Amanita muscaria
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{{Taxobox
| name = ''Amanita muscaria''
| image = Amanita muscaria 3 vliegenzwammen op rij.jpg
| image_caption = ''A. muscaria''<br> showing various growth stages.
| regnum = [[Fungus|Fungi]]
| divisio = [[Basidiomycota]]
| classis = [[Agaricomycetes]]
| subclassis = [[Hymenomycete]]s
| ordo = [[Agaricales]]
| familia = [[Amanitaceae]]
| genus = ''[[Amanita]]''
| species = '''''A. muscaria'''''
| binomial = ''Amanita muscaria''
| binomial_authority = ([[Carolus Linnaeus|L.]]:[[Elias Magnus Fries|Fr.]]) [[William Jackson Hooker|Hook.]]
}}
{{mycomorphbox
| name = Amanita muscaria
| whichGills = free
| capShape = flat
| capShape2 = convex
| hymeniumType=gills
| stipeCharacter=ring and volva
| ecologicalType=mycorrhizal
| sporePrintColor=white
| howEdible=poisonous
| howEdible2=psychoactive}}
'''''Amanita muscaria''''', commonly known as the '''fly agaric''' or '''fly Amanita''', is a poisonous and [[psychoactive]] [[basidiomycete]] [[fungus]], one of many in the genus ''[[Amanita]]''. Native throughout the [[temperate]] and [[boreal]] regions of the Northern Hemisphere, ''Amanita muscaria'' has been unintentionally conveyed to many countries in the Southern Hemisphere, generally as a [[symbiont]] with pine plantations, and is now a true [[Cosmopolitan distribution|cosmopolitan]] species. It [[mycorrhiza|associates]] with various deciduous and coniferous trees. The quintessential [[toadstool]], it is a large imposing white-gilled, white-spotted, usually deep red mushroom, one of the most recognizable and widely encountered in popular culture. Though generally considered poisonous, ''Amanita muscaria'' is otherwise famed for its [[hallucinogenic]] properties with its main psychoactive constituent being the compound [[muscimol]]. Used as an intoxicant by the [[Koryaks]] of the [[Kamchatka Krai]] of eastern Siberia, the mushroom has had a religious significance in Siberian culture and possibly also in ancient Scandinavian culture. The American banker and amateur ethnomycologist [[R. Gordon Wasson]] proposed the fly agaric was in fact the [[Soma]] talked about in the ancient [[Rig Veda]] texts of [[India]]; although this theory has been refuted by anthropologists, it gained common credence when first published in 1968.
The common name in [[English language|English]] is thought to have been derived from its European use as an [[insecticide]], sprinkled in milk.<ref>Atkinson GF. (1901) Studies of American Fungi: mushrooms : edible, poisonous, etc. 2nd edn. Andrus & Church, Ithaca, NY. ISBN 0028406001</ref> The fly-killing agent is now known to be [[ibotenic acid]].<ref>{{cite book | author = Nilson S & Persson O | year = 1977 | title = Fungi of Northern Europe 2: Gill-Fungi | publisher = Penguin | id = ISBN 0140630066}}</ref> Another compound isolated from the fungus is 1,3-diolein which is an insect attractor.<ref name = "Bnejamin95"/><ref>Muto T, Sugawara R. (1970). Contribution in: Insect Behaviour of Natural Products (Paper Seminar) 1968: 189.</ref> An alternative derivation proposes that the term ''fly-'' refers not to insects as such but rather the [[delirium]] resulting from consumption of the fungus. This is based on the medieval belief that flies could enter a person's head and cause mental illness.<ref name = "Michelot03">Michelot D, Menendez-Howell LM. (2003). [http://www.erowid.org/references/refs_view.php?A=ShowDocPartFrame&C=ref&ID=6472&DocPartID=6005 ''Amanita muscaria'': chemistry, biology, toxicology, and ethnomycology.] ''Mycological Research'' '''107''' (2): 131–146 {{DOI|10.1017/S0953756203007305}}</ref>
==Taxonomy and naming==
Similar to its English common name, the [[German language|German]], ''Fliegenpilz'', [[Dutch language|Dutch]] ''Vliegenzwam'', [[Swedish language|Swedish]] ''Röd flugsvamp'', [[Danish language|Danish]] ''Rød fluesvamp'', [[Finnish language|Finnish]] ''punakärpässieni'', [[Polish language|Polish]] ''muchomor'', [[Slovak Language|Slovak]] ''muchotrávka'', [[Croatian language|Croatian]] ''muhara'', [[Hungarian language|Hungarian]] ''légyölő galóca'' and [[French language|French]] ''Amanite tue-mouches'', are derived from its use in Europe as an [[insecticide]], sprinkled in milk. This practice has been recorded from [[Germanic languages|Germanic-]] (bar England) and [[Slavic languages|Slavic-speaking]] parts of Europe, as well as the bilingual [[Vosges]] region and pockets elsewhere in France, and Romania.<ref>Wasson, ''Soma:Divine Mushroom of Immortality'' p. 198</ref> [[Albertus Magnus]] was the first to record it in his work ''De vegetabilibus'' sometime before 1256,<ref>{{cite book |title=De vegetabilibus |author=Albertus Magnus |authorlink=Albertus Magnus |year=1256|chapter=Book II, Chap. 6:87, Book VI, Chap. 7:345 |publisher= |location= }}</ref> commenting:
{{quotation|''vocatur fungus muscarum, eo quod in lacte pulverizatus interficit muscas''
("It is called the mushroom of flies, because crushed in milk it kills flies")<ref name = "Ramsbottom53">{{cite book | author = Ramsbottom J | year = 1953 | title = Mushrooms & Toadstools | publisher = Collins | isbn = 1870630092}}</ref>}}
The 16th century Flemish botanist [[Charles de l'Écluse]] localised the practice to [[Frankfurt]] in Germany,<ref>{{cite book |title=Rariorum plantarum historia |author=Charles de l'Écluse |authorlink=Charles de l'Écluse |year=1601|chapter=Genus XII of the Pernicious Mushrooms |publisher= |location= }}</ref> while the father of taxonomy [[Linnaeus]] reported it from [[Småland]] in southern Sweden where he had lived as a child.<ref>{{la icon}} {{cite book | last=Linnaeus | first=C | authorlink=Carolus Linnaeus | title=Flora svecica [suecica] exhibens plantas per regnum Sueciae crescentes systematice cum differentiis specierum, synonymis autorum, nominibus incolarum, solo locorum, usu pharmacopæorum| publisher=Holmiae. (Laurentii Salvii). | date=1745| pages=}}</ref> He officially described it in Volume Two of his ''[[Species Plantarum]]'' in 1753, giving it the name ''Agaricus muscarius'',<ref>{{la icon}} {{cite book | last=Linnaeus | first=C | authorlink=Carolus Linnaeus | title=Species Plantarum: Tomus II | publisher=Holmiae. (Laurentii Salvii). | date=1753| pages=p. 1172}}</ref> the specific epithet deriving from [[Latin]] ''musca'' meaning "fly".<ref>{{cite book | last = Simpson | first = D.P. | title = Cassell's Latin Dictionary | publisher = Cassell Ltd. | date= 1979 | edition = 5 | location = London | pages = 883 | id = ISBN 0-304-52257-0}}</ref> It gained its current name in 1783, when placed in the genus ''[[Amanita]]'' by [[Jean-Baptiste Lamarck]] and sanctioned by [[Elias Magnus Fries]]. English mycologist [[John Ramsbottom (mycologist)|John Ramsbottom]] reported it was used for getting rid of bugs in England and Sweden, and ''bug agaric'' was an old alternate name.<ref name = "Ramsbottom53"/> French mycologist [[Jean Baptiste François Pierre Bulliard|Pierre Bulliard]] tried to replicate its fly-killing properties without success in his work ''Histoire des plantes vénéneuses et suspectes de la France'', and proposed a new binomial name ''Agaricus pseudo-aurantiacus'' because of this.<ref>Wasson, ''Soma:Divine Mushroom of Immortality'' p. 200</ref>
An alternative derivation proposes that the term ''fly-'' refers not to insects as such but rather the [[delirium]] resulting from consumption of the [[fungus]]. This is based on the medieval belief that flies could enter a person's head and cause mental illness.<ref name = "Michelot03">Michelot D, Menendez-Howell LM. (2003). [http://www.erowid.org/references/refs_view.php?A=ShowDocPartFrame&C=ref&ID=6472&DocPartID=6005 ''Amanita muscaria'': chemistry, biology, toxicology, and ethnomycology.] ''Mycological Research'' '''107''' (2): 131–146 {{DOI|10.1017/S0953756203007305}}</ref> Several regional names appear to be linked with this connotation, meaning either 'mad- or 'fool's ''Amanita caesarea''. Hence there is ''oriol foll'' 'mad oriol' in [[Catalan language|Catalan]], ''mujolo folo'' from [[Toulouse]], ''concourlo fouolo'' from the [[Aveyron]] department in Southern France, ''ovolo matto'' from the [[Province of Trento]] in Italy. A local dialect name in [[Fribourg]] in Switzerland is ''tsapi de diablhou'' 'Devil's hat'.<ref>Wasson, ''Soma:Divine Mushroom of Immortality'' p. 194</ref>
The word [[toadstool]] in English does not refer to any particular species, yet it has a more definite specific connotation with ''A. muscaria'' in continental Europe. Yet another name is ''crapaudin'' in many parts of France, and a [[Basque language|Basque]] term from [[Guipúzcoa]] and [[Biscay]] is ''amoroto'', all alluding to toads.<ref>Wasson, ''Soma:Divine Mushroom of Immortality'' p. 187</ref> Finally, a common name from China is ''ha-ma chün'' 'toad mushroom' ([[wikt:蛤|蛤]][[wikt:蟆|蟆]][[wikt:菌|菌]]). Interestingly, the toad lacks the negative connotations in Chinese culture and symbolism.<ref>Wasson, ''Soma:Divine Mushroom of Immortality'' p. 189</ref>
Wasson proposed this was due to its being a shamanic and also [[taboo]] object and hence unable to be named specifically in ancient Celtic culture.<ref>Wasson, ''Soma:Divine Mushroom of Immortality'' p. 190-91</ref> He speculates that the power of this taboo may have perpetuated its malign reputation while other lethal fungi such as the death cap (''[[Amanita phalloides|A. phalloides]]'') have had little cultural connotations throughout European history.<ref>Wasson, ''Soma:Divine Mushroom of Immortality'' p. 192</ref>
[[Ethnobotanist]] and ethnomycologist [[Giorgio Samorini]] has proposed a [[symbiotic]] relationship between toads, flies and the fly agaric. After a lick of ''A. muscaria'', flies become inebriated and delirious prey for hungry toads that may have learned this, therefore hanging out around [[toadstool]]s. This relationship within nature illuminates an [[etymological]] keystone and example of [[zoopharmacognosy]]. This would also provide further [[biosemiotic]] insight into the ancient mystery of toads, flies and mushrooms appearing together in popular mythology and fairy lore.<ref>{{cite book |title=Animals and Psychedelics: The Natural World and the Instinct to Alter Consciousness |last= Samorini |first=G |authorlink=Giorgio Samorini|year=2000 |publisher=Park Street Press |location= |isbn=0892819863 |pages= }}</ref> However it is more commonly thought that toads are associated with the mushroom because they symbolise toxicity and [[chthonic]] forces in the same way that [[serpent (symbolism)|serpent]]s do.<ref>Wasson, ''Soma:Divine Mushroom of Immortality'' p. 190</ref>
===Classification===
''Amanita muscaria'' is the [[type species]] of the genus ''Amanita''. By extension, it is also the type species of ''Amanita'' [[subgenus]] ''Amanita'', as well as section ''Amanita'' within this subgenus. ''Amanita'' subgenus ''Amanita'' includes all ''Amanita'' with [[inamyloid]] spores. ''Amanita'' [[Section (botany)|section]] ''Amanita'' includes those species with patchy [[universal veil]] remnants, including a volva that is reduced to a series of concentric rings and the veil remnants on the [[pileus]] being a series of patches or warts. Most species in this group also have a bulbous base.<ref name=singer>[[Rolf Singer|Singer R]]. (1986). The Agaricales in modern taxonomy (4th ed). ISBN 3874292541</ref> <ref name=jenkins>Jenkins DT. (1986). ''Amanita'' of North America. ISBN 0-916422-55-0</ref>
''Amanita'' section ''Amanita'' consists of ''A. muscaria'' and its close relatives, including ''[[Amanita pantherina|A. pantherina]]'' (the panther cap), ''[[Amanita gemmata]]'', ''[[Amanita farinosa|A. farinosa]]'', and ''[[Amanita xanthocephala|A. xanthocephala]]''.<ref>Tulloss RE. (2007). [http://pluto.njcc.com/~ret/amanita/sectaman.html "''Amanita'' sect. ''Amanita''"] (webpage).</ref> Modern fungal taxonomists have classified ''Amanita muscaria'' and its allies this way based on gross [[Morphology (biology)|morphology]] and spore inamyloidy. Two recent [[molecular phylogenetic]] studies have confirmed this classification as natural.<ref>Moncalvo J-M, Drehmel D, & Vilgalys R. (2000). [http://www.biology.duke.edu/fungi/mycolab/publications/moncalvo2000mpe.pdf Variation in modes and rates of evolution in nuclear and mitochondrial ribosomal DNA in the mushroom genus ''Amanita'' (Agaricales, Basidiomycota): phylogenetic implications.] ''Molecular Phylogenetic and Evolution'' '''16''':48_63. {{DOI|10.1006/mpev.2000.0782}}</ref> <ref>Drehmel D, Moncalvo J-M, & Vilgalys R. (1999). Molecular phylogeny of ''Amanita'' based on large subunit ribosomal DNA sequences: implications for taxonomy and character evolution. ''Mycologia'' '''91''': 610-618. ([http://www.biology.duke.edu/fungi/mycolab/publications/amanitaMYCOLOGIA.html abstract])</ref>
[[Image:Amanita muscaria americana.jpg|thumb|right|''Amanita muscaria'' var. ''guessowii'' has a yellow cap surface.<br>[[Middlesex Fells Reservation|Middlesex Fells]], [[Massachusetts]]]]
''Amanita muscaria'' varies considerably in its morphology and many authorities recognize a number of subspecies or varieties within the species. In ''The Agaricales in Modern Taxonomy'', Rolf Singer listed three subspecies, though without description: ''A. muscaria'' ssp. ''muscaria'', ''A. muscaria'' ssp. ''americana'', and ''A. muscaria'' ssp. ''flavivolvata''.<ref name=singer/>
Contemporary authorities recognize up to seven varieties:
* var. '''''muscaria''''', the typical red-and-white spotted variety. Some authorities, such as Rodham Tulloss, only use this name for Eurasian and western [[Alaskan]] populations.<ref name=jenkins/> <ref name=tulloss1>Tulloss RE. (2006a). [http://pluto.njcc.com/~ret/amanita/species/muscmusc.html "''Amanita muscaria'' (L.:Fr.) Lam. var. muscaria"], ''Tulloss ''Amanita'' pages''.</ref>
* var. '''''flavivolvata''''' is red, with yellow to yellowish-white warts, and occurs in the western regions of the North American continent, from southern Alaska down through the [[Rocky Mountains]], through [[Central America]], to at least Andean [[Colombia]]. Rodham Tulloss uses this name to describe all "typical" ''A. muscaria'' from indigenous New World populations from Alaska southward.<ref name=jenkins/> <ref name=tulloss2>Tulloss RE. (2006b). [http://pluto.njcc.com/~ret/amanita/species/muscflav.html "''Amanita muscaria'' subsp. ''flavivolvata'' Singer"] ''Tulloss ''Amanita'' pages''.</ref>
* var. '''''alba''''', an uncommon fungus, has a white to silvery white cap with white warts but otherwise similar to the usual form.<ref name=jenkins/> <ref name = "Phillips91">{{cite book | author = Phillips R. | year = 1991 | title = Mushrooms of North America | publisher = Boston: Little, Brown & Co | id = ISBN 0-316-70612-4 (hardcover) ISBN 0-316-70613-2 (paperback)}}</ref>
* var. '''''formosa''''', has a yellow to orange-yellow cap with yellowish or tan warts and stem. Some authorities use this name for all ''A. muscaria'' fitting this description worldwide (cf, Jenkins), others (cf, Tulloss) restrict its use to Eurasian populations.<ref name=jenkins/> <ref name=tulloss3>Tulloss RE. (2006c). [http://pluto.njcc.com/~ret/amanita/species/muscgues.html "''Amanita muscaria'' var. ''guessowii'' Veselý"], ''Tulloss ''Amanita'' pages''.</ref>
* var. '''''guessowii''''' is yellow to orange, with center of cap more orange or reddish orange than the outer part. It is found throughout North America, but is most common in northeastern North America, from [[Newfoundland and Labrador|Newfoundland]] and [[Quebec]] down to [[Tennessee]]. Some authorities (cf, Jenkins) treat these populations as part of ''A. muscaria'' var. ''formosa'', while others (cf, Tulloss) recognize it as a distinct variety.<ref name=jenkins/> <ref name=tulloss3/>
* var. '''''persicina''''' is pinkish to orangish "melon" colored with poorly formed or absent remnants of universal veil on the stem and vasal bulb, known from the Southeastern Coastal areas of the U.S.A, described in 1977.<ref name=jenkins/> <ref name=tulloss4>Tulloss RE. (2006d). [http://pluto.njcc.com/~ret/amanita/species/muscpers.html "''Amanita muscaria'' var. ''persicina'' Dav. T. Jenkins"], ''Tulloss ''Amanita'' pages''.</ref>
* var. '''''regalis''''' (= ''Amanita regalis'' <small>(Fr.) Michael</small>), from [[Scandinavia]] and [[Alaska]],<ref>Miller OK. (1982). Higher fungi in Alaskan subarctic tundra and taiga plant communities. In: ''Arctic and Alpine Mycology'' (eds Laursen GA, Ammirati JF), p 123–149. Seattle: University of Washington Press. ISBN 0295958561</ref> is liver-brown and has yellow warts. It appears to be uniformly distinctive and some authorities (cf, Tulloss) treat it as a separate species, while others (cf, Jenkins) treat it as a variety of ''A. muscaria''.<ref name=jenkins/> <ref name=tulloss5>Tulloss RE. (2006e). [http://pluto.njcc.com/~ret/amanita/species/regaliss.html "''Amanita regalis'' (Fr.) Michael"], ''Tulloss ''Amanita'' pages''.</ref>
A 2006 molecular phylogenetic study of different regional populations of ''A. muscaria'' by Geml, et al. found three distinct [[clades]] within this species representing, roughly, Eurasian, Eurasian "subalpine", and North American populations. (Alaska contains examples of all three clades, leading to the hypothesis that this was the center of diversification of this species.) The study also looked at four named varieties of this species; var. ''alba'', var. ''flavivolvata'', var. ''formosa'' (including var. ''guessowii''), and var. ''regalis'' from both areas. All four varieties were found within both the Eurasian and North American clades, evidence that these morphological forms are simply [[Polymorphism (biology)|polymorphisms]] found throughout the species rather than distinct subspecies or varieties.<ref name = "Geml06">Geml J, Laursen GA, O’Neill K, Nusbaum HC, Taylor DL. (2006). [http://users.iab.uaf.edu/~jozsef_geml/AmanitaME.pdf Beringian origins and cryptic speciation events in the fly agaric (''Amanita muscaria'')]. Molecular Ecology 15:225–239. {{DOI|10.1111/j.1365-294X.2005.02799.x}}</ref>
== Description ==
[[Image:Amanita muscaria tyndrum.jpg|thumb|left|A mature ''Amanita muscaria'' near [[Tyndrum]], [[Scotland]], showing a flat pileus]]
A large conspicuous [[mushroom]], ''Amanita muscaria'' is generally common and numerous where it grows, often being found in groups with [[basidiocarp]]s in all stages of development. Fully grown, the bright red cap is usually around 8-20 cm (3-8 [[inches|in]]) in diameter, though larger specimens have been found. The red colour may fade after rain and in older mushrooms. After emerging from the ground, the cap is covered with numerous small white to yellow flecks (warts) which are remnants of the [[universal veil]], a membrane that encloses the entire mushroom when it is still very young. The gills are white, as is the spore print. The stem is white, 5-20 cm high (approximately 2-8 in), with a basal [[Volva (mycology)|bulb]] that bears universal veil remnants (more or less distinct rings or ruffs), and has the slightly brittle, fibrous texture typical of many large mushrooms. Between the basal universal veil remnants and gills are remnants of the [[partial veil]] (which covers the gills during development) in the form of a white [[annulus (mycology)|ring]]. It can be quite wide and flaccid with age. There is generally no associated smell other than a mild earthiness.<ref name = "Ultimatemush">{{cite book | author = Jordan P & Wheeler S | year = 2001 | title = The Ultimate Mushroom Book | publisher = Hermes House | ISBN = 0831730803}} ISBN 0831730803</ref>
Fly agaric fruiting bodies emerge from the soil looking like a white egg, covered in the white warty material of the universal veil. As the fungus grows, the red colour appears through the broken veil, and the cap changes from hemispherical to plate-like and flat in mature specimens.<ref>{{cite book|author=Zeitlmayr L|year=1976|title=Wild Mushrooms:An Illustrated Handbook|publisher=garden City Press, Hertfordshire|id=ISBN 0-584-10324-7}}</ref>
[[Image:Amanita muscaria spores.jpg|thumb|right|spores under microscopy]]
Though very distinctive, the fly agaric has been mistaken for other yellow to red species in the Americas such as ''[[Armillaria]]'' cf. ''mellea'' and the edible ''Amanita basii'', a Mexican species similar to ''[[Amanita caesarea|A. caesarea]]'' of Europe. Poison control centers in the U.S. and Canada are aware that ''amarill'' is a common name of ''A. caesarea''-like species in Mexico, not just the Spanish for 'yellow'.
''Amanita caesarea'' can be distinguished as it has an entire orange red cap, lacking the numerous white warty spots of the fly agaric. Furthermore the stem, gills and ring are bright yellow, not white.<ref>{{cite book | author = Haas H | year = 1969 | title = The Young Specialist Looks at Fungi| publisher = Burke | id=ISBN 0222794143}}</ref> Finally the volva is a distinct white bag, not broken into scales.<ref>{{cite book | author = Krieger LCC | year = 1967 | title = The Mushroom Handbook| publisher = Dover| id=ISBN 0486218619}}</ref>
In Australia, the introduced fly agaric may be confused with the native vermilion grisette (''[[Amanita xanthocephala]]''), which grows in association with Eucalypts. The latter species generally lacks the white warts of ''A. muscaria'' and bears no ring.<ref name ="fungimap">{{cite book |title=Fungi Down Under:the Fungimap Guide to Australian Fungi|author=Grey P|year=2005|pages=p. 21|publisher=Royal Botanic Gardens |location=Melbourne |isbn=0-646-44674-6}}</ref>
== Distribution and habitat==
[[Image:Amanita muscaria Cuenca.JPG|thumb|''A. muscaria'' in a pine woodland of ''[[Pinus sylvestris]]''.]]
''A. muscaria'' is a cosmopolitan mushroom, native to [[birch]], [[pine]], [[spruce]], [[fir]] and [[cedar]] woodlands throughout the temperate and boreal regions of the Northern Hemisphere,<ref name = "Geml06"/> including high elevations of warmer latitudes in regions like the [[Hindu Kush]], the Mediterranean and Central America. Interestingly, a recent molecular study proposes an ancestral origin in the [[Siberia]]n–[[Beringia]]n region in the [[Tertiary]] period before radiating outwards across Asia, Europe and North America.<ref name = "Geml06"> </ref> Though generally encountered in autumn, the season can vary in different climates: fruiting occurs in summer and autumn across most of North America, but later in autumn and early winter on the Pacific coast. It is often found in similar locations to ''[[Boletus edulis]]'', and may appear in [[fairy ring]]s.<ref name="benjamin305">Benjamin, ''Mushrooms: poisons and panaceas'', p. 305</ref> It has been widely transported into the southern hemisphere, including Australia,<ref>Reid DA (1980) A monograph of the Australian species of ''Amanita'' Persoon ex Hooker (Fungi). ''Australian Journal of Botany'', Supplementary Series '''8''':1–96</ref> New Zealand, South Africa<ref>Reid DA, Eicker A (1991) South African fungi: the genus ''Amanita''. ''Mycological Research'', '''95''', 80–95.</ref> and South America, where it usually occurs under introduced pine trees.
The fungal equivalent of a [[weed]] in southeastern Australia, it appears to have formed new associations with southern beech (''[[Nothofagus]]'') in [[Tasmania]] and [[Victoria (Australia)|Victoria]] and invading native rain forest, where there are concerns it may be displacing native species.<ref>Fuhrer, Bruce (2005) A Field Guide to Australian Fungi. Bloomings Books. ISBN 1-876473-51-7</ref> Furthermore it appears to be spreading northwards with recent reports near [[Port Macquarie, New South Wales|Port Macquarie]] on the [[New South Wales]] north coast.<ref>May T. (2006). [http://www.rbg.vic.gov.au/?f=16290 News from the fungimap president.] ''Fungimap Newsletter'' '''29''':1</ref>
When imported to a new country, ''A. muscaria'' can jump to native species (for example, ''[[Eucalyptus]]'' in [[Australia]]). It can then be exported with its new [[symbiont]] (for example, from Australia to Argentina).
== Toxicity==
Victims of ''Amanita muscaria'' poisoning are generally either young children or people ingesting it for a hallucinogenic experience. Occasionally, immature button forms have been mistaken for edible [[puffball]]s.<ref name="benjamin30304">Benjamin, ''Mushrooms: poisons and panaceas'', p. 303-04</ref> About {{convert|1|g|oz|2|abbr=on}} of ''A. muscaria'' or 50-100 mg ibotenic acid is considered a toxic dose.<ref name=chilton>Chilton WS. (1975). The course of an intentional poisoning. ''MacIlvanea'' 2: 17.</ref> <ref>von Theobald W, Büch O, Kunz HA, Krupp P, Stenger EG, Heimann H. (1968). Pharmacological and experimental psychological studies on 2 components of the toadstool (''Amanita muscaria''). Pharmakologische und experimentalpsychologische Untersuchungen mit 2 Inhaltsstoffen des Fliegenspilzes (''Amanita muscaria''). ''Arzneim Forschung'' '''18''': 311–315.</ref> [[Ibotenic acid]], a compound present in ''A. muscaria'', has shown to be highly [[neurotoxin|neurotoxic]] when injected directly into the brains of mice and rats.<ref name="Olpe78">{{cite journal |author=Olpe HR, Koella WP |year=1978|title=The action of muscimol on neurones of the substantia nigra of the rat |journal= Experientia |volume=34 |pages=235 | doi = 10.1007/BF01944700}}</ref>
Deaths from ''A. muscaria'' are extremely rare. A historical journal article reported two fatalities occurring in North America. <ref>Cagliari GE. (1897). Mushroom Poisoning. ''Medical Record'' '''52''': 298.</ref> With modern medical treatment the prognosis is generally good.<ref>Tupalska-Wilczyńska K, Ignatowicz R, Poziemski A, Wójcik H, Wilczyński G. (1996). Poisoning with spotted and red mushrooms--pathogenesis, symptoms, treatment. ''Wiadomości lekarskie'' '''49''': 66-71.</ref> A fatal dose has been calculated at approximately 15 fly agaric caps,<ref name="benjamin309">Benjamin, ''Mushrooms: poisons and panaceas'', p. 309</ref> although the amount and ratio of chemical compounds per mushroom varies widely from region to region, season to season, further confusing the issue. It has been reported that spring and summer mushrooms may contain up to 10 times as much ibotenic acid and muscimol compared to fall fruitings.<ref name="Benjamin92"/> Many older books mistakenly list it as deadly, giving the impression that it is far more toxic than it really is.<ref name="arora894">{{cite book |last=[[David Arora|Arora]] |first=David |year=1986|title=Mushrooms demystified: a comprehensive guide to the fleshy fungi |edition=2nd ed. |location=Berkeley |publisher=Ten Speed Press |isbn=0-89815-169-4| pages=p. 894}}</ref> The vast majority of [[mushroom poisoning]] fatalities (90% or more) are from having eaten either the greenish to yellowish death cap (''[[Amanita phalloides|A. phalloides]]'') or one of the several ''Amanita'' species known as [[destroying angel]].<ref name="benjamin200">Benjamin, ''Mushrooms: poisons and panaceas'', p. 200</ref>
The active constituents of this species are water soluble, and boiling and then discarding the cooking water will at least partly detoxify ''A. muscaria''. However, drying may increase potency as the process facilitates the conversion of ibotenic acid to the more potent muscimol.<ref name="benjamin310">Benjamin, ''Mushrooms: poisons and panaceas'', p. 310</ref> According to some sources, once detoxified, the mushroom becomes edible.<ref>Rubel W. (2006). [http://www.williamrubel.com/mushrooms/amanita-muscaria/ Amanita muscaria] (webpage).</ref> In Sanada, [[Japan]], fly agarics are detoxified by [[pickling]] them. <ref>{{cite paper
| author = Allan G. Phipps; Bennett, Bradley C.; Downum, Kelsey R.
| title = Japanese use of Beni-tengu-dake (Amanita muscaria) and the efficacy of traditional detoxification methods
| publisher = Florida International University, Miami, Florida
| date= 2000}}</ref>
===Pharmacology===
''Amanita muscaria'' contains a number of biologically active agents, at least two of which are known to be [[psychoactive]]. [[Muscimol]] (3hydroxy-5-aminomethy-1 isoxazole, an unsaturated cyclic [[hydroxamic acid]]) is the most significant. It is the product of the [[decarboxylation]] or drying of [[ibotenic acid]], another important compound in the biochemistry of the fly agaric. [[Muscarine]], discovered in 1869,<ref>Schmiedeberg O, Koppe R. (1869). Das Muscarin, das giftige Alkaloid des Fliegenpilzes. Leipzig: FCW Vogel.</ref> was long thought to be the active hallucinogenic agent in ''A. muscaria'' until the mid 20th century,<ref>Kögl F, Salemink CA, Shouten H, Jellinek F. (1957). Über Muscarin III. ''Recueil des Travaux Chimiques des Pays-Bas'' '''76''':109–127.</ref> <ref>Cox HC, Hardegger E, Kögl F, Liechti P, Lohse F, Salemink CA. (1958). Uber Muscarin: Uber die Synthese von racemischem Muscarin, seine Spaltung in die Antipoden und die Herstellung von (x)-Muscarin aus D-Glucosamin. ''Helvetica Chimica Acta'' '''41''':229–234.</ref> when researchers in England,<ref>Bowden K, Drysdale AC. (1965). A novel constituent of ''Amanita muscaria''. ''Tetrahedron Letters'' '''6''': 727–728. {{DOI|10.1016/S0040-4039(01)83973-3}}</ref> Japan,<ref>Takemoto T, Nakajima T. (1964). Structure of ibotenic acid. ''Journal of the Pharmacological Society of Japan'' '''84''': 1232–1233.</ref> and Switzerland<ref>Eugster CH, Müller GFR, Good R. (1965). Active principles from ''Amanita muscaria'': ibotenic acid and muscazone. ''Tetrahedron Letters'' '''6''': 1813–1815. {{DOI|10.1016/S0040-4039(00)90133-3}}</ref> recognized that these effects were due mainly to ibotenic acid and muscimol.<ref name ="Bnejamin95">{{cite book |last=Benjamin| first= Denis R. |title=Mushrooms: poisons and panaceas — a handbook for naturalists, mycologists and physicians |publisher=WH Freeman and Company| location=New York |year=1995| isbn=0-7167-2600-9|pages=pp. 306-07}}</ref>
[[Ibotenic acid]] and [[muscimol]] are structurally related to each other and to two major neurotransmitters of the central nervous system: [[glutamic acid]] and [[GABA]] respectively. Ibotenic acid and muscimol act like these neurotransmitters (muscimol is a potent [[GABA A receptor|GABA<sub>A</sub>]] [[agonist]], while ibotenic acid is an agonist of [[NMDA receptor|NMDA glutamate receptors]] and certain [[metabotropic glutamate receptor]]s<ref>{{cite journal |author=Jørgensen CG, Bräuner-Osborne H, Nielsen B, ''et al'' |title=Novel 5-substituted 1-pyrazolol analogues of ibotenic acid: synthesis and pharmacology at glutamate receptors |journal=Bioorg. Med. Chem. |volume=15 |issue=10 |pages=3524–38 |year=2007 |month=May |pmid=17376693 |doi=10.1016/j.bmc.2007.02.047 |url=}}</ref>) which are involved in the control of neuronal activity. It is these interactions which are thought to cause the psychoactive effects found in intoxication. Following ingestion some of the ibotenic acid is metabolised to muscimol which would appear to be the agent responsible for the majority of the psychoactivity.<ref name = "Michelot03"/><ref name="Satora05">Satora L, Pach D, Butryn B, Hydzik P, Balicka-Slusarczyk B. (2005). Fly agaric (Amanita muscaria) poisoning, case report and review. ''Toxicon'' '''45''': 941-3. {{DOI|10.1016/j.toxicon.2005.01.005}}</ref> Indeed, ibotenic acid's strong water solubility means that it could not distribute into the brain without an active process like a transporter; this, and the lack of any reports of permanent brain damage following A. Muscaria ingestion (which would be the result of ibotenic acid entering the brain due to its effect as an NMDA receptor agonist) make it unlikely that ibotenic acid enters the brain following A. Muscaria ingestion. However, it is worth noting that no studies have directly investigated ibotenic acid's ability to permeate the brain.
[[Muscazone]] is another compound more recently isolated from European specimens of the fly agaric. It is a product of the breakdown of ibotenic acid by [[ultra-violet radiation]].<ref>Fritz H, Gagneux AR, Zbinden R & Eugster CH. (1965) The structure of muscazone. ''Tetrahedron Letters'' '''6''' 2075–2076. {{DOI|10.1016/S0040-4039(00)90133-3}}</ref> It is of minor [[Biological activity|pharmacological activity]] compared with the other agents.<ref name = "Michelot03"/>
[[Muscarine]] binds with [[Muscarinic acetylcholine receptor]] and lead to the excitation of the neurons bearing these receptors. The levels in ''Amanita muscaria'' are minute when compared with other poisonous fungi,<ref>{{de icon}} Eugster CH. (1968). "Wirkstoffe aus dem Fligenpilz"; ''Naturwissenschaften'', '''55''':305–13. {{DOI|10.1007/BF00600445}}</ref> such as the deadly ''[[Inocybe erubescens]]'' or small white ''[[Clitocybe]]'' species ''[[Clitocybe dealbata|C. dealbata]]'' and ''C. rivulosa'', and are too insignificant to play a role in the symptoms of poisoning.<ref name="benjamin306">Benjamin, ''Mushrooms: poisons and panaceas'', p. 306</ref>
Amanita muscaria and related species are known as effective accumulators of [[vanadium]] (up to 500 mg/kg in dry weight). Vanadium is present as an organometallic compound (called amavadine) in fruit-bodies. However, the biological importance of the accumulation process is unknown.
[[Image:Amanita muscaria 2.jpg|thumb|right|''Amanita muscaria'' growing in autumn [[Scotland|Scottish]] [[woodland]]]]
===Symptoms===
Fly agarics are known for the unpredictability of their effects. Depending on habitat and the amount ingested per body weight, effects can range from [[nausea]] and twitching to drowsiness, [[choline]]rgic effects (low [[blood pressure]], [[sweat]]ing and [[saliva]]tion), auditory and visual distortions, mood changes, [[Euphoria (emotion)|euphoria]], relaxation, and [[Vertigo (medical)|loss of equilibrium]]. Retrograde [[amnesia]] frequently results following recovery.<ref name="Benjamin92">Benjamin D. (1992). Mushroom poisoning in infants and children: the Amanita pantherina/muscaria group. ''Journal of toxicology: Clinical toxicology'' '''30''': 13-22.</ref> <ref name="Buck63">Buck R. (1963) Toxicity of Amanita muscaria. ''JAMA'' '''185''': 663-4.</ref> <ref name="Satora05"/>
In cases of serious poisoning it causes a [[delirium]], characterized by bouts of marked [[agitation]] with confusion, hallucinations, and irritability followed by periods of [[central nervous system]] depression. [[Seizures]] and [[coma]] may also occur in severe poisonings.<ref name="Satora05"/> Effects typically appear after around 30 to 90 minutes and peak within three hours, but certain effects can last for a number of days. <ref name=chilton/><ref name="Brvar06">Brvar M, Mozina M, Bunc M. (2006). Prolonged psychosis after Amanita muscaria ingestion. ''Wiener klinische Wochenschrift'' '''118''': 294-7.{{DOI|10.1007/s00508-006-0581-6}}</ref> In the majority of cases recovery is complete within 12 hours. The effect is highly variable and individuals can react quite differently to the similar doses.<ref name="Benjamin92"/><ref name="chilton" /> <ref name ="Ott76">Ott J. (1976) ''Hallucinogenic Plants of North America''. Wingbow Press, Berkeley, CA. ISBN 0-914728-16-4</ref> Some cases of intoxication have exhibited headaches up to ten hours afterwards.<ref name=chilton/>
===Treatment===
Medical attention should be sought in cases of suspected poisoning. If the delay between ingestion and treatment is less than four hours, inducing vomiting with [[Syrup of ipecac]] is warranted. However, this should be avoided if there is a reduced level of consciousness and [[gastric lavage]] performed instead. Intravenous rehydration may required for recurrent vomiting but this is rare.<ref name="benjamin313">Benjamin, ''Mushrooms: poisons and panaceas'', p. 313</ref>
==Psychoactive use==
[[Image:Basket of Amanita muscaria.png|thumb|A basket of ''A. muscaria''.]]
Unlike the hallucinogenic mushrooms of the ''[[Psilocybe]]'', ''Amanita muscaria'' has been rarely consumed recreationally.<ref>Samorini G. (1992). The oldest representations of hallucinogenic mushrooms in the world (Sahara desert, 9000–7000 B.P.). ''Integration: Journal of Mind-Moving Plants Culture'' '''2/3''': 69–78.</ref> It is classified as an [[Controlled Substances Act|unscheduled drug]] in the United States. Any sales of ''A. muscaria'' for human ingestion are regulated by the [[Food and Drug Administration]]. Most other countries do not have laws against the use of ''A. muscaria'', as it is currently legal and un-controlled under United Nations international law. However, following the outlawing of [[psilocybin]]-containing mushrooms in the United Kingdom, an increased quantity of Amanita mushrooms began to be sold and consumed.<ref>European Monitoring Centre on Drugs and Drug Addiction, ''Hallucinogenic mushrooms: an emerging trend case study'', June 2006, p17</ref>
In eastern Siberia, the [[shamanism|shaman]] would consume the mushrooms, and others would drink his urine.<ref name=Wasson161>Wasson, ''Soma: Divine Mushroom of Immortality'' p. 161</ref> This urine, still containing active hallucinogens may actually be more potent than the ''A. muscaria'' mushrooms with fewer negative effects, such as sweating and twitching, suggesting that the initial user may act as a screening filter for other components in the mushroom.<ref name="Diaz">Diaz, Jaime. How Drugs Influence Behavior. Englewood Cliffs: Prentice Hall, 1996.</ref> Among the Koryak, one report held the poor would consume the urine of the wealthy, who could afford to buy the mushrooms.<ref>Wasson, ''Soma: Divine Mushroom of Immortality'' pp. 234-35</ref> If a fly agaric is eaten, it is usually not fresh, but in its dried or cooked form, where ibotenic acid is converted to the more stable and far less poisonous muscimol.
===Siberia===
''A. muscaria'' was widely used as a [[hallucinogenic drug]] by many of the [[indigenous]] [[peoples of Siberia]]. Its use was known among almost all of the [[Uralic]]-speaking peoples of western Siberia and the [[Paleosiberian]]-speaking peoples of eastern Siberia. However, there are only isolated reports of ''A. muscaria'' use among the [[Tungusic peoples|Tungusic]] and [[Turkic peoples]] of central Siberia and it is believed that hallucinogenic use of ''A. muscaria'' was largely not a practice of these peoples.<ref name="nyberg1">Nyberg H. (1992). Religious use of hallucinogenic fungi: A comparison between Siberian and Mesoamerican Cultures. Karstenia 32:71–80.</ref> <ref name = "Soma68">Wasson RG. (1968). ''Soma: Divine Mushroom of Immortality''. Harcourt Brace Jovanovick, Inc. ISBN 0-15-683800-1</ref> In western Siberia, the use of ''A. muscaria'' was restricted to [[shamans]], who used it as an alternate method of achieving a trance state. (Normally, Siberian shamans achieve a trance state by prolonged drumming and dancing.) In eastern Siberia, ''A. muscaria'' was used by both shamans and laypeople alike, and was used recreationally as well as religiously.<ref name="nyberg1" />
The [[Koryaks|Koryak]] of eastern Siberia have a story about the fly agaric (''wapaq'') which enabled Big Raven to carry a whale to its home. In the story, the deity [[Vahiyinin]] ("Existence") spat onto earth, and his spittle became the ''wapaq'', and his saliva becomes the warts. After experiencing the power of the ''wapaq'', Raven was so exhilarated that he told it to grow forever on earth so his children, the people, can learn from it.<ref name = "Ramsbottom53">{{cite book | author = Ramsbottom J | year = 1953 | title = Mushrooms & Toadstools | publisher = Collins | id=ISBN 1870630092}}</ref>
Beyond Siberia, there are only isolated and unconfirmed reports of the hallucinogenic use of ''A. muscaria''. One source mentions that it was once used among the [[Sami people]], but no firsthand accounts of this exist.<ref name = "Soma68"> </ref> [[:de:Hartmut Geerken|Hartmut Geerken]] claims to have discovered a tradition of recreational use of this mushroom among a [[Parachi]]-speaking group in [[Afghanistan]].<ref> Mochtar, S.G. & H. Geerken. (1979). [http://www.erowid.org/plants/amanitas/references/journal/1979_mochtar_afghanistan1.shtml The Hallucinogens Muscarine and Ibotenic Acid in the Middle Hindu Kush: A contribution on traditional medicinal mycology in Afghanistan.] Afghanistan Journal 6:62-65. (Translated with additional notes by Peter G. Werner, 1997.)</ref> There are also unconfirmed reports of religious use of ''A. muscaria'' among two Subarctic [[Indigenous peoples of the Americas|Native American]] tribes, the [[Ojibway]]<ref>Keewaydinoquay. (1978). Puhpohwee for the people: a narrative account of some uses of fungi among the Ahnishinaubeg. Cambridge, MA: Botanical Museum of Harvard University. ISBN 1879528185</ref> <ref>{{fr icon}}{{cite journal |author=Navet E |year=1988|title=Les Ojibway et l'Amanite tue-mouche (''Amanita muscaria''). Pour une éthnomycologie des Indiens d'Amérique du Nord. |journal=Journal de la Société des Américanistes |volume=74 |pages=163–80}}</ref> and the [[Dogrib]].<ref>Larsen S. (1976). The Shaman's Doorway. New York: Station Hill Press. ISBN 0892816724</ref> Authors of ''Sacred Soma Shamans'' Hawk and Venus have used ''A. muscaria'' as a sacrament and daily medicinal tonic since 1979.<ref name="CannabisCulture"> {{cite news | author = Steven Scott | title = The High Shamans of Soma | url = http://cannabisculture.com/articles/4613.html | work = Cannabis Culture | date= 2005-12-29 | accessdate = 2007-05-18 | language = English}}</ref>
===Soma===
There are also claims that ''A. muscaria'' played in important role in a number of ancient religious rites, though these claims tend to be speculative and highly controversial. The best known of these claims is [[R. Gordon Wasson]]'s proposition that ''A. muscaria'' was the [[Soma]] talked about in [[Rig Veda]] of [[India]],<ref name = "Soma68"> </ref> and is less often also thought to be the [[amrita]] talked about in [[Buddhist]] scriptures.<ref name=siddhas>Hajicek-Dobberstein S. (1995). Soma siddhas and alchemical enlightenment: psychedelic mushrooms in Buddhist tradition. ''Journal of Ethnopharmacology'' 48:99–118. {{DOI|10.1016/0378-8741(95)01292-L}} </ref> (''For more details on this topic, see'' [[Botanical identity of Soma-Haoma]].)
===Berserker rages===
The notion that Nordic [[Viking]]s used ''A. muscaria'' to produce their [[berserker]] rages was first suggested by the Swedish professor Samuel Ödman in 1784.<ref>Ödman S. (1784) Försök at utur Naturens Historia förklara de nordiska gamla Kämpars Berserka-gang (An attept to Explain the Berserk-raging of Ancient Nordic Warriors through Natural History). ''Kongliga Vetenskaps Academiens nya Handlingar'' '''5''': 240-247 (In: Wasson, 1968)</ref> Ödman based his theories on reports about the use of fly agaric among Siberian shamans. The notion has become widespread since the 19th century, but no contemporary sources mention this use or anything similar in their description of berserkers.
Today, it is generally considered an urban legend or at best speculation that cannot be proven. On the whole, [[muscimol]], the [[psychoactive]] ingredient, is a mild relaxant, but it is widely known, as with all [[drugs]] that it can create a range of reactions within a range of people <ref>[http://www.erowid.org/plants/amanitas/amanitas_writings3.shtml Erowid Psychoactive Amanitas Vault : Article #3<!-- Bot generated title -->]</ref> and it is possible that it could make a person incredibly angry, as well as make them "very jolly or sad, [jump] about, [dance], [sing] or [give] way to great fright". <ref> http://www.erowid.org/plants/amanitas/amanitas_writings3.shtml A Site detailing various authors view on the cultural history, significance and effects of the Fly Agaric Mushroom </ref>
===Christianity===
[[John Marco Allegro]] argues in ''The Sacred Mushroom and the Cross'' that the [[Christian]] religion is derived from a sex and psychedelic mushroom cult,<ref>
{{cite book | author = Allegro, John. | year = 1970 | title = The Sacred Mushroom and the Cross: A Study of the Nature and Origins of Christianity within the Fertility Cults of the Ancient Near East | publisher = Hodder and Stoughton | location = London| id = ISBN 0-340-12875-5}}</ref>, although his theory has found little support by scholars outside the field of [[ethnomycology]]. In ''Magic Mushrooms in Religion and Alchemy'' (formerly called ''Strange Fruit'') Clark Heinrich interprets ''A. muscaria'' usage by [[Adam and Eve]], [[Moses]], [[Elijah]] and [[Elisha]], [[Isaiah]], [[Ezekiel]], [[Jonah]], [[Jesus]] and his [[disciples]], and [[John of Patmos]].<ref>{{cite book
| title = Magic Mushrooms in Religion and Alchemy
| last = Heinrich
| first = Clark
| publisher = Park Street Press
| pages = pp 64 - 134
| isbn = 089281997-9}}</ref> In the book ''Apples of Apollo'' the mushroom is identified in a wide range of mythological tales such as those involving [[Perseus]], [[Prometheus]], [[Heracles]], [[Jason and the Argonauts]], [[Jesus]] and the [[Holy Grail]].<ref>{{cite book
| title = The Apples of Apollo
| last = Ruck
| first = Carl
| authorlink = Carl Ruck
| coauthors = [[Blaise Daniel Staples]], Clark Heinrich
| publisher = Carolina Academic Press
| year = 2001
| isbn = 0-89089-924-X}}</ref>
== Cultural depictions ==
{| style="float:right;"
|-
|[[Image:Amanite tue-mouche.JPG|thumb|The classic shape, well known in popular culture.]]
|-
|[[Image:Mushroom.jpg|thumb|A Super Mushroom as seen in ''[[New Super Mario Bros.]]'']]
|}
The red-and-white spotted toadstool is a common image in many aspects of popular culture,<ref name="arora86"/> especially in children's books, film and more recently computer games; a partly grown ''A. muscaria'', as shown right, is clearly the fungus upon which this icon is based.
===Art===
Images dating back to 3500 BC painted in caves at [[Tassili]], Algeria, depict mushrooms, more than likely including ''A. muscaria'' mushrooms according to scholars [http://www.bbc.co.uk/dna/h2g2/A6084218], although a Psilocybe species has also been suggested.
Fly agarics have been featured in paintings since the [[Renaissance]] [http://www.mykoweb.com/art-registry/index.html], albeit in a subtle manner. In the [[Victorian era]] they became more visible, even becoming the main topic of some [[fairy painting]]s [http://www.mushroomthejournal.com/bestof/VicFP.html], usually inspired by [[Shakespeare]]'s [[A Midsummer Night's Dream]]. The waning of [[Romanticism]] and the advent of [[World War I]] reduced interest in fairies along with fly agarics, reducing them to the realm of childish fantasies.
===Literature and entertainment===
Garden ornaments, and children's picture books depicting [[gnome]]s and [[fairies]], such as the [[Smurf]]s, very often show fly agarics used as seats, or homes.<ref name="benjamin295">Benjamin, ''Mushrooms: poisons and panaceas'', p. 295</ref><ref name="arora86">{{cite book |last=[[David Arora|Arora]] |first=David |year=1986|title=Mushrooms demystified: a comprehensive guide to the fleshy fungi |edition=2nd ed. |location=Berkeley |publisher=Ten Speed Press |isbn=0-89815-169-4| pages=p. 282-83}}</ref> Two of the most famous uses of the mushroom are in the video game series [[Mushroom (Mario)|Super Mario Bros.]] and the dancing mushroom sequence in the 1940 Disney film [[Fantasia (film)|Fantasia]].<ref name = "Ramsbottom53">{{cite book | author = Ramsbottom J | year = 1953 | title = Mushrooms & Toadstools | publisher = Collins | id = ISBN }}</ref> They also have appearances in [[Metal Gear Solid 3: Snake Eater]], [[Katamari Damacy]], and [[The Elder Scrolls IV: Oblivion]].
===Christmas decorations and Santa Claus===
[[Image:Amanita postcard.gif|thumb|left|Christmas card from 1903-1904]]
Fly agarics appear on [[Christmas cards]] and [[New Year]] cards from around the world as a symbol of good [[luck]].<ref>Wasson, ''Soma:Divine Mushroom of Immortality'' p. 204</ref> They also function as [[Christmas tree]] decorations [http://bluehoney.org/bluehoney/index.php?module=photoalbum&PHPWS_Album_op=view&PHPWS_Album_id=5&PAGER_limit=16&PAGER_start=0&PAGER_section=1], derived from their [[ectomycorrhizal]] relationship with [[coniferous tree]]s. The ethnobotanist [[Jonathan Ott]] has suggested that the idea of [[Santa Claus]] and tradition of hanging stockings over the fireplace is based centrally upon the fly agaric mushroom itself.<ref name ="Ott76">Ott J. (1976) Hallucinogenic Plants of North America. Wingbow Press, Berkeley, CA. ISBN 0-914728:16-4 </ref> With its generally red and white color scheme, he argues that Santa Claus's suit is related to the mushroom. He also draws parallels with flying reindeer: reindeer had been reported to consume the mushroom and prance around in an intoxicated manner afterwards.<ref>Wasson, ''Soma:Divine Mushroom of Immortality'' p. 238</ref> Until the 20th century the red-and-white [[Santa suit]] familiar today was not firmly established, although Saint Nicholas, on which Santa Claus is partly based, was always depicted in red (''see also:'' [[Origins of Santa Claus]]). One scholar researching possible links between religious myths and the red mushroom notes, "If Santa Claus had but one eye [like [[Odin]]], or if [[Amanita muscaria#Psychoactive properties|magic urine]] had been a part of his legend, his connection to the ''Amanita muscaria'' would be much easier to believe."<ref name="siddhas" />
Ott also speculates about Santa's bag of toys. According to historians, ancient [[Siberia]] was one of the first civilizations to use fly agaric in practice.{{Fact|date=February 2007}} The Siberian hut, or [[yurt]], is equipped with a smokehole at the top. Ott suggests that a [[shaman]] entered the yurt through the smokehole with a sack of mushrooms in his hand, to be placed in stockings over the fireplace where they could be dried for celebratory use.
== References ==
{{reflist|2}}
== Further reading ==
{{refbegin}}
* Högberg O. Flugsvampen och människan. (In Swedish) ISBN 91-7203-555-2
**[http://web.archive.org/web/20050505081819/http://www.carlssonbokforlag.se/humaniora/dox/Korrigeringar+Flugsv.pdf Chapter 2]
* Michelot D, Melendez-Howell LM. (2003) [http://www.erowid.org/references/refs_view.php?A=ShowDocPartFrame&C=ref&ID=6472&DocPartID=6005 ''Amanita muscaria'': chemistry, biology, toxicology, and ethnomycology.] Mycological Research 107:131–146. {{DOI|10.1017/S0953756203007305}}
* [[Richard Evans Schultes|Schultes RE]], [[Albert Hofmann|Hofmann A]], Rätsch C. (2001). Plants of the gods: their sacred, healing, and hallucinogenic powers (2nd ed). ISBN 0892819790
* [[Peter Lamborn Wilson]]. "Ploughing the Clouds: The Search for Irish [[Soma]]"[http://www.amazon.com/dp/0872863263]
* Hawk and Venus. ''Sacred Soma Shamans''[http://www.somashamans.com/somabook.html]</div>
{{refend}}
== External links ==
{{commons}}
{{wikispecies|Amanita muscaria}}
*[http://americanmushrooms.com/taxa/Amanita_muscaria_var_formosa_01a.htm AmericanMushrooms.com: Fly Agaric]
*[http://botit.botany.wisc.edu/toms_fungi/dec99.html "Fungus of the Month: ''Amanita muscaria'', the fly agaric"] by Tom Volk, December 1999.
*[http://www.mykoweb.com/CAF/species/Amanita_muscaria.html "Amanita muscaria"] by Michael Wood and Fred Stevens, ''Mykoweb.com'', 2004.
*[http://leda.lycaeum.org/?ID=47 Amanita muscaria], ''Lycaeum.org'', November 30, 2000.
*[http://www.intox.org/databank/documents/fungi/aminita/pimg026.htm "Amanita muscaria, Amanita pantherina and others"], ''IPCS INTOX Databank''.
*[http://cannabisculture.com/articles/3136.html "The psychedelic secrets of Santa Claus"] by Dana Larsen, ''Cannabis Culture Magazine'', December 18, 2003. – An article which suggests modern Christmas traditions are based on ancient ''Amanita muscaria''-eating shamans of the northern steppes.
*[http://www.vodoushaman.com/flyagaric.html "Fly Agaric, Father Christmas and Lunch with a Toxicologist"] by Ross Heaven, ''Voudoushamen.com''.
*[http://video.google.com/videoplay?docid=8999968493586165660 "Sacred Weeds - Amanita muscaria"] documentary on Google Video
*[http://www.someplacedifferent.co.uk/2007/08/fly-agaric.html "Some Place Different"] Fly Agaric in the Media
*[http://bluehoney.org/bluehoney/index.php?module=photoalbum&PHPWS_Album_op=view&PHPWS_Album_id=4&PAGER_limit=16&PAGER_start=0&PAGER_section=1 Christmas and Greeting Cards with fly agarics]
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[[de:Fliegenpilz]]
[[et:Punane kärbseseen]]
[[es:Amanita muscaria]]
[[eu:Kuleto faltsu]]
[[fr:Amanite tue-mouches]]
[[gl:Amanita muscaria]]
[[is:Berserkjasveppur]]
[[it:Amanita muscaria]]
[[lt:Paprastoji musmirė]]
[[hu:Légyölő galóca]]
[[nl:Vliegenzwam]]
[[ja:ベニテングタケ]]
[[no:Rød fluesopp]]
[[pl:Muchomor czerwony]]
[[pt:Amanita muscaria]]
[[ru:Мухомор красный]]
[[sk:Muchotrávka červená]]
[[fi:Punakärpässieni]]
[[sv:Röd flugsvamp]]
[[tr:Sinek mantarı]]
[[uk:Мухомор червоний]]
[[wa:Amanite touwe-moxhe]]
[[bat-smg:Paprastuoji mosmerie]]