Ancient India and Central Asia 2557638 224927546 2008-07-11T01:17:18Z Satbir Singh 883507 /* Sama Veda */ '''Ancient India and Central Asia''' have long traditions of socio-cultural, religious, political and economic contact since remote [[Classical antiquity|antiquity]]<ref> Alberuni's India, 2001, p 19-21, Edward C. Sachau - History; Dates of the Buddha, 1987, p 126, Shriram Sathe; Foundations of Indian Culture, 1984, p 20 sqq, Dr Govind Chandra Pande - History; India & Russia: Linguistic & Cultural Affinity, 1982, Weer Rajendra Rishi; Geographical and Economic Studies in the Mahābhārata: Upāyana Parva, 1945, Dr Moti Chandra - India; Linguistic & Cultural Affinity, 1982, Weer Rajendra Rishi; Racial Affinities of Early North Indian Tribes 1973, Myths of the Dog-Man, 1991, David Gordon White - Social Science; Sudhakar Chattopadhyaya - Ethnic Groups.</ref>. The two regions have common and contiguous borders, climatic continuity, similar geographical features and geo-cultural affinity. There has always been uninterrupted flow of people, material and the ideas between the two. So much so, some ancient literary sources trace common lineage for [[India]]ns, [[Pakistan]]is, [[Afghan]]s, [[Iran]]ians and other nationalities of [[Central Asia]] <ref>Ibid.</ref>. [[Image:Central Asia Physical.jpg|thumb|[[Physical map]] of '''Central Asia''' from the Caucasus in the northwest, to Mongolia in the northeast.]] ==Literary sources== [[Zend Avesta]] states that the ancestors of Iranian, Indian and [[Turan]]ian people were the three sons of Tratoria, namely, Arya, Sairimia and Tura. ''Turk and Mansak'', two brothers, are stated to be ancestors of the [[Turkic peoples|Turks]] and [[Mongol]]s. Abu Qasim Farishta gives an interesting account of the [[genealogy]] of the Indians and the Central Asians. Ancient Indian literary sources like [[Purana]]s, [[Ramayana]], [[Mahabharata]] and numerous other texts also provide plenty of evidence on histotical, cultural and political links between ancient India and Central Asian [[nation]]s. It is a fact of history that the [[Kambojas]], [[Sakas]], [[Kushana]]s, [[Huna (people)|Huna]]s, Turks and [[Mughal]]s all came to India from Central Asia, as is frequently attested by the ancient Indian texts. ==Archaeological excavations== The [[archaeology|archaeological]] excavations in the Amu valley in Southern [[Uzbekistan]], in Afrasiab on north-eastern edge of [[Samarkand]] and some other places in Uzbekistan, [[Turkmenistan]], [[Kazakhstan]] and Tak-mak in [[Kirghizstan]] add further evidence of the existence of links between ancient India and Cenrtral Asia since remote antiquity. Further, extensive excavations have been carried out with remarkable results at Kara Tepa, Fayaz Tepa, Dalverzin Tepa, Yer Kurgan, Ak-Beshin, Kranayerezka and Isyk-Ata. The discovery of [[manuscript]]s in [[Xinjiang]] ([[China]]) and many other valuable excavational finds substantively establish that India and eastern Central Asian region of Xinjiang were also in extensive political, cultural and religious intercourse with each other. [[Dynasty|Dynasties]] of India came from Central Asia as invaders and dynasties of Indian origin also ruled in [[Khotan]] and other places in Central Asia. ==Migrations from Central Asian into India== [[Image:Kushanmap.jpg|thumb|200px|the 2nd century [[Kushan Empire]].]] [[Immigration]] by peoples and tribes from Central Asia into India, as well as expansion of Central Asian empires into India, is a recurring theme in the history of the region, from the [[Bronze Age]] [[Indo-Aryan migration]] to the Iron Age [[Kushan Empire]], the [[Indo-Scythian]]s, the [[Indo-Greeks]] (via [[Graeco-Bactrian|Bactria]]) and the medieval [[Islamic conquest of the Indian subcontinent]]. Intrusion is typically across the [[Hindukush]], and influence of the intrusive population is first established in the [[Punjab region|Punjab]] and the [[Indus Valley]], and sometimes further expanded into the [[Ganges Plain]]. In classical Indian tradition clans of the Shakas, Yavanas, Kambojas, Pahlavas, Paradas etc are also attested to have been coming as invaders from Central Asia to India in pre-Christian times. They were all finally absorbed into the [[community]] of [[Kshatriya]]s of Indian society.<ref>History and Culture of Indian People, The Vedic Age, pp 286-87, 313-14.</ref> The ''[[Shakas]]'' were formerly the inhabitants of trans-Hemodos region---the ''Shakadvipa'' of the Puranas or the Scythia of the classical writings. Later evidence attests them in [[Drangiana]] i.e. Shakasthana (modern Seistan) located south of Herat. First century CE ''[[Periplus of the Erythraean Sea]]'' as well as second century CE [[Ptolemy]] evidence also attest Indo-Scythia situated in lower [[Indus]] in western India. The ''[[Paradas]]'', the former inhabitants of [[Oxus]] and ''Sailoda'' (eastern [[Xinjiang]]), are noted by [[Ptolemy]] as ''Paradane'' and are attested to be living in western India in [[Sindhu]] or [[Gedrosia]], during second century CE. The ''[[Kambojas]]'' and ''[[Pahlava]]s'' are known to have their original settlements in the east Iranian regions in Central Asia. But later evidence attests some of their settlements in post-Christian times in South-west/Southern India also. [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Migration_of_Kambojas#The_Kambojas_in_West.2FSouthwest_India]. The ''[[Rishikas]]'' are formerly attested as living in ''Sakadvipa'' as neighbors to the [[Parama-Kambojas]] of [[Transoxiana]] region.<ref>Mahabharata II.27.25</ref> But later evidence also locates their section as neighbors to Ashmakas and Vidarbhas in south-west India. This Rishika settlement was located between [[Godavari River|Godavari]] and Tapti rivers, east of Nasika, north of Mulaka and west of Vidarbha. The facts presented above show that the so-called second century BCE ''Saka invasion'' of western India was probably carried out jointly by the Sakas, Pahlavas, Kambojas, Paradas, Rishikas and other allied tribes from the north-west (.<ref> cf: Interaction Between India and Western World, pp 75-93, H. G. Rawlinson.</ref> Thomas observes: " It would seem probable that the tribes from eastern Iran who invaded India included diverse elements mingled indistinguishably together, so that, it is not possible to assert that one dynasty was Parthian while another was Saka..." etc.<ref>Journal of Royal Asoiatic Society, 1906, p 215.</ref> "The nomenclature of the early Sakas in India shows an admixture of Scythian, Parthian and Iranian elements..".<ref>Hist & Culture of Indian People, The Age of Imperial Unity, p 121</ref> According to James Tod and other western scholars, all Central Asian tribes connected with horse-culture like the [[Assaceni]]/[[Aspasios]], [[Assacanus]]/[[Assakenois]] (the famous [[Ashvaka]] [[Kambojas]]....i.e. the [[Ashvayana]]s/[[Ashvakayana]]s of [[Panini (grammarian)|Panini]]), the Ari-aspi and the Asii/Asio of the classical writings etc belonged to the [[Scythians|Scythic]] or [[Shaka|Saca]] [[Race (classification of human beings)|races]].<ref>Annals and Antiquities of Rajashthan, pp 53-54, 64.</ref> Asii/Asio appears to be ''Parama Kambojas'' living in Shakadvipa of Mahabharata/Puranas or the [[Scythia]] of classical writings. The Post-Christian times saw more invaders like [[Kushana]]s, [[Huna]]s, [[Turkic peoples|Turk]]s, [[Mongol]]s and [[Pashtuns]]s etc from Central Asia coming to and occupying Indian mainland. They all have been absorbed into Indian communities, leaving in some cases, no sign of clear-cut identification. ==Central Asian People in Indian Classical Literature== There are extensive references to people of Central Asia in Indian literature like Atharvaveda, Vamsa Brahmana of Samveda, Aitareya Brahmana, Satapatha Brahmana, Puranas, Manusmiriti, Ramayana, Mahabharata, Raghuvamsa, Brihat-Katha -Manjari, Katha-Saritsagara, Rajaratrangini, Mudra-rakshasa, Kavymimansa and host of other old [[Sanskrit]] literature. A brief outline is given below: ===Atharvaveda=== [[Atharvaveda]] makes references to [[Gandhara|Gandhari]], Mujavat and Bahlika from north-west (Central Asia). Gandharis are Gandharas, the Bahlikas are Bactrians, ''Mujavat'' (land of Soma) refer to [[Hindukush]]-[[Pamirs]] (the Kamboja region). Post-Vedic ''Atharvaveda-Parisista'' (Ed Bolling & Negelein) makes first direct reference to the Kambojas (verse 57.2.5). It also juxtaposes the [[Kambojas]], [[Bactria|Bahlikas]] and [[Gandhara]]s.<ref>AV-Par, 57.2.5; cf Persica-9, 1980, p 106, Dr Michael Witzel.</ref> At another place, it juxtaposes the [[Shaka]]s, [[Yavana]]s, [[Tusharas]] and Bahlikas (''Saka. Yavana. Tushara. Bahlikashcha''). This shows the Kambojas, Shakas, Tusharas, Bahlikas and Gandharas at this time were all located as neighbors in the [[Uttarapatha]]. ===Sama Veda=== The [[Vamsa Brahmana]]<ref>Vamsa Brahmana 1/18.</ref>[http://titus.fkidg1.uni-frankfurt.de/texte/etcs/ind/aind/ved/sv/vb/vb.htm] of the [[Sama Veda]] refers to ''Madrakara Shaungayani'' as the teacher of [[Aupamanyava Kamboja]]. Sage Shangayani Madrakara, as his name itself shows, and as the scholars have rightly pointed out, belonged to the [[Madra]] people. Prof Jean Przylusky has shown that Bahlika (Balkh) was an Iranian settlement of the Madras who were known as ''Bahlika-Uttaramadras'' i.e the northern Madras, living in Bahlika or [[Bacteria]] country. These ''Bahlika Uttara Madras'' are the [[Uttara Madras]] of the [[Aitareya Brahamana]]. This connection between the ''Uttara Madras'' and the ''Kambojas'' is said to be but natural, as they were close neighbors in the north-west.<ref>Vedic Index, 138; Some Kshatriya Tribes of Ancient India, 1924, p 230-231; Dr B. C. Law.</ref> The Kambojas as neighbors of the Uttara Madras here obviously refers to the trans-[[Himalaya]]n branch of the Kambojas who became known as [[Parama-Kambojas]] in epic times. Both these nations belonged to Central Asia. ===Aitareya Brahmana=== [[Aitareya Brahmana]] refers to some ancient nations lying beyond Trans-[[Himalaya]] boundaries. As an illustration, the name of [[Uttara Kuru]] and [[Uttara Madra]] are given.<ref>Aitreya Brahmana, VIII.14.</ref> But other literature affirms that, besides [[Uttara Kuru]] and [[Uttara Madra]], the [[janapadas]] of [[Parama Kambojas]], [[Rshikas]] and the Lohas etc were also located beyond [[Himalaya]] boundaries into Central Asia. These Central Asian people were undoubtedly in intensive intercourse with ancient Indian people. ===Indian epics=== The vast area across the Himalayas and [[Hindukush]] from [[Pamir Mountains|Pamir]]s up to [[Arctic]] (Somagiri) is stated by some to form ancient ''Uttara Kuru''. There is picturesque mention of this region in the [[Epic poetry|epic]]s [[Ramayana]] and the [[Mahabharata]]. There are also numerous references to the people forming part of this vast region. ====Valmiki Ramayana==== The Valmiki [[Ramayana]] portrays the [[topography]] of the whole land of Central Asia in very details and in some cases, very picturesquely. It gives very vivid account of [[Uttarapatha]] and several countries located in that direction. It mentions the lands and towns of the Kambojas, Shakas, Yavanas, ''Varadas'' (=Paradas: according to Dr Jayswal, Dr Singh and others) along with Himavanta. After this mentions is made of [[Uttara Kuru]] and Somagiri ([[Arctica]]). The region is described as without the sun and yet very much lighted. There are said to be no [[Nation]]al boundaries there.<ref>Valmiki Ramayana, Kisikindhi Kanda 4.43.</ref> The ''Bala Kanda'' section (1.55/2-3) of Ramayana refers to a joint ''mythical'' creation of the Central Asian [[tribe]]s of the Kambojas, Yavanas, Shakas, Paradas and Mlechchas by sage Vasishatha through the divine powers of his ''Kamdhenu''.<ref>Valmiki Ramayana, 1.55/2-3.</ref> ''Bala Kanda''<ref>Valmiki Ramayana, Bala Kanda 1.6.22</ref> of Ramayana also refers to the famed horses imported by [[prince]]s of [[Ayodhya]] of Mid India from the Central Asian nations of Kamboja and Bahlika (Bactria). ====Mahabharata==== According to Mahabharata, the kings of the Kambojas and the Tusharas were present in the ''Rajasuya'' Yajna of [[Yudhisthira]]. They had later participated in Mahabharata war from the Kaurava side. They were very ferocious warriors. The Shakas, Hunas, Paradas and Tusharas had paid tribute to Yudhishtra. The epic also mentions that Pandava Nakula had defeated the Hunas, Pahalvas, Yavanas and Shakas in the western horizon. Mahabharata mentions that [[Arjuna]] had brought tributes from the Daradas, Kambojas, Lohas, [[Rishika]]s, [[Parama Kambojas]] and the Uttara Kurus of trans-Himalyan regions. Mahabharata attests that the norhern ''Rishikas'' and the ''Lohas'' were close neighbors and allied to [[Parama-Kambojas]] i.e. Trans-Hindukush Kambojas of the Trans-Himalyan territories.<ref> :Lohan. '''Parama. Kambojan. Rishikan'''.uttaranapi ||II.27.25||.</ref> At other places (5.4.18) in Mahabharata also, the Rishikas are shown as very intimitately connected with the Kambojas.<ref> :Shakanam Pahlavana.n cha Daradanam cha ye nripah | :'''KambojaRishika''' ye cha pashchim.anupakash cha ye ||5.4.18||. </ref> The Rishikas are said to be same as the Yuezhis (Dr V. S. Aggarwala). The [[Kushana]]s or [[Kanishka]]s are also the same people (Dr J. C. Vidyalnkara). Prof Stein says that the Tukharas were a branch of the Yue-chi or [[Yuezhi]]. Tusharas/Tukharas (Tokharois/Tokarais) and the Yuezhi are stated to be same people (Dr P.C. Bagchi). According to [[Vayu Purana]] and [[Matsya Purana]], river Chakshu ([[Oxus]]) flowed through the countries of Tusharas (Rishikas?), Lampakas, Pahlavas, Paradas and Shakas etc. The above references indicate that the countries of [[Rishikas]] (=Tusharas?), Parama-Kambojas, Lohas, Pahlavas, Paradas, Shakas etc were ''close geographical neighbors and were all located in Central Asia''. King Drapupada of Panchala had advised [[Yudhishtra]] to invite the Kambojas, Shakas, Pahlavas, Rishikas and the Daradas (Paradas?) in the Mahabharata war on Pandava's side. ''But it was too late for Yudhishtra''. General [[Sudakshina Kamboja|Sudakshina]] of the Kambojas had joined the Mahabharata war on Kurus' side leading one Akshauhini army of ferocious Central Asian warriors which included [[Shakas]], and [[Yavanas]], besides the [[Kambojas]].<ref>MBH 5/19/21-22.</ref> Of the ten distinguished military [[General]]s appointed by [[Duryodhana]] to efficiently manage his vast host of army, Suadakshin [[Kamboj]] was one of such distinguished Generals.<ref>MBH 5/155/30-33.</ref> This ancient epic evidence shows that there was an intensive [[political]] and [[military]] intercourse between the ''Mid Indians'' and the ''Central Asians''. Mahabharata brackets the Kambojas, Shakas and the Khashas together and styles them as tribes of Udichya or [[Uttarapatha]], which obviously means Central Asia. The Bhishamaparava and Shantiparavas of Mahabharata repeatedly assert that beyond the Uttara (north) are located the Mlechcha Janas (tribes) like the Yavanas, Kambojas, Darunas, Kiratas and other Mlechchas/Barbarians.<ref> :Uttarashchapare mlechchha jana bharatasattama :Yavanashcha sa Kamboja Daruna Mlechchha jatayah :&mdash; ''(MBH 6/11/63-64)'' :Uttarapatha janmanah kirtayishyami tanapi :Yauna Kamboja Gandharah Kirata Barbaraih saha :&mdash; ''(MBH 12/201/40)''.</ref> These above references also obviously point to Central Asian fringe of people located on the north of Bharatavarsa. However, the ''Anusasanaparva'' of Mahabharata also asserts that the [[clan]]s of the Kambojas, Yavanas, Shakas, Pahlavas were formerly noble [[Kshatriya]]s, but in later time had turned into degraded Kshatriyas due to the wrath of the Brahminas.<ref>MBH 13/33/20-21.</ref> ===Manusmriti=== [[Manusmriti]] asserts that the Kambojas, Sakas, Yavanas, Paradas, Pahlavas etc were originally Kshatriyas of good birth but were gradually degraded to the [[barbaric]] status due to their not following the [[Brahmana]]s and the [[Brahmanical]] code of conduct.<ref> Manusmriti (X.43-44).</ref> This statement of Manu is designed to accommodate these foreign hordes into the social set-up of the [[Hindu]]s. The foreigners were expected to practice same normal pieties as the Hindus and the later, in return, regarded them henceforth as belonging to their own social organisation.<ref>Cultural Heritage of India, I, p 612.</ref> According to James Tod, this ancient testimony from Manu presents a conclusive proof of a perfect intercourse which had existed between the people of [[Oxus]] (Central Asia) and those of the [[Ganges]] region in remote [[ancient history|antiquity]].<ref>Annals and Antiquities of Rajasthan, p171-72.</ref> ===Puranas=== According to Bahu-Sagara legend, the Shakas, Yavanas, Kambojas, Paradas and Pahlavas, the so-called five hordes (''panca-ganah''), from north-west were invited by the Haihaya Yadavas for military support against king Bahu of [[Ayodhya]]. Bahu was defeated and ran off Ayodhya. A generation later, Bahu's son, [[Sagara (Vedic king)|Sagara]] regained Ayodhya after totally destroying the Haihaya and Talajangha [[Kshatriya]]s in the battle. He was about to annihilate the five assisting hordes, but Sagara's [[priest]] Vashishta intervened and persuaded him to save their lives by subjecting them to lighter punishments. Story says that King Sagara consented to the advice of his [[spirituality|spiritual]] guide but punished these foreigners by changing their ''hair-styles'' and ''turning them into degraded Kshatriyas''.<ref>Harivamsa 14.1-19.</ref> These are the first known invaders in the recorded history of the [[sub-continent]]. The invaders were eventually assimilated into the local [[community]] as Kshatriyas [http://www.hindu.com/thehindu/mag/2002/07/07/stories/2002070700310400.htm]. [[Alberuni]] refers to this Puranic story in his [[classic book]] ''Alberuni's India'' and testifies that the above referred to ''five hordes'' belonged to his own people i.e. Central Asia.<ref>Alberuni's India, Trans. [[Sachau]], p 20-21.</ref> Puranic traditions ([[Bhagavata Purana]]) say that ''Budha'', the ''patriarchic'' figure the Yadu, Turvasa, Druhyu, Anu and Puru clans had come from [[Central Asia]] to ''Bharatkhand'' to perform penitential [[rites]] and he espoused ''Ella'', the daughter of Manu, by whom was born ''Pururavas''. Pururavas had six sons, one of whom is said to be ''Ayu''. This ''Ayu'' or ''Ay'' is said to be the patriarch figure of the ''Tartars'' of [[Central Asia]] as well as of the first race of the kings of China.<ref>Annals and Antiquities of Rajasthan, p 172, James Tod.</ref> Whatever may be value of these conjectures, this literary tradition definitely alludes to intimate relations which existed, since antiquity, between the Indian people and the Central Asians. [[Puranic]] [[cosmography]] divides our earth into seven concentric islands, viz. [[Jambudvipa]], Plakasadvipa, Salmalidvipa, Kushadvipa, Krounchadvipa, Shakadvipa, and Pushkaradvipa, separated by seven encircling seas. Insular [[continent]] Jambudvipa forms the innermost concentric island in the above scheme of continents. Jambudvipa includes nine varsa and nine mountains. Varsa of Illa-vrta lies at the center of Jambudivipa at whose center is located Mount [[Meru]] (Platau of [[Pamir Mountains|Pamir]]). The varsa of [[Uttara Kuru]] lies to the north of Mount Meru and extending beyond north-wards.<ref>Vishnu Purana, H. H. Wilson.</ref> The varsa of Illa Vrta includes parts of ''Central Asia''. The Puranic Bhuvanakosha attests that the boundaries of Bharata varsa extended in the [[Uttarapatha]] as far as the Vamkshu or [[Oxus]] in Central Asia. The Oxus to be the northmost limit of the [[Geography|geographical]] territories once included in the [[Bharata|Bharata varsa]] was a real fact in political history of ancient India. It was the most well-defined geographical feature delimiting the boundaries of Bharata Varsa in the north. The Puranic ''Bhuvanakosha'' attests that Bahlika or [[Bactria]] was the northern-most Puranic [[Janapadas|Janapada]] of ancient India and was located in Udichya or Uttarapatha division of Indian [[sub-continent]].<ref>[[Kirfel]]'s list of the Uttarapatha countries of Bhuvanakosa.</ref> The Uttarapatha or northern division of Jambudvipa comprised very vast area of Central Asia, as far as the [[Ural Mountains|Ural]]s and the [[Caspian Sea]] to the [[Yenisei]] and from [[Turkistan]] and [[Tien Shan]] ranges to as far as the [[Arctic]] (Dr S. M. Ali). ===Mudra-Rakashasa drama=== The [[Buddhist]] drama ''Mudra-rakshas'' by ''Visakha Dutta'' as also the [[Jain]]a work ''Parisishtaparvan'' refer to [[Chandragupta]]'s alliance with [[Himalaya]]n king ''Parvatka''. The Himalayan alliance gave Chandragupta a composite formidable army made up of the Shakas, Yavanas, Kambojas, Kiratas, Parasikas and Bahlikas as attested by Mudra-rakashas.<ref> :Sanskrit: :asti tava Shaka-Yavana-Kirata-Kamboja-Parasika-Bahlika parbhutibhih :Chankyamatipragrahittaishcha Chandergupta Parvateshvara :balairudidhibhiriva parchalitsalilaih samantaad uprudham Kusumpurama :&mdash; ''(See: Mudra-Rakshasa 2)''.</ref> With the help of these frontier martial tribes from Central Asia, Chandragupta was able to defeat the [[Hellenistic Greece|Greek]] successors of [[Alexander the Great]] and the Nanda/Nandin rulers of [[Magadha]] so as to found the powerful [[Maurya empire]] in northern India. ===Raghuvamsha=== Poet [[Kalidasa]] provides graphic picture of northern mountainous region of India. This is especially so in the case of his works like Meghdoota, Vikramorvashiam and [[Raghuvamsha]]. He also brings refreshing reference of the [[Uttara Kuru]]. Raghuvamsha tells of a war expedition of king [[Raghu]] ( [[Chandragupta Vikramaditya]]) against the Parasikas ([[Sassanian]]s), [[Huna]]s and the [[Kamboja]]s located in northern division or [[Uttarapatha]]. The encounters with the Hunas and the Kambojas had occurred around river Oxus, right in Central Asia.<ref>Raghuvamsa 4.66-70.</ref> ===Rajtrangini=== [[Rajatarangini]] of Kalhana makes king ''Lalitaditya Mukatapida'' of [[Kashmir]] undertake a war expedition against his neighboring countries. He launched onto the region of north (from Kashmir) against the Kambojas, Tusharas, Bhauttas, Daradas, Valukambudhi, Strirajya and Uttarakurus (mythical or not).<ref>Rajatrangini 4.164-174</ref> There is also a reference to the humiliation of the Hunas by Lalitaditva in the Rajataramgini.<ref>Rajatrangini 4.178-80</ref> The nations named above are all located in Central Asia. ===Brahata Katha of Kshmendra=== ''Brahata Katha'' indicates that king Vikramaditya of [[Ujjain]]i (60 c BC) had mobilised his forces against the invading hordes of the [[Mlechcha]]s from north west. He had ridded the mother earth off the sinfuls by completely destroying the Mlechcha hordes of the Sakas, Kambojas, Yavanas, Parasikas etc.<ref>Brahata Katha, 10/1/285-86, Kshmendra.</ref> ===Katha-Saritsagara of Somadeva=== The ''Katha-Saritsagara'' of Somadeva also refers to the subjugation of numerous kings and the destruction of the ''Sanghas'' (republics) of the Mlechchas by king Vikramditiya. Those who survived paid tributes to him or joined him militarily.<ref>Katha-Saritsagara, 18.1.76-78.</ref> The reference to the ''Sanghas of the Mlechchas'', undoubtedly alludes to the Sanghas of the Kambojas, Yavavans, Abhiras as well as of the Vahikas etc. This, again affirms the ongoing inter-action between the Indian-mainland and the people of Central Asia. ===Kavyamimamsa of Rajashekhara=== The 10th century CE ''Kavyamimamsa'' of Pandit Rajashekhara knows about the existence of several Central Asian tribes. He furnishes an exhaustive list of the extant tribes of his times and places the [[Shakas]], [[Tusharas]], Vokanas, [[Hunas]], [[Kambojas]], [[Bahlikas|Vahlika]], [[Pahlavas|Vahlava]], Tangana, Limpaka, [[Turukshas]] etc together, styling them all as the tribes from [[Uttarapatha]] or north division.<ref>Kavyamimamsa Ed. Gaekwad's Oriental Series, I (1916) Chapter 17; Introd., xxvi. Rajashekhara is dated c 880 AD - 920 AD.</ref> ==References== <references /> ==Books and periodicals== *''Mahabharata'' *''Valmiki Ramayana'' *''Puranas'' *''Manusmriti'' *''Aitareya Brahmana'' *''Raghuvamsa'' by Kalidasa *''Brahata Katha'', by Kshmendra *''Rajatrangini'' by Kalhana *''Ancient Kamboja, People and the Country'', 1981, Dr Kamboj *''Political History of Ancient India'', 1996, Dr H. C. Raychaudhury *''India and Central Asia'', 1955, Dr P. C., Bagchi. *''Myths of the Dog-Man'', 1991, David Gordon White. ==See also== *[[Kambojas]] *[[Sakas]] *[[Yavanas]] *[[Indo-Aryan migration]] *[[Indo-Scythians]] *[[Indo-Parthian Kingdom]] *[[Uttara Madras]] *[[Uttara Kurus]] *[[The Kurus]] *[[Raghuvamsha]] *[[Indian-Iranian relations]] {{Ancient India and Central Asia}} [[Category:Human migration]] [[Category:History of Central Asia|India]] [[Category:History of Afghanistan]] [[Category:History of Pakistan|Central Asia]] [[Category:Ancient India|Central Asia]]