Ammonia production
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2008-03-23T06:38:02Z
Mbeychok
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Because of its many uses, [[ammonia]] is one of the most highly-produced inorganic chemicals. There are literally dozens of large-scale '''ammonia production''' plants worldwide. The worldwide production in 2004 was 109,000,000 metric tons.<ref>[http://minerals.usgs.gov/minerals/pubs/commodity/nitrogen/nitromcs05.pdf United States Geological Survey publication]</ref> China produced 28.4% of the worldwide production followed by India with 8.6%, Russia with 8.4%, and the United States with 8.2%. About 80% or more of the ammonia produced is used for fertilizing agricultural crops. Ammonia is also used for the production of plastics, fibers, explosives, and intermediates for dyes and pharmaceuticals.<br><br>
==History==
Before the start of [[World War I]], most ammonia was obtained by the dry [[distillation]] of nitrogenous vegetable and animal products; by the reduction of [[nitrous acid]] and [[nitrite]]s with [[hydrogen]]; and also by the decomposition of ammonium salts by alkaline hydroxides or by [[calcium oxide|quicklime]], the salt most generally used being the chloride ([[ammonium chloride|sal-ammoniac]]).
The [[Haber process]], which is the production of ammonia by combining [[hydrogen]] and [[nitrogen]], was first patented by [[Fritz Haber]] in 1908. In 1910 [[Carl Bosch]], while working for the German chemical company BASF, successfully commercialized the process and secured further patents. It was first used on an industrial scale by the Germans during World War I. Since then, the process has often been referred to as the Haber-Bosch process.
==Modern ammonia-producing plants==
A typical modern ammonia-producing plant first converts [[natural gas]] (i.e., [[methane]]) or [[Liquified petroleum gas|LPG]] (liquified petroleum gases such as [[propane]] and [[butane]]) or petroleum [[naphtha]] into gaseous [[hydrogen]]. The method for producing hydrogen from [[hydrocarbon]]s is referred to as [[Steam reforming|"Steam Reforming"]].<ref>{{cite book | author=Twygg, Martyn V. | title=Catalyst Handbook | edition=2nd Edition | publisher=Oxford University Press | year=1989 | id=ISBN 1-874545-36-7}}</ref> The hydrogen is then combined with nitrogen to produce [[ammonia]].
Starting with a natural gas feedstock, the processes used in producing the hydrogen are:
* The first step in the process is to remove [[sulfur]] compounds from the feedstock because sulfur deactivates the [[catalyst]]s used in subsequent steps. Sulfur removal requires catalytic [[hydrogenation]] to convert sulfur compounds in the feedstocks to gaseous [[hydrogen sulfide]]:
::H<sub>2</sub> + RSH → RH + H<sub>2</sub>S(gas)
*The gaseous hydrogen sulfide is then absorbed and removed by passing it through beds of [[zinc oxide]] where it is converted to solid [[zinc sulfide]]:
::H<sub>2</sub>S + ZnO → ZnS + H<sub>2</sub>O
* Catalytic [[steam reforming]] of the sulfur-free feedstock is then used to form hydrogen plus [[carbon monoxide]]:
::CH<sub>4</sub> + H<sub>2</sub>O → CO + 3H<sub>2</sub>
* The next step then uses catalytic [[water gas shift reaction|shift conversion]] to convert the carbon monoxide to [[carbon dioxide]] and more hydrogen:
::CO + H<sub>2</sub>O → CO<sub>2</sub> + H<sub>2</sub>
* The carbon dioxide is then removed either by absorption in aqueous [[ethanolamine]] solutions or by adsorption in [[Pressure swing adsorption|pressure swing adsorbers]] (PSA) using proprietary solid adsorption media.
* The final step in producing the hydrogen is to use catalytic methanation to remove any small residual amounts of carbon monoxide or carbon dioxide from the hydrogen:
::CO + 3H<sub>2</sub> → CH<sub>4</sub> + H<sub>2</sub>O
::CO<sub>2</sub> + 4H<sub>2</sub> → CH<sub>4</sub> +2H<sub>2</sub>O
To produce the desired end-product ammonia, the hydrogen is then catalytically reacted with nitrogen (derived from process air) to form anhydrous liquid ammonia. This step is known as the ammonia synthesis loop (also referred to as the [[Haber-Bosch]] process):
::3H<sub>2</sub> + N<sub>2</sub> → 2NH<sub>3</sub>
The steam reforming, shift conversion, carbon dioxide removal and methanation steps each operate at absolute pressures of about 25 to 35 bar, and the ammonia synthesis loop operates at absolute pressures ranging from 60 to 180 bar depending upon which proprietary design is used. There are many engineering and construction companies that offer proprietary designs for ammonia synthesis plants. Haldor Topsoe of Denmark, Uhde GmbH of Germany, and Kellogg Brown & Root of the United States are among the most experienced companies in that field.
== Sustainable ammonia production ==
Ammonia production depends on plentiful supplies of [[natural gas]], a finite resource, to provide the hydrogen. Due to ammonia's critical role in [[industrial agriculture]] and other processes, sustainable production is desirable. This is possible by using [[renewable energy]] to generate hydrogen by [[electrolysis]] of water. This would be straightforward in a [[hydrogen economy]] by diverting some hydrogen production from fuel to feedstock use. For example, in [[2002]], [[Renewable energy in Iceland#Hydrogen|Iceland produced 2,000 tons of hydrogen gas by electrolysis]], using excess electricity production from its [[hydroelectric]] plants, primarily for the production of ammonia for fertilizer<ref name="iceland_ammonia">{{cite web
| title = Iceland launches energy revolution
| publisher = BBC News
| date = 2001-12-24
| url = http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/science/nature/1727312.stm
| accessdate = 2008-03-23}}</ref>. In practice, natural gas will remain the major source of hydrogen for ammonia production as long as it is cheapest.
==See also==
*[[Ammonia]]
*[[Amine gas treating]]
==References==
{{reflist}}
==External links==
*[http://www.fossil.energy.gov/programs/fuels/hydrogen/currenttechnology.html Today's Hydrogen Production Industry]
*[http://www.energystar.gov/ia/business/industry/industrial_LBNL-44314.pdf Energy Use and Energy Intensity of the U.S. Chemical Industry], Report LBNL-44314, [[Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory]] (Scroll down to page 39 of 40 PDF pages for a list of the ammonia plants in the [[USA]])
*[http://www.cheresources.com/ammonia.shtml Ammonia: The Next Step] includes a detailed [[process flow diagram]].
[[Category:Industrial processes]]
[[Category:Chemical engineering]]
[[Category:Unit processes]]