Ancient history 51320 226079989 2008-07-16T19:07:00Z Reddi 13833 /* Early Iron Age */ {{Historyportal}} {{Citations missing|date=May 2007}} {{redirect|Ancient}} {{Ancient history}} :''The times before [[writing]] belong either to [[protohistory]] or to [[prehistory]].'' '''Ancient history''' is the study of the written [[history|past]] from the [[History of writing|beginning of recorded human history]] until the [[Early Middle Ages]]<ref>[http://www.historyofworld.net/ancient-history_m,7~o,3~i,47.html ancient-history<!-- Bot generated title -->]</ref> in Europe, the [[Qin Dynasty]]<ref>Foster, S. (2007). [http://books.google.com/books?id=zKU1ifOwMcUC Adventure guide. China]. Hunter travel guides. Edison, NJ: Hunter Publishing. Page 6-7 (cf., "Qin is perceived as 'China's first dynasty' and [... developed] writing.)</ref> in China, the [[Chola Empire]] in India, and some less defined point in the rest of the world (for example, in [[History of North America|North]], [[History of Central America|Central]], and [[History of South America|South America]]). The period following these events include the [[Imperial China|Imperial era]] in China and the [[Middle kingdoms of India|period of the Middle Kingdoms]] in India; one might consider the end of antiquity in the Americas to be the start of the [[colonization of the Americas]]. The span of recorded history altogether is roughly 5,000 – 5,500 years, with [[Sumerian language|Sumerian]] [[Cuneiform script|cuneiform]] being the oldest form of writing discovered so far. This is the beginning of ''history'' by the definition used by most [[historian]]s. The term [[classical antiquity]] is often used to refer to ancient history since the beginning of recorded Greek history in about [[776 BC]] (First [[Olympiad]]). This coincides, roughly, with the traditional date of the founding of Rome in [[753 BC]], the beginning of the history of [[ancient Rome]]. Although the ending date of ancient history is disputed, currently most [[Western culture|Western]] scholars use the [[fall of the Western Roman Empire]] in [[Anno Domini|AD]] 476, the death of the emperor [[Justinian I]] or the coming of Islam in 632 as the end of ancient European history. ==The study of ancient history== The fundamental difficulty of studying ancient history is the fact that only a fraction of it has been documented and only a fraction of those [[Recorded history|recorded histories]] have survived into the present day. It is also imperative to consider the reliability of the information obtained from these records. Literacy was not widespread in almost any culture until long after the end of ancient history, so there were few people capable of writing histories. Even those written histories which were produced were not widely distributed; the ancients, not having the luxury of a [[printing press]] had to make copies of books by hand. The Roman Empire was one of the ancient world's most literate cultures, but many works by its most widely read historians are lost. For example, [[Livy]], a Roman historian who lived in the 1st century BC, wrote a history of Rome called ''[[Ab Urbe Condita (book)|Ab Urbe Condite]]'' ("From the Founding of the City") in 142 volumes; only 35 volumes still exist, although summaries of the rest do exist. Other Roman historians, like [[Pompeius Trogus]], have vanished completely. Historians have two major avenues which they take to better understand the ancient world: [[archaeology]] and the study of [[primary sources]]. ===Archaeology=== {{main|Archaeology}} Archaeology is the excavation and study of artifacts in an effort to interpret and reconstruct past human behavior. In the study of ancient history, archaeologists excavate the ruins of ancient cities looking for clues as to how the people of the time period lived. Some important discoveries by archaeologists studying ancient history include: *The [[Egyptian pyramids]]: giant tombs built by the [[ancient Egypt]]ians beginning around 2600 BC as the final resting places of their royalty. *The study of the ancient cities of [[Harappa]], [[Mohenjo-daro]] and [[Lothal]] in [[South Asia]]. *The city of [[Pompeii]]: an ancient Roman city preserved by the eruption of a [[volcano]] in AD 79. Its state of preservation is so great that it is a valuable window into Roman culture and provided insight into the cultures of the [[Etruscans]] and the Saminites.<ref>Lobell, Jarrett (July/August 2002). "Etruscan Pompeii". Archaeological Institute of America 55 (4). Retrieved on September 2007.</ref> *The [[Terracotta Army]]: the mausoleum of the First [[Qin]] Emperor in [[ancient China]]. ===Secondary sources=== Perhaps most of what is known of the ancient world comes from the accounts of antiquity's own historians. Although it is important to take into account the bias of each ancient author, their accounts, are the basis for our understanding of the ancient past. Some of the more notable ancient writers include: [[Manetho]], [[Valmiki]], [[Vatsyayana]], [[Vyasa]], [[Kalidasa]], [[Chanakya]], [[Sun Tzu]], [[Herodotus]], [[Josephus]], [[Livy]], [[Polybius]], [[Lives of the Twelve Caesars|Suetonius]], [[Tacitus]], [[Thucydides]], and [[Sima Qian]]. ==Chronology== ===Prehistory=== {{main|Prehistory}} [[Prehistory]] is a term often used to describe the period before [[Recorded history|written history]]. *[[Early human migration]]s<ref> H . Liu , F . Prugnolle , A . Manica , F . Balloux, ''A Geographically Explicit Genetic Model of Worldwide Human-Settlement History.'' The American Journal of Human Genetics , Volume 79 , Issue 2 , Pages 230 - 237</ref> **[[Lower Paleolithic]]: [[Homo erectus]] spreads across Eurasia. Controlled use of [[fire]] from ca. [[Middle Paleolithic|800 kya]]. **c. 250 kya: [[Homo sapiens]] [[Human evolution|evolves]] in [[Africa]] **c. 70–60 kya: Modern humans migrate out of [[Africa]] along a coastal route to [[South Asia|South]] and [[Southeast Asia]] and reach [[Australia]] **c. 50 kya: Modern humans spread from [[Asia]] to the [[Near East]] **c. 40 kya: [[Europe]] first reached by modern humans **c. [[Upper Paleolithic|15 kya]]: [[migration to the New World]] *10th millennium BC: [[Neolithic revolution|Invention of agriculture]] is the earliest given date for the beginning of the ancient era *7th millennium BC: [[Jiahu]] culture began in [[China]] *5th millennium BC: late Neolithic civilizations, invention of the [[wheel]] and spread of [[proto-writing]]. *4th millennium BC: [[Cucuteni culture|Cucuteni-Trypillian culture]] in the [[Ukraine]] *by 3400 BC: "proto-literate" [[Sumerian]] [[cuneiform]].<ref>{{Harvnb|Diamond|1999|p=218}}</ref> *30th century BC: [[Early Bronze Age II]], beginning of the literate period in Sumer and [[Ancient Egypt]]. *ca. [[27th century BC]]: [[Old Kingdom of Egypt]] and [[First Dynasty of Uruk]]: earliest reliable [[regnal era]]s. === Timeline of History === ====Middle to Late Bronze Age==== The [[Bronze Age]] forms part of the [[three-age system]]. In this system, it follows the Neolithic in some areas of the world. *24th century BC: [[Akkadian Empire]]<ref>[http://www.angelfire.com/nt/Gilgamesh/akkadian.html akkadian], angelfire.com</ref><ref>Wells, H. G. (1921). [http://books.google.com/books?id=rTAMAAAAIAAJ&client=firefox-a The outline of history, being a plain history of life and mankind]. New York: Macmillan company. Page 137.</ref> *22nd century BC: [[First Intermediate Period of Egypt]] *21st to 17th centuries BC: [[Middle Kingdom of Egypt]] *21st century BC: [[Sumerian Renaissance]] *18th to centuries: [[Second Intermediate Period of Egypt]] *1600 BC: [[Mycenaean Greece]] *1600 BC: The beginning of [[Shang Dynasty]] in [[China]], evidence of a fully developed [[Chinese writing system]] *1600 BC: Beginning of [[Hittites|Hittite]] dominance of the Eastern [[Mediterranean]] region *16th to 11th centuries: [[New Kingdom of Egypt]] **1550-1292 BC [[Amarna period]] ====Early Iron Age==== The [[Iron Age]] is the last principal period in the three-age system, preceded by the Bronze Age. Its date and context vary depending on the country or geographical region. *13th to 12th centuries: [[Ramesside Period]] *c. 1200 BC: Theorized time of the [[Trojan War]]<ref> Strauss, Barry S. (2006) The Trojan War: A New History. Simon & Schuster ISBN 0-7432-6441-9 </ref> *c. 1180 BC: Disintegration of Hittite Empire *1046 BC: The Zhou force (led by [[King Wu of Zhou]]) overthrow the last king of [[Shang Dynasty]]; [[Zhou Dynasty]] established in [[China]] *1000 BC: [[Mannaeans]] Kingdom Begins *10th to 7th centuries: [[Neo-Assyrian Empire]] *800 BC: Rise of [[Ancient Greece|Greek]] city-states *776 BC: First recorded [[Olympic Games]]. The [[Ancient Olympic Games]] origins are unknown, but several legends and myths have survived. ==== Classical Antiquity ==== {{main|Classical antiquity}} [[Classical antiquity]] is a broad term for a long period of cultural history, with a focus on the interlocking civilizations of [[Ancient Greece]] and [[Ancient Rome]]. *753 BC: Founding of [[Ancient Rome|Rome]] (traditional date) *745 BC: [[Tiglath-Pileser III]] becomes the new king of [[Assyria]]. With time he conquers neighboring countries and turns Assyria into an empire *728 BC: Rise of the [[Median Empire]] *722 BC: [[Spring and Autumn Period]] begins in China; [[Zhou Dynasty]]'s power is diminishing; the era of the [[Hundred Schools of Thought]] *700 BC: the construction of [[Marib Dam]] in [[Arabia Felix]] *653 BC: Rise of [[Persian Empire]] *612 BC: Attributed date of the destruction of [[Nineveh]] and subsequent fall of Assyria. *600 BC: Sixteen [[Mahajanapadas|Maha Janapadas]] ("''Great Realms''" or "''Great Kingdoms''") emerge. A number of these Maha Janapadas are semi-[[democratic]] [[republics]]. *c. 600 BC: [[Pandyan kingdom]] in South India *563 BC: [[Siddhartha Gautama]] (Buddha), founder of [[Buddhism]] is born as a prince of the [[Shakya|Shakya tribe]], which ruled parts of [[Magadha]], one of the Maha Janapadas *551 BC: [[Confucius]], founder of [[Confucianism]], is born *550 BC: Foundation of the [[Persian Empire]] by [[Cyrus the Great]] *549 BC: [[Mahavira]], founder of [[Jainism]] is born *546 BC: Cyrus the Great overthrows Croesus King of Lydia *544 BC: Rise of [[Magadha]] as the dominant power under [[Bimbisara]]. *539 BC: The Fall of the Babylonian Empire and liberation of the Jews by Cyrus the Great *529 BC: Death of Cyrus *525 BC: [[Cambyses II]] of Persia conquers Egypt *c. 512 BC: [[Darius I]] (Darius the Great) of Persia, subjugates eastern Thrace, Macedonia submits voluntarily, and annexes Libya, Persian Empire at largest extent *509 BC: Expulsion of the last [[List of Kings of Rome|King of Rome]], founding of [[Roman Republic]] (traditional date) *508 BC: Democracy instituted at Athens [[Image:East-Hem 500bc.jpg|thumb|222px|Eastern Hemisphere in 500 BC.]] *500 BC: [[Pāṇini|Panini]] standardizes the [[grammar]] and [[morphology (linguistics)|morphology]] of [[Sanskrit]] in the text [[Ashtadhyayi]]. Panini's standardized Sanskrit is known as [[Classical Sanskrit]] *500 BC: [[Pingala]] uses [[0 (number)|zero]] and [[binary numeral system]] *490 BC: Greek city-states defeat Persian invasion at [[Battle of Marathon]] *480 BC: Invasion of Greece by Xerxes; Battles of Thermopylae and Salamis *475 BC: [[Warring States Period]] begins in China as the [[Zhou dynasty|Zhou]] king became a mere figurehead; China is annexed by regional warlords *469 BC: Birth of Socrates *465 BC: Murder of Xerxes *460 BC: First Peloponnesian War between Athens and Sparta *447 BC: Building of the Parthenon at Athens started *424 BC: [[Nanda dynasty]] comes to power. *404 BC: End of [[Peloponnesian War]] between the Greek city-states *331 BC: [[Alexander the Great]] defeats [[Darius III of Persia]] in the [[Battle of Gaugamela]] *326 BC: [[Alexander the Great]] defeats Indian king [[Porus]] in the [[Battle of the Hydaspes River]]. [[Image:East-Hem 323bc.jpg|thumb|222px|Eastern Hemisphere in 323BC.]] *323 BC: Death of [[Alexander the Great]] at Babylon *321 BC: [[Chandragupta Maurya]] overthrows the Nanda Dynasty of Magadha. *305 BC: [[Chandragupta Maurya]] seizes the satrapies of Paropanisadai (Kabul), Aria (Herat), Arachosia (Qanadahar) and Gedrosia (Baluchistan)from [[Seleucus I Nicator]], the Macedonian [[satrap]] of [[Babylonia]], in return for 500 elephants. *273 BC: [[Ashoka the Great]] becomes the emperor of the [[Mauryan Empire]] *257 BC: [[An Dương Vương|Thục Dynasty]] takes over Việt Nam (then Kingdom of Âu Lạc) *250 BC: Rise of [[Parthia]] (Ashkâniân), the second native dynasty of ancient Persia *232 BC: Death of Emperor [[Ashoka the Great]]; Decline of the [[Mauryan Empire]] *230 BC: Emergence of [[Satavahana]]s in [[South India]] *221 BC: [[Qin Shi Huang]] unifies China, end of [[Warring States Period]]; marking the beginning of Imperial rule in China which lasts until 1912. Construction of the [[Great Wall]] by the [[Qin Dynasty]] begins. *207 BC: [[Trieu Dynasty|Kingdom of Nan Yueh]] extends from North Việt Nam to [[Guangzhou|Canton]] *202 BC: [[Han Dynasty]] established in China, after the death of [[Qin Shi Huang]]; China in this period officially becomes a [[Confucian]] state and opens trading connections with the West, i.e. the [[Silk Road]] *202 BC: [[Scipio Africanus]] defeats [[Hannibal]] at [[Battle of Zama]] [[Image:East-Hem 200bc.jpg|thumb|222px|Eastern Hemisphere in 200BC.]] *c. 200 BC: [[Chera dynasty]] in South India *185 BC: [[Sunga Empire]] founded. *149 BC–146: Third and final [[Punic War]]; destruction of [[Carthage]] by Rome *146 BC: Roman conquest of Greece,'' see [[Roman Greece]]'' *111 BC: [[First Chinese domination (History of Vietnam)|First Chinese domination]] of [[Vietnam|Việt Nam]] in the form of the Nanyue Kingdom. [[Image:East-Hem 100bc.jpg|thumb|222px|Eastern Hemisphere in 100 BC.]] *c. 100 BC: [[Chola dynasty]] rises in prominence. *49 BC: Roman Civil War between [[Julius Caesar]] and [[Pompey the Great]] *44 BC: [[Julius Caesar]] murdered by [[Marcus Brutus]] and others; End of Roman Republic; beginning of [[Roman Empire]] *6 BC: Earliest theorized date for birth of [[Jesus]] of [[Nazareth]] *4 BC: Widely accepted date (Ussher) for birth of [[Jesus]] [[Christ]] [[Image:World 1 CE.PNG|thumb|222px|World in 1.]] *9: [[Battle of the Teutoburg Forest]], the Imperial [[Roman Army]]'s bloodiest defeat *14: Death of [[Roman Emperor|Emperor]] [[Caesar Augustus|Augustus]] (Octavian), ascension of his adopted son [[Tiberius]] to the throne *29: Crucifixion of [[Jesus]] [[Christ]]. *68: [[Year of the four emperors]] in Rome *70: Destruction of [[Jerusalem]] by the armies of [[Titus]]. [[Image:World in 100 CE.PNG|thumb|222px|World in 100.]] *117: Roman Empire at largest extent under [[Trajan|Emperor Trajan]] *192: [[Kingdom of Champa]] in [[Tay Nguyen|Central Việt Nam]] [[Image:East-Hem 200ad.jpg|thumb|222px|Eastern Hemisphere in 200 AD.]] *200s: The [[Buddhist]] [[Srivijaya]] Empire established in the [[Malay Archipelago]]. *220: [[Three Kingdoms]] period begins in China after the fall of [[Han Dynasty]]. *226: Fall of the Parthian Empire and Rise of the [[Sassanian Empire]] *238: Defeat of [[Gordian III]] (238–244), [[Philip the Arab]] (244–249), and [[Valerian]] (253–260), by [[Shapur I]] of Persia, (Valerian was captured by the Persians). *280: [[Emperor Wu of Jìn|Emperor Wu]] established [[Jin Dynasty (265–420)|Jin Dynasty]] providing a temporary unity of China after the devastating [[Three Kingdoms]] period. *285: [[Roman Emperor|Emperor]] [[Diocletian]] splits the Roman Empire into [[Eastern Roman Empire|Eastern]] and [[Western Roman Empire|Western]] Empires [[Image:World in 300 CE.PNG|thumb|222px|World in 300.]] *313: [[Edict of Milan]] declared that the Roman Empire would be neutral toward religious worship *335: [[Samudragupta]] becomes the emperor of the [[Gupta empire]] *378: [[Battle of Adrianople]], Roman army is defeated by the Germanic tribes *395: [[Roman Emperor]] [[Theodosius I]] outlaws all [[paganism|pagan]] religions in favour of [[Christianity]] *410: [[Alaric I]] [[Sack of Rome (410)|sacks Rome]] for the first time since 390 BC *c. 455: [[Skandagupta]] repels an [[Indo-Hephthalite]] attack on India. *476: [[Romulus Augustus]], last [[Western Roman Emperor]] is forced to abdicate by [[Odoacer]], a half [[Hunnish]] and half [[Scirian]] chieftain of the [[Germanic tribes|Germanic]] [[Heruli]]; Odoacer returns the imperial regalia to [[Eastern Roman Emperor]] [[Zeno (emperor)|Zeno]] in [[Constantinople]] in return for the title of ''dux'' of [[Italy]]; most frequently cited date for the end of ancient history ===End of ancient history in Europe=== The date used as the end of the ancient era is entirely arbitrary. The transition period from Classical Antiquity to the [[Early Middle Ages]] is known as [[Late Antiquity]]. Some key dates marking that transition are: *293: reforms of [[Roman Emperor]] [[Diocletian]] *395: the division of [[Roman Empire]] into the [[Western Roman Empire]] and [[Eastern Roman Empire]] [[Image:East-Hem 475ad.jpg|thumb|222px|Eastern Hemisphere in 476 AD.]] *476: the fall of Western Roman Empire *529: closure of [[Platon Academy]] in [[Athens]] by Byzantine Emperor [[Justinian I]] The beginning of the Middle Ages is a period in the history of Europe following the fall of the Western Roman Empire spanning roughly five centuries from AD 500 to 1000. Aspects of continuity with the earlier classical period are discussed in greater detail under the heading "Late Antiquity". Late Antiquity is a periodization used by historians to describe the transitional centuries from Classical Antiquity to the Middle Ages, in both mainland Europe and the Mediterranean world: generally from the end of the Roman Empire's Crisis of the Third Century (c. 284) to the Islamic conquests and the re-organization of the Byzantine Empire under Heraclius. ==Prominent civilizations of ancient history== ===Southwest Asia === {{main|Ancient Near East}} ====Mesopotamia==== {{main|Mesopotamia|History of Iraq}} *[[Sumer]] *[[Akkadian Empire]] *[[Assyria]] *[[Babylonia]] *[[Mitanni]] *[[Neo-Babylonian Empire]] ====Persia==== {{main|Persian Empire|History of Iran}} *[[Elam]] *[[Medes]] *[[Achaemenid Empire]] *[[Parthia]] *[[Sassanid Empire]] ====Anatolia and Armenia==== *[[Hittite Empire]] *[[Urartu]] *[[Kingdom of Armenia]] ====Arabia==== {{main|Pre-Islamic Arabia}} *[[Ancient history of Yemen|Arabia Felix]] ([[History of Yemen|Yemen]]) *[[Himyar]] *[[Kingdom of Awsan]] *[[Sabaeans]] *[[Dilmun]] *[[Nabateans]] *[[Ghassanids]] *[[Lakhmids]] ====Levant==== {{main|Levant}} *[[Ugarit]] *[[Kingdom of Israel]] *[[Kingdom of Judah]] ===Africa=== [[Image:Egypt.Giza.Sphinx.01.jpg|thumb|right|250px|[[Khafre's Pyramid]] ([[Fourth dynasty of Egypt|4th dynasty]]) and [[Great Sphinx of Giza]] (c.[[2500 BC]] or perhaps earlier)]] *[[Ancient Egypt]] *[[Carthage]] *[[Kush]] *[[Axumite Kingdom]] ====Egypt==== {{main|Ancient Egypt}} [[Ancient Egypt]] was a long-lived [[civilization]] geographically located in north-eastern [[Africa]]. It was concentrated along the middle to lower reaches of the [[Nile River]] reaching its greatest extension during the second millennium [[Before Christ|BC]], which is referred to as the [[New Kingdom]] period. It reached broadly from the [[Nile Delta]] in the north, as far south as [[Jebel Barkal]] at the [[Fourth Cataract]] of the Nile. Extensions to the geographical range of ancient Egyptian civilisation included, at different times, areas of the southern [[Levant]], the Eastern Desert and the [[Red Sea]] coastline, the [[Sinai Peninsula]] and the [[Western Desert]] (focused on the several [[oasis|oases]]). Ancient Egypt developed over at least three and a half [[millennia]]. It began with the incipient unification of Nile Valley polities around 3500 BC and is conventionally thought to have ended in 30 BC when the early [[Roman Empire]] conquered and absorbed [[Ptolemaic Egypt]] as a province. (Though this last did not represent the first period of foreign domination, the Roman period was to witness a marked, if gradual transformation in the political and religious life of the Nile Valley, effectively marking the termination of independent civilisational development). The civilization of ancient Egypt was based on a finely balanced control of natural and human resources, characterised primarily by controlled [[irrigation]] of the fertile Nile Valley; the mineral exploitation of the valley and surrounding desert regions; the early development of an independent [[writing|writing system]] and [[literature]]; the organisation of collective projects; [[trade]] with surrounding regions in east / central Africa and the eastern [[Mediterranean]]; finally, [[military]] ventures that exhibited strong characteristics of imperial hegemony and territorial domination of neighbouring cultures at different periods. Motivating and organising these activities were a socio-political and economic [[elite]] that achieved social consensus by means of an elaborate system of [[religion|religious belief]] under the figure of a (semi)-divine ruler (usually male) from a succession of ruling [[dynasty|dynasties]] and which related to the larger world by means of [[polytheism|polytheistic beliefs]]. ===South Asia (India)=== [[Image:StandingBuddha.jpg|thumb|left|150px|Standing Buddha, [[Gandhara]], [[Pakistan]], [[1st century|1st century CE]].]] The [[Indus Valley Civilization]] (c. 3300–1700 BC, flourished 2600–1900 BCE), abbreviated IVC, was an ancient [[civilization]] that flourished in the [[Indus River|Indus]] and [[Ghaggar-Hakra River|Ghaggar-Hakra]] [[river]] valleys primarily in what is now [[Pakistan]] and scattered settlements linked to this ancient Pakistani civilization have been found in eastern [[Afghanistan]], [[Bahrain]], eastern [[Iran]], western [[India]] and [[Turkmenistan]]. Another name for this civilization is the Harappan Civilization, after the first of its cities to be excavated, [[Harappa]] in the Pakistani province of [[Punjab (Pakistan)|Panjab]]. The IVC might have been known to the [[Sumer]]ians as the [[Meluhha]], and other trade contacts may have included Egypt, Africa, however the modern world discovered it only in the 1920s as a result of archaeological excavations and rail road building. In his book, ''Pakistan before the Aryans'', By Sir Mortimer Wheeler stated "Within this immense territory, archaeologists have found no fewer than thirty-seven town or village sites (tells) representing this civilization, and many more un-doubtedly await discovery." Much archeological work still remains in order to fully understand Ancient Pakistan's history which has all too often been neglected and under-funded by the government of Pakistan.<ref>[http://www.geocities.com/pak_history/Indus.html Indus Valley Civilization<!-- Bot generated title -->]</ref> The births of [[Mahavira]] and Buddha in the 6th century BC mark the beginning of well-recorded history in the region. Around the 5th century BC, the ancient regions of Pakistan was invaded by the [[Achaemenid Empire]] under Darius in 522 B.C. <ref>[http://www.geocities.com/pak_history/persian.html Achaemenian rule of Pakistan<!-- Bot generated title -->]</ref> forming the easternmost satraps of the [[Persian Empire]]. The provinces of Sindh and Panjab were said to be the richest ''satraps'' of the Persian Empire and contributed many soldiers to various Persian expeditions. It is known that a ''Pakistani'' contingent fought in Xerxes' army on his expedition to Greece. Herodotus mentions that the Indus satrapy supplied cavalry and chariots to the Persian army. He also mentions that the Indus people were clad in armaments made of cotton, carried bows and arrows of cane covered with iron. Herodotus states that in 517 B.C. Darius sent an expedition under Scylax to explore the Indus. Under Persian rule, much irrigation and commerce flourished within the vast territory of the empire. The Persian empire was followed by the invasion of the Greeks under [[Alexander the Great|Alexander]]'s army. Since Alexander was determined to reach the eastern-most limits of the Persian Empire he could not resist the temptation to conquer Pakistan, which at this time was parcelled out into small chieftain- ships, who were feudatories of the Persian Empire. Alexander amalgamated the region into the expanding Hellenic empire. <ref>[http://www.geocities.com/pak_history/alexander.html Alexander's invasion of Pakistan<!-- Bot generated title -->]</ref> [[Image:Mauryan Empire Map.gif|thumb|right|150px|A political map of the [[Mauryan Empire]], including notable cities, such as the capital [[Pataliputra]], and site of the Buddha's enlightenment.]] The ''[[Rigveda]]'', in [[Sanskrit]], goes back to about 1500 BC. The Indian literary tradition has an oral history reaching down into the [[Vedic period]] of the later 2nd millennium BC. '''[[History of India|Ancient India]]''' is usually taken to refer to the "golden age" of classical [[Hindu culture]], as reflected in [[Sanskrit]] literature, beginning around 500 BC with the sixteen monarchies and 'republics' known as the [[Mahajanapadas]], stretched across the [[Indo-Gangetic plains]] from modern-day Afghanistan to [[Bangladesh]]. The largest of these nations were [[Magadha]], [[Kosala]], [[Kuru (India)|Kuru]] and [[Gandhara]]. Notably, the great epics of [[Ramayana]] and [[Mahabharata]] are rooted in this classical period. Amongst the sixteen Mahajanapadas, the kingdom of [[Magadha]] rose to prominence under a number of dynasties that peaked in power under the reign of [[Ashoka]] [[Maurya]], one of India's most legendary and famous emperors. During the reign of [[Asoka]], the three [[Tamil people|Tamil]] dynasties of [[Chola dynasty|Chola]], [[Chera dynasty|Chera]] and [[Pandya]] were ruling in the south. These kingdoms, while not part of Asoka's empire, were in friendly terms with the [[Maurya Empire]]. The [[Satavahanas]] started out as feudatories to the [[Mauryan Empire]], and declared independence soon after the death of [[Ashoka]] (232 BC). Other notable ancient [[South India]]n dynasties include the [[Kadambas]] of Banavasi, western [[Ganga dynasty]], [[Chalukya]]s of Badami, [[Chalukya]]s, [[Hoysalas]], [[Kakatiya dynasty]], [[Pallavas]], [[Rashtrakuta]]s of Manyaketha and [[Satavahanas]]. The period between 320 CE–550 is known as the Classical Age, when most of [[North India]] was reunited under the [[Gupta Empire]] (ca. 320 CE–550). This was a period of relative peace, law and order, and extensive achievements in religion, education, mathematics, arts, Sanskrit literature and drama. Grammar, composition, logic, metaphysics, mathematics, medicine, and [[astronomy]] became increasingly specialized and reached an advanced level. The Gupta Empire was weakened and ultimately ruined by the raids of Hunas (a branch of the [[White Huns]] emanating from Central Asia). Under [[Harsha]] (r. 606–47), North India was reunited briefly. The educated speech at that time was [[Sanskrit]], while the dialects of the general population of northern India were referred to as [[Prakrit]]s. The South Indian coast of [[Malabar]] and the [[Tamil people]] of the [[Sangam]] age traded with the [[Graeco-Roman]] world. They were in contact with the [[Phoenicians]], [[Ancient Rome|Romans]], [[Greeks]], [[Arabs]], [[Demographics of Syria|Syrians]], [[Jew]]s, and the [[China|Chinese]].<ref name= "Blandstrom">(Bjorn Landstrom, 1964; Miller, J. Innes. 1969; Thomas Puthiakunnel 1973; & Koder S. 1973; Leslie Brown, 1956</ref> [[India]] is estimated to have had the largest [[Economic history of India|economy]] of the world between the 1st and 15th centuries CE, controlling between one third and one quarter of the world's wealth up to the time of the [[Mughal empire|Mughals]], from whence it rapidly declined during British rule.{{Fact|date=April 2007}} ===East Asia=== *[[History of China|Ancient China]] *[[History of Japan|Ancient Japan]] *[[History of Korea|Ancient Korea]] *[[Mongols]] *[[Huns]] *[[Ancient Vietnam]] ====China==== {{main|History of China#Ancient era}} [[Image:OracleShell.JPG|thumb|right|Replica of an Oracle Bone]][[Image:Territories of Dynasties in China.gif|thumb|right|Territories occupied by different dynasties and modern political states throughout the history of China.]] Written records of China's past dates from the [[Shang Dynasty]] (商朝) in perhaps the 13th century BC, and takes the form of inscriptions of divination records on the bones or shells of animals&mdash;the so-called ''[[oracle bones]]'' (甲骨文). Archaeological findings providing evidence for the existence of the [[Shang Dynasty]], c. 1600–1046 BC is divided into two sets. The first, from the earlier Shang period (c. 1600–1300) comes from sources at [[Erligang culture|Erligang]] (二里崗), [[Zhengzhou]] (鄭州) and Shangcheng. The second set, from the later Shang or Yin (殷) period, consists of a large body of oracle bone writings. [[Anyang]] (安陽) in modern day Henan has been confirmed as the last of the nine capitals of the Shang (c. 1300–1046 BC). By the end of the 2nd millennium BC, the [[Zhou Dynasty]] (周朝) began to emerge in the [[Yellow River]] valley, overrunning the Shang. The Zhou appeared to have begun their rule under a semi-feudal system. The ruler of the Zhou, [[King Wu of Zhou|King Wu]], with the assistance of his uncle, the [[Duke of Zhou]], as regent managed to defeat the Shang at the [[Battle of Muye]]. The king of Zhou at this time invoked the concept of the [[Mandate of Heaven]] to legitimize his rule, a concept that would be influential for almost every successive dynasty. The Zhou initially moved their capital west to an area near modern [[Xi'an]], near the Yellow River, but they would preside over a series of expansions into the [[Yangtze River]] valley. This would be the first of many population migrations from north to south in Chinese history. {{Main|Spring and Autumn Period}} In the 8th century BC, power became decentralized during the [[Spring and Autumn Period]] (春秋時代), named after the influential [[Spring and Autumn Annals]]. In this period, local military leaders used by the Zhou began to assert their power and vie for hegemony. The situation was aggravated by the invasion of other peoples from the northwest, such as the Qin, forcing the Zhou to move their capital east to [[Luoyang]]. This marks the second large phase of the Zhou dynasty: the Eastern Zhou. In each of the hundreds of states that eventually arose, local strongmen held most of the political power and continued their subservience to the Zhou kings in name only. Local leaders for instance started using royal titles for themselves. The [[Hundred Schools of Thought]] (諸子百家) of Chinese philosophy blossomed during this period, and such influential intellectual movements as [[Confucianism]] (儒家), [[Taoism]] (道家), [[Legalism (philosophy)|Legalism]] (法家) and [[Mohism]] (墨家) were founded, partly in response to the changing political world. The Spring and Autumn Period is marked by a falling apart of the central Zhou power. China now consists of hundreds of states, some only as large as a village with a fort. {{Main|Warring States Period}} After further political consolidation, seven prominent states remained by the end of 5th century BC, and the years in which these few states battled each other is known as the [[Warring States Period]] (戰國時代). Though there remained a nominal [[Zhou Dynasty (1122 BC–256 BC)|Zhou]] king until 256 BC, he was largely a figurehead and held little power. As neighboring territories of these warring states, including areas of modern [[Sichuan]] (四川) and [[Liaoning]] (遼寧), were annexed, they were governed under the new local administrative system of [[commandery]] and [[prefecture]] (郡縣). This system had been in use since the Spring and Autumn Period and parts can still be seen in the modern system of [[Political divisions of China|Sheng & Xian]] (province and county, 省縣). The final expansion in this period began during the reign of Ying Zheng (嬴政), the king of Qin. His unification of the other six powers, and further annexations in the modern regions of [[Zhejiang]] (浙江), [[Fujian]] (福建), [[Guangdong]] (廣東) and [[Guangxi]] (廣西) in 214 BC enabled him to proclaim himself the [[Qin Shi Huang|First Emperor]] (Qin Shi Huangdi, 始皇帝). ===Europe and Mediterranean=== {{portalpar|Classical Civilisation}} *[[Ancient Egypt]] *[[Carthage]] *[[Etruscan civilization|Etruscans]] *[[Hittites]] *[[Phoenicia]] *[[Scythians]] *[[Ancient Rome]] *[[Ancient Greece]] [[Image:Mediterranian Sea 16.61811E 38.99124N.jpg|right|300px|thumb|The Mediterranean.]] ====Classical Antiquity record==== {{main|Classical antiquity}} ''[[Classical antiquity]]'' is a broad term for a long period of cultural [[history]] centered on the [[Mediterranean Sea]], which begins roughly with the earliest-recorded [[Greek language|Greek]] poetry of [[Homer]] (7th century BC), and continues through the rise of [[Christianity]] and the [[fall of the Roman Empire|fall of the Western Roman Empire]] (5th century AD), ending in the dissolution of classical culture with the close of [[Late Antiquity]]. Such a wide sampling of history and territory covers many rather disparate cultures and periods. "Classical antiquity" typically refers to an idealized vision of later people, of what was, in [[Edgar Allan Poe]]'s words, "the glory that was [[Ancient Greece|Greece]], the grandeur that was [[Ancient Rome|Rome]]!" In the 18th and 19th centuries reverence for classical antiquity was much greater in [[Western Europe]] and the [[United States]] than it is today. Respect for the ancients of Greece and Rome affected [[politics]], [[philosophy]], [[sculpture]], [[literature]], [[theatre]], [[education]], and even [[architecture]] and [[History of sex|sexuality]]. In politics, the presence of a [[Roman Emperor]] was felt to be desirable long after the [[fall of the Roman Empire|empire fell]]. This tendency reached its peak when [[Charlemagne]] was [[coronation|crowned]] "Roman Emperor" in the year 800, an act which led to the formation of the [[Holy Roman Empire]]. The notion that an [[emperor]] is a [[monarch]] who outranks a mere king dates from this period. In this political ideal, there would always be a Roman Empire, a state whose jurisdiction extended to the entire civilised world. [[Epic poetry]] in [[Latin]] continued to be written and circulated well into the nineteenth century. [[John Milton]] and even [[Arthur Rimbaud]] got their first poetic educations in Latin. Genres like epic poetry, [[pastoral]] verse, and the endless use of characters and themes from [[Greek mythology]] left a deep mark on Western literature. In architecture, there have been several [[Greek Revival]]s, (though while apparently more inspired in retrospect by Roman architecture than Greek). Still, one needs only to look at [[Washington, DC]] to see a city filled with large [[marble]] buildings with façades made out to look like [[Roman temple]]s, with columns constructed in the [[classical orders]] of architecture. In philosophy, the efforts of St [[Thomas Aquinas]] were derived largely from the thought of [[Aristotle]], despite the intervening change in [[religion]] from [[paganism]] to [[Christianity]]. Greek and Roman authorities such as [[Hippocrates]] and [[Galen]] formed the foundation of the practice of [[medicine]] even longer than Greek thought prevailed in philosophy. In the [[France|French]] [[theatre]], [[tragedy|tragedians]] such as [[Molière]] and [[Jean Racine|Racine]] wrote plays on mythological or classical historical subjects and subjected them to the strict rules of the [[classical unities]] derived from Aristotle's ''[[Poetics (Aristotle)|Poetics]]''. The desire to [[dance]] like a latter-day vision of how the ancient Greeks did it moved [[Isadora Duncan]] to create her brand of [[ballet]]. ''The [[Renaissance]] discovery of Classical Antiquity'' is a book by [[Roberto Weiss]] on how the renaissance was partly caused by the rediscovery of classic antiquity. [[Image:AntikeGriechen1.jpg|right|300px|thumb|The Mediterranean in ca. the 6th century BC. Phoenician cities are labelled in yellow, Greek cities in red, and other cities in grey.]] ====Ancient Greece==== {{main|Ancient Greece}} [[Ancient Greece]] is the period in [[Greek history]] lasting for close to a millennium, until the rise of [[Christianity]]. It is considered by most historians to be the foundational culture of [[Western world|Western Civilization]]. Greek culture was a powerful influence in the [[Roman Empire]], which carried a version of it to many parts of [[Europe]]. The civilization of the ancient Greeks has been immensely influential on the language, politics, educational systems, philosophy, science, art, and architecture of the modern world, fueling the [[Renaissance]] in Western Europe and again resurgent during various [[Neoclassicism|neo-Classical]] revivals in 18th and 19th century Europe and [[The Americas]]. "Ancient Greece" is the term used to describe the [[Greek language|Greek]]-speaking world in ancient times. It refers not only to the [[geographical]] [[peninsula]] of modern [[Greece]], but also to areas of [[wikt:Hellenic|Hellenic]] culture that were settled in ancient times by Greeks: [[Cyprus]] and the Aegean islands, the [[Aegean Sea|Aegean]] coast of [[Anatolia]] (then known as [[Ionia]]), [[Sicily]] and southern [[Italy]] (known as [[Magna Graecia]]), and the scattered Greek settlements on the coasts of [[Colchis]], [[Illyria]], [[Thrace]], [[Egypt]], [[Cyrenaica]], southern [[Gaul]], east and northeast of the [[Iberian peninsula]], [[Caucasian Iberia|Iberia]], [[Taurica]] and further to the east in exotic Asian cities such as [[Taxila]], [[Sagala]] and [[Jhelum (City)|Jhelum]] in modern day [[Pakistan]]. During its twelve-century existence, the Roman civilization shifted from a [[monarchy]] to an [[oligarchy|oligarchic]] [[republic]] to a vast [[empire]]. It came to dominate [[Western Europe]] and the entire area surrounding the [[Mediterranean Sea]] through [[invasion|conquest]] and [[cultural assimilation|assimilation]]. However, a number of factors led to the eventual [[decline of the Roman Empire]]. The western half of the empire, including [[Hispania]], [[Gaul]], and Italy, eventually broke into independent kingdoms in the 5th century; the eastern empire, governed from [[Constantinople]], is referred to as the [[Byzantine Empire]] after AD 476, the traditional date for the "fall of Rome" and subsequent onset of the [[Middle Ages]]. [[Image:Roman Republic Empire map.gif|thumb|300px|Timelapse of area under Roman control.]] ====Ancient Rome==== {{main|Ancient Rome}} [[Ancient Rome]] was a civilization that grew out of the city-state of Rome, originating as a small agricultural community founded on the Italian Peninsula in the 9th century BC. In its twelve centuries of existence, Roman civilization shifted from a monarchy to an oligarchic republic to an increasingly autocratic empire. Roman civilization is often grouped into "[[classical antiquity]]" with [[ancient Greece]], a civilization that inspired much of the [[culture of ancient Rome]]. Ancient Rome contributed greatly to the development of [[roman law|law]], [[roman military|war]], [[roman art|art]], [[roman literature|literature]], [[roman architecture|architecture]], and [[roman language|language]] in the [[Western world]], and its [[history of Rome|history]] continues to have a major influence on the world today. The Roman civilization came to dominate Western Europe and the Mediterranean region through conquest and assimilation. Throughout the territory under the control of ancient Rome, residential [[architecture]] ranged from very modest houses to [[Roman villa|country villas]]. A number of Roman founded cities had [[monument]]al structures. Many contained fountains with fresh drinking-water supplied by hundreds of miles of [[Aqueduct (Roman)|aqueducts]], [[Roman theatre (structure)|theatres]], [[gymnasium (ancient Greece)|gymnasium]]s, [[thermae|bath complexes]] sometime with libraries and shops, marketplaces, and occasionally functional sewers. {{more|Culture of ancient Rome}} ==See also== *[[Ancient music]] *[[Ancient philosophy]] *[[Ancient warfare]] *[[Classical Antiquity]] *[[Classics]] *[[Digital Classicist]] *[[Human evolution]] *[[Historiography]] *[[Prehistory]] *[[Prehistoric man]] ==Notes== {{reflist}} == References == * {{Citation | first = | last = | author-link = | first2 = | last2 = | author2-link = | editor-last =Alcock | editor-first =Susan E. | editor2-first =D'Altroy | editor2-last = Terence N. | editor3-first =Morrison | editor3-last = Terence N. | editor4-first =Sinopoli | editor4-last = Carla M. | title =Empires: Perspectives from Archaeology and History | year =201 | pages =546 | place =Cambridge | publisher =Cambridge University Press | url = | isbn =978-0521770200 | id = }}. * {{cite book |last= Carr |first=E. H. (Edward Hallett) |title=What is History? |authorlink= |coauthors= |year= |publisher= |location= |isbn= }} Thorndike 1923, Becker 1931, MacMullen 1966, MacMullen 1990, Thomas & Wick 1993, Loftus 1996. * {{cite book |last= Collingwood |first=R. G. |title=The Idea of History |authorlink= |coauthors= |year= 1946 |publisher=Clarendon Press |location= Oxford |isbn= }} * {{Cite book | last =Diamond | first =Jared | author-link =Jared Diamond | year =1999 | title =Guns, Germs, and Steel: The Fates of Human Societies | place =New York | publisher =Norton}} * {{cite book |last= Dodds |first= E. R. |title=The Greeks and the Irrational |authorlink= |coauthors= |year= 1964 |publisher=University of California Press |location=Berkeley, Calif. |isbn= }} * {{cite book |last= Hodges |first=Henry |title=Technology in the Ancient World |authorlink= |coauthors=Judith Newcomer |year= 1992 |publisher=Barnes & Noble |location= |isbn=978-0880298933 }} * {{cite book |last= Kinzl |first=Konrad H. |title=Directory of Ancient Historians in the USA, 2nd ed. |authorlink= |coauthors= |year= 1998 |publisher= Regina Books |location= Claremont, Calif.|isbn=0941690873 | url =http://people.trentu.ca/kkinzl/aahdir.html }} Web edition is constantly updated. * {{Citation | last =Kristiansen | first =Kristian | last2 =Larsson | first2 =Thomas B. | year =2005 | title =The Rise of Bronze Age Society | publisher =Cambridge University Press}} * {{cite journal | last =Libourel | first =Jan | title =A Battle of Uncertain Outcome in the Second Samnite War | journal =American Journal of Philogy | volume =94 | issue =1 | pages =71 | date =1973 | url =http://www.jstor.org/view/00029475/ap010369/01a00060/0 | accessdate =September 2007 | doi =10.2307/294039 | format ={{dead link|date=June 2008}} &ndash; <sup>[http://scholar.google.co.uk/scholar?hl=en&lr=&q=author%3ALibourel+intitle%3AA+Battle+of+Uncertain+Outcome+in+the+Second+Samnite+War&as_publication=American+Journal+of+Philogy&as_ylo=&as_yhi=&btnG=Search Scholar search]</sup>}} * {{cite web |url=http://www.livius.org/ |title= Livius. Articles on Ancient History |accessdate= |format= |work= }} * {{cite journal | last =Lobell | first =Jarrett | title =Etruscan Pompeii | journal =Archaeological Institute of America | volume =55 | issue =4 |date =July/August 2002 | url =http://www.archaeology.org/0207/newsbriefs/etruscan.html | accessdate =September 2007 }} * {{cite book |last= Loftus |first= Elizbeth |title=Eyewitness Testimony |authorlink= |coauthors= |year= 1996 |publisher=Harvard University Press |location=Cambridge, Mass. |isbn=0674287770 }} * {{cite book |last= MacMullen |first= Ramsay |title=Enemies of the Roman Order: Treason, Unrest and Alienation in the Empire |authorlink= |coauthors= |year= 1966 |publisher=Harvard University Press |location=Cambridge, Mass. |isbn= }} * {{cite book |last= MacMullen |first= Ramsay |title=Changes in the Roman Empire: Essays in the Ordinary |authorlink= |coauthors= |year= 1993 |publisher=Princeton University Press |location=Princeton, N.J. |isbn=0691036012 }} * {{cite book |last=Thomas |first=Carol G. |title=Decoding Ancient History: A Toolkit for the Historian as Detective |authorlink= |coauthors= D.P. Wick |year= 1994 |publisher=Prentice Hall |location= Englewood Cliffs, N.J. |isbn=0132002051 }} * {{cite book |last= Thorndike |first= Lynn |title=History of Magic and Experimental Science |authorlink= |coauthors= |year= 1923–58 |publisher= Macmillan|location=New York |isbn= }} Eight volumes. ==External links== * [http://www.ancientcivilizations.co.uk/home_set.html Ancient Civilizations]—[[British Museum]]'s website on various topics of ancient civilizations * [http://www.fordham.edu/HALSALL/ancient/asbook.html Ancient history sourcebook] * [http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/ The Perseus digital library] * [http://www.unc.edu/depts/cl_atlas/ Barrington Atlas of the Greek and Roman world] * [http://www.dinur.org/1.html?rsID=219 The Jewish History Resource Center] Project of the Dinur Center for Research in Jewish History, The Hebrew University of Jerusalem * [http://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Wikijunior_Ancient_Civilizations Wikibooks ancient history] * [http://video.google.com/videoplay?docid=7343618077473282887 ''The Five Great Battles of Antiquity''] by David L. Smith, [http://symposionlectures.googlepages.com Symposion Lectures], [[30 June]] [[2006]]. [[Category:Ancient history|*]] [[ca:Edat Antiga]] [[cy:Yr Henfyd]] [[da:Den klassiske oldtid]] [[de:Altertum]] [[et:Vanaaeg]] [[el:Αρχαία Ιστορία]] [[es:Historia Antigua]] [[eu:Antzinaroa]] [[fr:Antiquité]] [[fy:Aldheid]] [[ko:고대]] [[is:Fornöld]] [[it:Storia antica]] [[he:העת העתיקה]] [[hu:Ókori történelem]] [[nl:Geschiedenis van de oudheid]] [[ja:古代]] [[no:Oldtiden]] [[pl:Historia starożytna]] [[pt:História Antiga]] [[ro:Istoria antică]] [[ru:Древний мир]] [[simple:Ancient history]] [[sk:Starovek]] [[sl:Antika]] [[bat-smg:Senuoves istuorėj]] [[zh:古代史]]