Anthropology of religion 175914 225740940 2008-07-15T04:40:38Z Bastet13 7286470 /* Specific religious practices and beliefs */ The '''anthropology of religion''' involves the study of religious institutions in relation to other social institutions, and the comparison of religious beliefs and practices across [[culture]]s. ==History== In 1841, [[Ludwig Feuerbach]] was the first to state the anthropologic principle that every religion is created by the human community that worships it.<ref>[[Feuerbach]], Ludwig (1841) ''[[The Essence of Christianity]]''</ref><ref>Mackey, James Patrick (2000) ''The Critique of Theological Reason'', Cambridge University Press. pp.41-2</ref><ref name="Nelson90">John K. Nelson (1990) [http://inic.utexas.edu/asnic/subject/essayonreli.html A Field Statement on the Anthropology of Religion]</ref> In 1912 [[Émile Durkheim]], building on Feuerbach, considered religion as "a projection of the social values of society," "a means of making [[symbolic]] statements about society," "a symbolic language that makes statements about the social order";<ref name="Durkheim">[[Émile Durkheim]] (1912) ''[[The Elementary Forms of the Religious Life]]''</ref><ref>Bowie, Fiona (1999) ''The Anthropology of Religion: An Introduction''. Oxford: Blackwell. p.15, 143</ref> in short, "religion is society worshiping itself".<ref>Durkheim, p.266 in the 1963 edition</ref><ref name="Nelson90"/> In the 19th century, [[cultural anthropology]] was dominated by an interest in [[cultural evolution]]; most anthropologists assumed that there was a simple distinction between “primitive” and “modern” religion and tried to provide accounts of how the former evolved into the latter. In the 20th century most anthropologists rejected this approach. Today the anthropology of religion reflects the influence of, or an engagement with, such theorists as [[Ludwig Feuerbach]], [[Karl Marx]], [[Sigmund Freud]], [[Émile Durkheim]], and [[Max Weber]]. They are especially concerned with how religious beliefs and practices may reflect political or economic forces; or the social functions of religious beliefs and practices. == Approaches == Anthropological approaches to religion reflect a more general tension within anthropology: the discipline defines itself as a [[science]] in that all anthropologists base their interpretations and explanations on [[empiricism|empirical]] evidence (and many anthropologists are concerned with developing universal models of human behavior), and the discipline also defines itself in terms of the seriousness with which it takes local beliefs and practices (see [[cultural relativism]]), and its commitment to understanding different cultures in their own terms through [[participant observation]]. Thus, although many Westerners (including some anthropologists) have rejected “religion” out of hand as being unscientific, virtually all anthropologists assume that there must be good reasons for the endurance and importance of religion and, by implication, assume that religious beliefs and practices are in some sense “reasonable.” {{Fact|date=February 2008}} "It has never been difficult to make a case for the significance of religion in human life. Religion has been found in all societies studied by anthropologists."<Ref> [http://www.baylor.edu/isreligion/index.php?id=36186/ Swatos, William H.], [http://hirr.hartsem.edu/ency/index.html/''Encyclopedia of Religion and Society''], [http://www.altamirapress.com/ Altamira Press], 1998. http://hirr.hartsem.edu/ency/Anthropology.htm/ </Ref> In order to determine the reasons for the importance of religion, however, anthropologists generally move beyond the literal claims of any religion to look at its metaphorical meaning or latent social functions. == Definition of religion== One major problem in the anthropology of religion is the definition of religion itself. At one time anthropologists believed that certain religious practices and beliefs were more or less universal to all cultures at some point in their development, such as a belief in spirits or [[ghost]]s, the use of [[magic (religion)|magic]] as a means of controlling the [[supernatural]], the use of [[divination]] as a means of discovering occult knowledge, and the performance of [[ritual]]s such as [[prayer]] and [[sacrifice]] as a means of influencing the outcome of various events through a supernatural agency, sometimes taking the form of [[shamanism]] or [[ancestor worship]]. According to Clifford Geertz, religion is a system of symbols, beliefs, and patterns of behaviors by which human beings control that which is beyond their control. Today, anthropologists debate, and many reject, the cross-cultural validity of these categories (often viewing them as examples of European [[primitivism]]). Anthropologists have considered various criteria for defining religion &ndash; such as a belief in the supernatural or the reliance on ritual &ndash; but few claim that these criteria are universally valid. In Western culture, religion has become more or less synonymous with [[monotheism]] and the various [[moral code]]s that monotheism prescribes. [[Moral code]]s have also evolved in conjunction with [[Hindu]] and [[Buddhist]] beliefs, independent of [[monotheism]]. However, prescriptive moral codes or even normative [[ethical code]]s are not a necessary component of religious beliefs or practices any more than they are a necessary component of science and the scientific method. [[Anthony F.C. Wallace]] proposes four categories of religion, each subsequent category subsuming the previous. These are, however, synthetic categories and do not necessarily encompass all religions.<ref>http://www.mnsu.edu/emuseum/information/biography/uvwxyz/wallace_anthony.html</ref> # '''Individualistic''': most basic; simplest. Example: vision quest. # '''Shamanistic''': part-time religious practitioner, uses religion to heal, to divine, usually on the behalf of a client. The Tillamook have four categories of shaman. Examples of shamans: spiritualists, faith healers, palm readers. One who has acquired religious authority through one's own means. # '''Communal''': elaborate set of beliefs and practices; group of people arranged in clans by lineage, age group, or some religious societies; people take on roles based on knowledge, and ancestral worship. # '''Ecclesiastical''': Most complex. Incorporates elements of the previous three. ==Specific religious practices and beliefs== {|width=100% |-valign=top |width=33%| * [[Ancestor worship]] * [[Apotheosis]] * [[Apotropaic magic]] * [[Animism]] * [[Astrology]] * [[Authority]] * [[Charm]] * [[Contagious magic]] * [[Cult]] * [[Demon]] * [[Divination]] * [[Esoterica]] * [[Exorcism]] * [[Evil]] * [[Fertility Worship]] * [[Fetishism|Fetish]] * [[Sacred food as offering|Food]] * [[Genius]] * [[God]] * [[Goddess Worship]] * [[Ghost]] |width=33%| * [[Heresy]] * [[Icon]] * [[Intercession]] * [[Immortality]] * [[Kachina]] * [[Magic and religion]] * [[Mana]] * [[Manna]] * [[Masks]] * [[Miracle]] * [[Medicine]] * [[Monotheism]] * [[Mythology|Myth]] * [[Mystery religion|Mystery]] * [[Necromancy]] * [[New Age]] * [[Occultism]] * [[Omen]] * [[Pain]] |width=33%| * [[Polytheism]] * [[Prayer]] * [[Prophecy]] * [[Rebirth]] * [[Religious ecstasy]] * [[Ritual]] * [[Sacrifice]] * [[Shamanism]] * [[Supernatural]] * [[Omen|Sign]] <!--There is no "sign" page for this context--> * [[spell (paranormal)|Spell]] * [[Supplication]] * [[Sympathetic magic]] * [[Amulet|Talisman]] * [[Tarot reading]] * [[Theism]] * [[Totemism]] * [[Western mystery tradition]] |} == See also == * [[Cultural anthropology]] * [[Symbolic anthropology]] * [[Symbology]] * [[Sociology of religion]] *[[Sacred-profane dichotomy]] ==References== <References/> ==External links== * Homepage of [http://www.aaanet.org/sar/ The Society for the Anthropology of Religion] within [http://www.aaanet.org/ The American Anthropological Association] *[http://www.as.ua.edu/ant/Faculty/murphy/419/419www.htm Anthropology of Religion Page] M.D. Murphy, University of Alabama * [http://www.anpere.net anpere (Anthropological Perspectives on Religion)] * Andrew Lang, [http://www.psychanalyse-paris.com/831-Anthropology-and-Religion.html Anthropology and Religion], ''The Making of Religion'', (Chapter II), Longmans, Green, and C°, London, New York and Bombay, 1900, pp. 39-64. *[http://www.pygmies.info/ Anthropology of the African Pygmies religion] {{Socialscience&religion}} [[Category:Anthropology of religion| ]] [[Category:Study of religion]] [[cs:Antropologie náboženství]] [[de:Theologische Anthropologie]] [[es:Antropología de la religión]] [[fr:Anthropologie religieuse]] [[lt:Religijos antropologija]] [[nl:Religieuze antropologie]] [[pl:Antropologia religii]] [[pt:Antropologia das religiões]] [[fi:Uskontoantropologia]] [[zh:宗教人类学]]