Alternative fuel
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Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/203.37.206.217|203.37.206.217]] ([[User talk:203.37.206.217|talk]]) to last version by Jaysweet
'''Alternative fuels''', also known as non-conventional [[fuel]]s, are any [[material]]s or [[Chemical substance|substance]]s that can be used as a [[fuel]], other than conventional fuels. Conventional fuels include: ''[[fossil fuels]]'' ([[petroleum]] (oil), [[coal]], [[propane]], and [[natural gas]]), and nuclear materials such as [[uranium]].
Some well known alternative [[fuel]]s include [[biodiesel]], [[bioalcohol]] ([[ethanol]], [[butanol]]), chemically stored [[electricity]] (batteries and [[fuel cell|fuel cells]]), [[hydrogen]], non-fossil [[methane]], non-fossil [[natural gas]], [[Vegetable oil used as fuel|vegetable oil]] and other [[biomass]] sources.
==Background==
The main purpose of fuel is to store [[energy]] in a form that is stable and can be easily transported from the place of production to the end user which helps in many ways such as transportation. Almost all fuels are [[Chemical]] fuels, that store chemical [[potential energy]]. The end user is then able to consume the fuel at will, and release energy, usually in the form of heat for a variety of applications, such as powering an [[engine]] or [[heating]] a building, such as a home.
==Factors increasing demand for alternative fuels==
In 2007, there were 1.8 million alternative fuel vehicles sold in the United States, indicating an increasing popularity of alternative fuels.<ref>[http://www.autobloggreen.com/2008/04/05/auto-alliance-1-8-million-alternative-fuel-vehicles-sold-in-200/ Auto Alliance: 1.8 million alternative fuel vehicles sold in 2007]</ref> There is growing perceived economic and political need for the development of alternative fuel sources. This is due to general environmental, economic, and geopolitical concerns of sustainability.
The major environmental concern, according to an [[Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change|IPCC]] report, is that "Most of the observed increase in globally averaged temperatures since the mid-20th century is due to the observed increase in [[anthropogenic]] [[greenhouse gas]] concentrations" <ref>[http://www.ipcc.ch/SPM2feb07.pdf]</ref>. Since burning [[fossil fuels]] are known to increase greenhouse gas concentrations in the atmosphere, they are a likely contributor to [[global warming]].
Other concerns which have fueled demand revolve around the concept of [[Peak oil]], which predicts rising fuel costs as production rates of [[petroleum]] enters a terminal decline. According to the [[Hubbert peak theory]], when the production levels peak, demand for oil will exceed supply and without proper [[mitigation of peak oil|mitigation]] this gap will continue to grow as production drops, which could cause a major [[energy crisis]].
Lastly, the majority of the known petroleum reserves are located in the [[middle east]]. There is general concern that worldwide fuel shortages could intensify the unrest that exists in the region, leading to further conflict and war. (See [[future energy development]] for a general discussion)
In an attempt to increase demand for alternative fuels in the US, the [[IRS]] began allowing taxpayers to claim a special tax credit for using alternative fuels, known as the Alternative Fuel Vehicle Refueling Property Credit. The definition used for alternative fuel under this credit is: Any fuel containing at least 85 percent of one or more of [[ethanol]], [[natural gas]], [[compressed natural gas]], [[liquefied natural gas]], [[liquefied petroleum gas]], or hydrogen; or any mixture which consists of two or more of [[biodiesel]], diesel fuel, or [[kerosene]], and at least 20% of which consists of biodiesel.<ref> [http://www.irs.gov/pub/irs-pdf/f8911.pdf IRS Form 8911] for 2007</ref>
The production of alternative fuels can have widespread effects. For example, the production of corn-based [[ethanol]] has created an increased demand for the feed stock, causing rising prices in almost everything made from corn.<ref>[http://e85.whipnet.net/e85.price/corn.rush.html E85 | We need more Corn!<!-- Bot generated title -->]</ref> However, in a [[perfect competition|competitive]] [[free market]], an increased supply of ethanol reduces the demand for conventional fuels, and thus lowers fuel prices. The ethanol industry enables [[agriculture|agricultural]] surpluses to be used to mitigate [[fuel shortage]]s.
==Alternative fuels==
===Renewable energy===
:''Main article: [[Renewable energy]]''
{{Renewable energy sources}}
A possible solution to a potential future energy shortage would be to use some of the world's remaining fossil fuel reserves as an investment in [[renewable energy]] infrastructure such as [[wind power]], [[solar power]], [[tidal power]], [[geothermal power]], [[hydropower]], [[thermal depolymerization]], [[methanol]], [[ethanol]] and [[biodiesel]], or in an [[oil lamp]]; try [[olive oil]], [[canola oil]], [[safflower oil]], [[algae oil]] or [[sunflower oil]] which do not suffer from finite energy reserves, but do have a finite energy flow. The construction of sufficiently large renewable energy infrastructure might avoid the economic consequences of an extended period of decline in fossil fuel energy supply per capita.
Most [[alternative fuels]] assume a source of [[renewable energy]] or at least [[sustainable energy]] (such as nuclear power) as a source of the fuel. A few alternative fuels (for example, hydrogen) may be made by sustainable or non-sustainable means. If they are made by non-sustainable means, such fuels are offered as alternatives usually because they offer to cause less pollution at the point of use, and perhaps less pollution overall.
===Biomass===
[[Image:Panicum virgatum.jpg|thumb|[[Switchgrass]], a hardy plant used in the biofuel industry in the United States]]
[[Image:rice chaffs.jpg|thumb|180px|Rice [[chaff]].]]
{{main|Biomass}}
Biomass in the energy production industry refers to living and recently dead [[biological material]] which can be used as fuel or for industrial production. Biomass is grown from several plants, including [[miscanthus]], [[switchgrass]], [[hemp]], [[maize|corn]], [[poplar]], [[willow]], [[sugarcane]] <ref>{{cite conference | author = T.A. Volk, L.P. Abrahamson, E.H. White, E. Neuhauser, E. Gray, C. Demeter, C. Lindsey, J. Jarnefeld, D.J. Aneshansley, R. Pellerin and S. Edick | title = Developing a Willow Biomass Crop Enterprise for Bioenergy and Bioproducts in the United States | booktitle = Proceedings of Bioenergy 2000 | publisher = [[North East Regional Biomass Program]] | date = October 15-19, 2000 | location = [[Adam's Mark]] Hotel, [[Buffalo, New York]], USA | URL = http://bioenergy.ornl.gov/papers/bioen00/volk.html | accessdate = 2006-12-16 | id = {{OCLC|45275154}} }}</ref>, [[oil palm]] ([[palm oil]]), and [[algae oil]].
Most commonly, biomass refers to plant matter grown for use as [[biofuel]], but it also includes plant or animal matter used for production of fibres, [[chemical]]s or heat. Biomass may also include [[biodegradable waste]]s that can be burnt as fuel. It excludes [[organic material]] which has been [[Metamorphism|transformed by geological processes]] into substances such as [[coal]] or [[petroleum]].
===Non-conventional oil===
[[Non-conventional oil]] is a fossil fuel chemically identical and with the same origin as conventional or traditional oil, but existing in a different form. They often contain more contaminants and are more energy intensive to produce, thus raising environmental concerns about the sustainability of these fuels. Non-conventional oil sources include [[tar sands]], [[oil shale]] and [[bitumen]]. Enormous deposits of non-conventional oil include the [[Athabasca Oil Sands]] site in northwestern ([[Alberta]]) [[Canada]] and the [[Venezuela]]n [[Orinoco]] tar sands. Oil companies estimate that the Athabasca and Orinoco sites (both of similar size) have as much as two-thirds of total global oil deposits. However, the ability to 'see' underground is limited, so as with all [[oil reserves]], the quantity of available oil is uncertain, even for so-called 'proven' reserves. Large mining operations are currently producing oil, and to some people, this proves the viability of the entire process. Others argue that since the technology is still relatively new, it remains unclear whether it is feasible for a significant percentage of world oil production to be extracted from tar sands. One fact that is agreed upon, is that the current extraction process takes a great deal of energy for heat and electrical power, presently coming from local [[natural gas]], which itself is in short supply. There are some proposals to build a series of [[nuclear reactor]]s to supply this energy. Non-conventional oil production is currently less energy-efficient, and has a larger environmental impact than conventional oil production.
===Other fossil fuels and the Fischer-Tropsch process===
It is expected by geologists that [[natural gas]] will peak 5-15 years after oil does{{Fact|date=June 2007}}. There are large but finite [[coal]] reserves which may increasingly be used as a fuel source during oil depletion. The [[Fischer-Tropsch process]] converts [[carbon dioxide]], [[carbon monoxide]] into heavier [[hydrocarbon]]s, including ''synthetic'' oil. It is used today in [[South Africa]] to produce most of that country's [[diesel]] from coal. The [[Karrick process]] is an improved methodology for coal liquefaction, with higher efficiency. Since there are large but finite coal reserves in the world, this technology could be used as an interim transportation fuel if conventional oil were to become scarce. There are several companies developing the process to enable practical exploitation of so-called [[stranded gas reserve]]s, those reserves which are impractical to exploit with conventional gas pipelines and [[LNG]] technology.
[[Methane hydrate]] is a form of [[natural gas]]. This substance consists of methane molecules trapped within the crystalline structure of water ice and is found in deposits under ocean sediments or within continental sedimentary rock formations. It is estimated that the global inventory of methane hydrate may equal as much as 10x the amount of [[natural gas]]. With current technology, most gas hydrate deposits are unlikely to be commercially exploited as an energy source. In addition, the combustion of methane results in the formation of [[carbon dioxide]] and would thus continue to contribute to [[global warming]]. Methane itself is also a greenhouse gas, so if it is "spilled" or released it will contribute to [[global warming]]. In other respects methane hydrate has the same problems of [[fossil fuel]].
[[Methanol]] ([[methanol economy]]) from any source can be used in [[internal combustion engine]]s with minor modifications. It usually is made from natural gas, sometimes from coal, and could be made from any carbon source including CO<sub>2</sub>. [[Flexible fuel vehicle]]s may run with a high percentage of [[ethanol]] ([[ethanol economy]]) (up to 85% Ethanol plus 15% gasoline for cold-starting vapor pressure).
Methanol and ethanol are typically not primary sources of energy; however, they are a convenient way to store the energy for transportation. No type of fuel production is 100% energy-efficient, thus some energy is always lost in the conversion. This energy can be supplied by the original source, or from other sources like fossil fuel reserves, or [[solar radiation]] (either through [[photosynthesis]] or [[photovoltaic]] panels), or hydro, wind or nuclear energy (see below). The use of energy to produce alcohol fuels could potentially proceed via production of hydrogen by electrolysis of water, or possibly (in the case of heat from nuclear energy) by the [[sulfur-iodine cycle]]; then use of the hydrogen in the [[Fischer-Tropsch process]] along with CO<sub>2</sub> from another source. Such a process might store and use hydrogen more efficiently than attempting to use hydrogen directly as fuel (a gallon of alcohol contains about 50% more hydrogen by weight than a gallon of liquid hydrogen). Since such a process would not liberate net quantities of new CO<sub>2</sub> at the point of combustion, it would be greenhouse neutral, similar to alcohols made from biomass.
===Hydrogen===
{{main|Hydrogen economy}}
Proponents of a [[hydrogen economy]] think hydrogen could hold the key to ongoing energy demands. Relatively new technologies (such as [[fuel cell]]s) can be used to efficiently harness the chemical energy stored in diatomic hydrogen (H<sub>2</sub>). However, there is no accessible natural reserve of uncombined hydrogen, since what little there is resides in Earth's outer atmosphere ([[exosphere]]). Hydrogen for use as fuel must first be produced using another energy source; hydrogen would thus actually be a means to transport energy, rather than an energy source, just as common rechargeable batteries are. One existing method of hydrogen production is steam methane reformation; however, the most common source of methane is natural gas, which is in short supply. Another method of hydrogen production is through [[electrolysis]] of water which uses electricity generated from any source, or a combination of fossil fuels, nuclear, and/or renewable energy sources. Biomass or coal [[gasification]], [[photoelectrolysis]], and [[genetically modified organism]]s have also been proposed as means to produce hydrogen.
According to the majority of energy experts and researchers, hydrogen is currently impractical as an alternative to fossil-based liquid fuels. It is inefficient to produce, has low energy density (hydrogen gas tanks would need to be 2-3 times as large as conventional gasoline tanks), and is expensive to transport and convert back to electricity. Also hydrogen fuel cells are still prohibitively expensive as a prime mover of transportation. However, theoretically it is more efficient to burn fossil fuels to produce hydrogen than burning oil directly in car engines (due to efficiencies of scale). Unfortunately, this does not take into consideration the significant energy cost of having to build hundreds of millions of new hydrogen powered vehicles plus hydrogen fuel distribution infrastructure. Research on the feasibility of hydrogen as a fuel is still underway, and the outcome is uncertain.
A far more practical way to utilize hydrogen is to bond it with the [[nitrogen]] in the air to produce [[ammonia]] which can then be easily liquefied, transported and used (directly or indirectly) as a clean and renewable fuel. [http://www.energy.iastate.edu/becon/ammonia.html] [http://www.memagazine.org/contents/current/webonly/webex710.html]
===Air engine===
The [[Air engine]] is an emission-free piston engine using compressed air as fuel. Unlike hydrogen, compressed air is about 10x cheaper than fossil oil, making it an economically attractive alternative (hydrogen is about 10x more expensive than oil or 100x more expensive than compressed air). The air engine has also broken most barriers (storage of the energy, range, ....). Models exist which can achieve speeds over 35mph with air alone, but at least one company claims it will produce an "Air Car" hybrid by 2010 which will be able to achieve over 100mpg with a top speed of 96mph.<ref>[http://www.popularmechanics.com/automotive/new_cars/4251491.html Air-Powered Car Coming to U.S. in 2009 to 2010 at Sub-$18,000, Could Hit 1000-Mile Range]</ref>
===Liquid nitrogen===
A [[liquid nitrogen]] would extract energy from the temperature difference between air and liquid nitrogen. The [[Stirling engine]] or cryogenic heat engine offers a way to power such vehicles. A means to generate liquid nitrogen, which is only an energy storage medium, is needed.
The Stirling piston engine has been superseded by a recycling hydro turbine using recycled gas supplying pressure at a higher temperature than when cooled by any medium.
Such cooling is commonly found in absorption chillers and heat pumps.
===Nuclear power===
Nuclear power is any [[nuclear technology]] designed to extract usable energy from [[atomic nuclei]] via controlled [[nuclear reactions]]. The most common method today is through [[nuclear fission]], though other methods include [[nuclear fusion]] and [[radioactive decay]]. All current methods involve heating a working fluid such as water, which is then converted into mechanical work for the purpose of generating electricity or [[nuclear propulsion|propulsion]]. Today, more than 15% of the world's electricity comes from nuclear power, over 150 nuclear-powered naval vessels have been built, and a few radioisotope rockets have been produced.
Fission reactors use the [[Uranium-235|U-235]] [[isotope]] of [[uranium]] for fuel. While uranium is a fairly common element, the U-235 isotope is relatively rare. Using current reactor technology and current usage levels, and assuming an economical price of extraction, there is approximately 50 years of viable uranium available. Alternative reactor technologies exist which can use the much more common [[Uranium-238|U-238]] isotope, but these [[breeder reactor]]s have technical issues (resulting from the higher levels of heat and radiation produced) to overcome before they can be employed economically.
Since automobiles and trucks consume a great deal of the total energy budget of developed countries, widespread [[electric vehicles]] technology would be required to convert the energy generated from nuclear power to transportation.
The long-term [[radioactive waste]] storage problems of nuclear power have not been solved, although on-site spent fuel storage in casks has allowed power plants to make room in their spent fuel pools. Today, the only industrial solution lies with storage in underground repositories. There are widespread public concerns about the health-risks, security risks and radioactive waste disposal problems of nuclear materials.
==See also==
{|style="width:100%;"
|valign=top|
*[[Alternative fuel cars]]
*[[List of 2007 Hybrid Vehicles]]
*[[Greasestock]] - An alternative fuel festival in New York
'''Alternative fuels'''
*[[Alcohol fuel]]
*[[Algae fuel]]
*[[Biodiesel]]
*[[Biofuel]]
*[[Biogas]]
*[[Methane_clathrate#Natural_gas_hydrates_.28NGH.29_vs._liquified_natural_gas_.28LNG.29_in_transportation|NGH]] - A possible future alternative to [[LNG]] for transporting [[natural gas]]
*[[Vegetable oil used as fuel]]
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==References==
{{reflist}}
==External links==
*[http://www.eere.energy.gov/afdc/altfuel/altfuels.html Alternative Fuels Data Center (U.S. DOE)]
*[http://www.alternative-fuels.com.au/ Alternative Fuels Information Centre (Victorian Government)]
*[http://www.naftc.wvu.edu Alternative Fuel Vehicle Training]: National Alternative Fuels Training Consortium, West Virginia University U.S.
* [http://www.greasology.org/ Biofuel Tutorial] - Tutorial on using vegetable oil as diesel fuel
* [http://www.arb.ca.gov/fuels/altfuels/incentives/incentives.htm California's Alternative Fuel Incentive Program]
*[http://eere.energy.gov/cleancities/ Clean Cities Program]: U.S. DOE program encouraging alternative fuel use
* [http://www.energycurrent.com/index.php?id=3 Emerging Energy News]
*[http://www.iata.org/pressroom/facts_figures/fact_sheets/alt_fuels.htm International Air Transport Association]overview of alternative aviation fuels <!-- needs to be integrated as a source, not listed as a link -->
*[http://fe.doe.gov/programs/fuels/hydrogen/Hydrogen_from_Coal_R&D.html Hydrogen from Coal Research (U.S. DOE)]
*[http://sciencedaily.com/news/matter_energy/alternative_fuels/ Research in Alternative Fuels]: Latest research news on alternative fuels from ScienceDaily
*[http://www.energyquest.ca.gov/transportation/electric.html Student's Guide to Alternative Fuel ([[California Energy Commission]])]
*[http://greenfleet.info Sustainable Green Fleets]: EU-sponsored dissemination project for alternatively propelled cars and alternative fuels
*[http://popularmechanics.com/science/earth/2690341.html?page=1&c=y Pop. Mechanics: Crunching the numbers on alternative fuels]
*[http://csmonitor.com/2006/0801/csmimg/p12b_popup.gif Christian Science Monitor: Gasoline's fledgling rivals: the race to power your car]
* [http://www.altfuelprices.com/ Where to find alternative fuel stations and prices]
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[[Category:Fuels]]
[[Category:Climate change]]
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