camber slope angles or exposed rock. === Japan === Japan uses a color-coded system, but shapes do not usually accompany them. Some resorts, mainly those catering to foreigners, use the North American or European color-coding system, adding to the confusion. When in doubt, check the map legend. The usual ratings are: ; Green: Beginner slopes. These are usually near the base of the mountain, although some follow switchback routes down from the top. ; Red: Intermediate slopes. At most ski areas in Japan, these constitute the majority of the slopes (40° to 60° {{fact|date=November 2007}}, depending on how the slopes are accounted). ; Black: Expert slopes. These are the steepest and most difficult slopes at the ski area. The difficulty of these compared to like-classified slopes at other ski areas is heavily dependent on the target audience. Japan has more than 1000 ski areas (115 in [[Nagano Prefecture]] alone), many of them small and family-oriented, so comparisons between slope classifications in Japan and "equivalent" slopes in Europe or North America are minimal. === New Zealand === ; Green: Beginner slopes but are a lot more difficult than North American Greens. Some say New Zealand greens are as hard as an American Blue or even Black run on some resorts. ; Blue: Intermediate slopes with an increase in gradient and usually a tighter and less open trail. ; Black: More difficult than Blue ; Double Black (or "Black diamond"): More difficult than Black ; Triple Black (or "Double black diamond"): Most difficult of all slopes - dubbed "suicidal" by some resorts. ==Snow and weather== [[Image:Wintersports terrain park P1391.jpeg|thumb|right|This ''terrain park'' begins with three jumps, each with a variety of entries.]] Skiers and snowboarders can encounter a wide range of snow and weather conditions, in part due to the location of specific resorts and global weather patterns at the time. Natural [[snow]] ranges in consistency from very light and fluffy to dense and heavy, depending upon atmospheric conditions as it falls. Snow is often measured by moisture content, or the amount of water in a given volume of snow. Some areas of the United States' Rocky Mountains, for example, can receive considerable amounts of snow with moisture content as low as three to five percent; in the Northeastern United States and the Alps, moisture content is more typically 15 percent or more. Snow made by mechanical [[snowmaking]] often has moisture content of 35 percent or more. Temperatures play a critical role in snow moisture content, but other atmospheric conditions are also relevant. Air currents and other factors determine snow crystal shape; obviously, the farther apart given snow crystals are, the more air is contained in the newly settled snow, resulting in lower net moisture content in a given volume of snow. Snow produced mechanically typically has high relative moisture content and low amounts of loft because the crystal structure resembles small, dense pellets. Even the fluffiest snow has mass, and snow typically settles under its own weight after time. This is one reason why untouched snow measuring 20 cm on the day it falls might be measured at 15 cm the day following. Snow is also subject to [[sublimation (chemistry)|sublimation]] — a process by which water can go directly from a frozen state to a gaseous state without first melting. It is this same process that ultimately makes ice cubes shrink in a freezer. There are other factors that impact snow beyond its moisture content and crystal shape, however. Snow is impacted by wind, sunlight, skier traffic, ambient air temperature, relative humidity and grooming equipment; all of these factors combine to change snow crystal shape and density over time. Thus, skiers and snowboarders typically encounter a wide range of snow conditions over the course of a season. Some of the more common conditions include: ;Powder: Light, fluffy snow, found during and immediately after snowfall. Skiing and snowboarding in deep powder snow is a favorite among skilled, experienced skiers and snowboarders; sometimes known as "powderhounds" hunting for their "pow". Because Western snow generally has a lower moisture content, western powder is lighter and easier to ski than heavier eastern powder. Utah snow is especially known for being extremely light and dry as well as a lot of snow found in New Zealand. ;Packed powder: Powder snow that has been compressed, either by means of mechanical snow grooming apparatus or skier traffic. The term can also be used to describe snow that has been properly made with adequate control over snow-making apparatus. This snow condition is favored by beginners and the majority of recreational skiers, in that it tends to be relatively forgiving, easy to turn upon, and requires less skill to negotiate than powder snow. ;Granular snow: Snow with large crystals, i.e. small pellets. Depending on sun and temperature conditions, it may be wet granular snow — meaning that there is a considerable amount of unfrozen water in it, or loose granular snow, which has no unfrozen water. Wet granular snow will form a snowball; loose granular snow will not. Wet granular conditions are often found in the springtime. Loose granular conditions are generally produced when wet granular snow has re-frozen and then been broken up by snowgrooming apparatus. ;Corn snow: The result of repeated daily thaws and nightly re-freezing of the surface. Because of the thaw-refreeze cycle, snow crystal shapes change over time, producing crystal shapes somewhat akin to wet granular, but larger. True corn snow is a delight to ski or ride. ;Ice: Skiers and snowboarders typically regard any snow condition that is very hard as "ice". In fact, true ice conditions are comparatively rare. Much of what is perceived to be ice is actually a frozen granular condition — wet granular snow that has refrozen to form a very dense surface. Telling the difference is comparatively easy; if one can get a ski pole to stand up in it, the surface is likely to be more of a frozen granular surface than an icy one — and while it is certainly not as enjoyable as many other snow conditions, skilled skiers and snowboarders can successfully negotiate it. In fact, ice is a preferred condition among racers, in that the surface tends to be quite fast and race course conditions tend to remain more consistent during the race, with fewer ruts developing on the course. Another form of icy condition can be found at higher elevation resorts in the Rocky Mountains and in Europe; direct sunlight can melt the top layers of snow crystals and subsequent freezing produces a very shiny, slick surface. ;Crust: A crust condition exists when soft snow is covered by a harder upper layer upon the surface. This crust can be created by [[freezing rain]] (precipitation formed in warmer upper levels of the atmosphere, falling into a temperature inversion at which surface temperatures are below freezing, and freezing on contact with the ground), by direct sunlight, and by wind loading which packs down the upper layers of the snowpack but leaves lower layers more or less unaffected. Crusts are extremely challenging conditions. ;Dust on crust: A trace of new snow on top of crust. Undesirable. ;Spring conditions: A catch-all term ski areas use to describe conditions when numerous different surface types can be found on the mountain — usually in the later part of the season, although the term is sometimes used during an extended midwinter thaw. The term also generally reflects the presence of bare spots and/or areas of thin cover. With spring conditions, the snow is usually firm in early morning (even reaching frozen granular status if left ungroomed), breaking a softer corn or wet granular surface mid-day, and is often very soft and mushy in afternoon (many skiers refer to this type of snow condition as "mashed potatoes," due to its heaviness). In some instances when the snow is untracked, sun baked, slightly dirty, with the consistency of a snow cone, it is called "tecate powder". The speed with which conditions change on a given spring day is directly related to the exposure of the slope relative to the sun. In the northern hemisphere, east- and south-facing slopes tend to soften first; west-facing slopes generally soften by mid-day. North-facing slopes may hold on to their overnight snow conditions throughout the day. ==See also== {{Commons|Alpine skiing}} *[[Skiing]] *[[Alpine skiing at the Winter Olympics]] *[[Alpine skiing World Cup]] *[[FIS Alpine World Ski Championships]] *[[U.S. Ski and Snowboard Association]] *[[List of Alpine Skiing World Champions]] *[[List of Olympic medalists in alpine skiing]] ==External links== *[http://www.canski.org/ Alpine Canada Alpin] - Alpine Canada Alpin, National Governing Body for Ski Racing within Canada *[http://www.ussa.org/ U.S. Ski and Snowboard Association] - The National Governing Body for Ski Racing *[http://www.usskiteam.com/ U.S. Ski Team] - Bio information and stories on U.S. elite athletes *[http://www.ski-review.com Alpine Ski Reviews & Descriptions] *[http://www.torino2006.org/ENG/OlympicGames/spirito_olimpico/animazioni_sportive.html Sport Animations from XX Olympic Winter Games] *[http://www.nevasport.com/nevablogs/?id_blogs=31 Retro Ski - ski history ] ==References== {{Reflist}} [[Category:Alpine skiing| ]] [[Category:Types of skiing]] [[Category:Olympic sports]] [[ar:التزلج على المنحدرات الجليدية]] [[bs:Alpsko skijanje]] [[ca:Esquí alpí]] [[cs:Alpské lyžování]] [[da:Alpine discipliner]] [[de:Ski Alpin]] [[et:Mäesuusatamine]] [[es:Esquí alpino]] [[fr:Ski alpin]] [[hr:Alpsko skijanje]] [[it:Sci alpino]] [[he:סקי אלפיני]] [[nl:Alpineskiën]] [[ja:アルペンスキー]] [[no:Alpin skiidrett]] [[pl:Narciarstwo alpejskie]] [[pt:Esqui alpino]] [[ro:Schi]] [[ru:Горнолыжный спорт]] [[sl:Alpsko smučanje]] [[sr:Алпско скијање]] [[sh:Alpsko skijanje]] [[fi:Alppihiihto]] [[sv:Alpin skidsport]] [[zh:高山滑雪]]