Anthroposophy
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{{Anthroposophy}}
'''Anthroposophy''' is a spiritual philosophy based on the teachings of [[Rudolf Steiner]] ([[25 February]] [[1861]] – [[30 March]] [[1925]]) which postulates the existence of an objective, intellectually comprehensible [[spirituality|spiritual]] world accessible to direct experience through inner development - more specifically through cultivating conscientiously a form of thinking independent of sensory experience.<ref name="Essential">Robert McDermott, ''The Essential Steiner'', ISBN 0-06-065345-0, pp. 3-11</ref><ref>[http://library.eb.com/eb/article-9007798 "Anthroposophy"], Encyclopedia Britannica online, accessed 10/09/07</ref> In its investigations of the spiritual world, anthroposophy aims to attain the precision and clarity of [[natural science]]'s investigations of the physical world.<ref name="Essential"/> Whether this is a sufficient basis for anthroposophy to be considered a spiritual science has been a matter of controversy.<ref name="Willmann">Carlo Willmann, ''Waldorfpädagogik: Theologische und religionspädagogische Befunde'', ISBN 3-412-16700-2</ref><ref name=Hammer>Olav Hammer, ''Claiming Knowledge: Strategies of Epistemology from Theosophy to the New Age'', Brill 2004, pp. 243, 329, 204, 225-8</ref>
{{cquote|Anthroposophy is a path of knowledge, to guide the spiritual in the human being to the spiritual in the universe…. Anthroposophists are those who experience, as an essential need of life, certain questions on the nature of the human being and the universe, just as one experiences hunger and thirst.<ref>Steiner, ''Anthroposophical Leading Thoughts'' (1924)</ref>}}
Anthroposophical ideas have been applied practically in areas including [[Steiner/Waldorf education]], special education (most prominently the [[Camphill movement]]), [[biodynamic agriculture]], [[anthroposophical medicine]], and the arts.<ref>[http://www.ibe.unesco.org/publications/ThinkersPdf/steinere.pdf Heiner Ullrich, "Rudolf Steiner"], ''Prospects: the quarterly review of comparative education'' (Paris, UNESCO: International Bureau of Education), vol. XXIV, no. 3/4, 1994, p. 555-572.</ref><ref name="Willmann"/><ref name="Essential"/><ref name="Schneider"/> The [[Anthroposophical Society]] has its international center at the [[Goetheanum]] in Dornach, [[Switzerland]].
==History==
[[Image:RSteiner.jpg|thumb|Rudolf Steiner.]]
The early work of the founder of anthroposophy, Rudolf Steiner, culminated in his ''[[Philosophy of Freedom]]'' (also translated as ''The Philosophy of Spiritual Activity'' and ''Intuitive Thinking as a Spiritual Path''). Here, Steiner developed a concept of [[free will]] which is based upon inner experiences, especially those which occur in the creative activity of independent thought.<ref name="Essential"/>
By the beginning of the [[twentieth century]], Steiner's interests were leading him further and further into explicitly spiritual areas of research. These studies were of interest to others who were already oriented towards spiritual ideas; among these was the [[Theosophical Society]]. Theosophy was in vogue in [[Esotericism in Germany and Austria]] during that time. Steiner took a leading role in the Society's [[chapter|section]] in Germany, becoming its [[General Secretary|secretary]].
By 1907, a split between [[Rudolf Steiner and the Theosophical Society|Steiner and the mainstream Theosophical Society]] began to be apparent. While the Society was oriented toward an [[Eastern Region|Eastern]] and especially [[India]]n approach, Steiner was trying to develop a path which embraced [[Christianity]] and [[natural science]].<ref name="Lachman">Gary Lachman, ''Rudolf Steiner'', New York:Tarcher/Penguin ISBN 978-1-58542-543-3</ref> The split became irrevocable when [[Annie Besant]], then president of the [[Theosophical Society]], began to present the child [[Jiddu Krishnamurti]] as the [[reincarnation|reincarnated]] Christ. Steiner strongly objected and considered any comparison between Krishnamurti and Christ to be nonsense; many years later, Krishnamurti also repudiated the assertion. Steiner's continuing differences with Besant led him to separate from the [[Theosophical Society Adyar]]; he was followed by the great majority of the membership of the Theosophical Society's German Section, as well as members of other national sections.<ref name="Lachman"/>
By this time, Steiner had reached considerable stature as a spiritual teacher.<ref>Ahern, Geoffrey. (1984): Sun at Midnight: the Rudolf Steiner movement and the Western esoteric tradition</ref> He spoke about what he considered to be his direct experience of the [[Akashic Records]] (sometimes called the "Akasha Chronicle"), thought to be a spiritual chronicle of the history, pre-history, and future of the world and mankind. In a number of works,<ref>especially ''How to Know Higher Worlds'' and ''An Outline of Esoteric Science''</ref> Steiner described a path of inner development which he felt would enable anyone to attain comparable spiritual experiences. Sound vision could be developed, in part, by practicing rigorous forms of ethical and cognitive self-discipline, concentration, and meditation; in particular, a person's moral development must precede the development of spiritual faculties.<ref name="Essential"/>
[[Image:Goetheanum Dornach.jpg|thumb|350px|right|Second [[Goetheanum]], seat of the Anthroposophical Society. ]]
In 1912, the [[Anthroposophical Society]] was founded. After [[World War I]], the Anthroposophical movement took on new directions. Projects such as [[Waldorf education|schools]], [[Camphill movement|centers for those with special needs]], [[biodynamic agriculture|organic farms]] and [[anthroposophical medicine|medical clinics]] were established, all inspired by anthroposophy. In 1923, faced with differences between older members focusing on inner development and younger members eager to become active in the social transformations of the time, Steiner refounded the Society in an inclusive manner and established a ''School for Spiritual Science''. As a spiritual basis for the refounded movement, Steiner wrote the mantric poem ''[[wikisource:Foundation Stone Meditation|Foundation Stone Meditation]]'' expressing the aspects of the human [[soul]] in relation to the outer and spiritual worlds. Steiner died just over a year later, in 1925.
The Second World War temporarily hindered the anthroposophical movement in most of Continental Europe, as the Anthroposophical Society and most of its daughter movements (e.g. Steiner/Waldorf education) were banned by the [[National Socialist]]s (Nazis);<ref>Inge Hansen-Schaberg and Bruno Schonig (eds.), ''Waldorf-Pädogogik'', ISBN 3834000426</ref> virtually no anthroposophists ever joined the National Socialist Party.<ref>Helmut Zander, ''Anthroposophie in Deutschland'', ISBN 978-3-525-55452-4. P. 250</ref>
By 2007, national branches of the Anthroposophical Society had been established in fifty countries, and about 10,000 institutions around the world were working on the basis of anthroposophy.<ref>[http://www.goetheanum.org/121.html?&L=1 Goetheanum]</ref> In the same year, the Anthroposophical Society was called the "most important [[esoteric]] society in European history."<ref>Tom Grote, [http://www.dradio.de/dkultur/sendungen/kulturinterview/655387/ "Kosmische Wirkkräfte"], German Radio interview 08/08/2007</ref>
===Etymology of ''anthroposophy''===
The term ''anthroposophy'' is from the [[Greek language|Greek]], virtually {{lang|grc|*ανθρωποσοφία}}, from {{lang|grc|[[:wikt:ἄνθρωπος|ἄνθρωπος]]}} "human", and {{lang|grc|[[σοφία]]}} "wisdom".
It is listed by [[Nathan Bailey]] (1742) as meaning "the knowledge of the nature of man" ([[OED]]). Earlier authors who used the term include [[Heinrich Cornelius Agrippa|Agrippa von Nettesheim]] and [[Immanuel Hermann Fichte]].<ref>[http://arikah.net/enzyklopadie/Anthroposophie#Wortgeschichte Etymology of ''anthroposophy'']</ref> Steiner began using the word to refer to his philosophy in the early 1900s as an alternative to ''[[theosophy]]'', the term for [[Madame Blavatsky]]'s movement, itself from the Greek {{lang|grc|θεοσοφία}}, with a longer history with a meaning of "[[Theosophy (history of philosophy)|divine wisdom]]".
==Anthroposophy in brief==
===Spiritual knowledge and freedom===
Anthroposophical proponents aim to extend the clarity of the [[scientific method]] to phenomena of human soul-life and to spiritual experiences. This requires developing new faculties of objective spiritual perception, which Steiner maintained was possible for humanity today. The steps of this process of inner development he identified as consciously achieved ''[[imagination]]'', ''[[inspiration]]'' and ''[[intuition]]''.<ref name="Schneider">Peter Schneider, Einführung in die Waldorfpädogogik, ISBN 3-608-93006-X</ref> Steiner believed that the results of this form of spiritual research should be expressed in a way which can be understood and evaluated on the same basis as the results of natural science:<ref name="Willmann"/> "The anthroposophical schooling of thinking leads to the development of a non-sensory, or so-called supersensory consciousness, whereby the spiritual researcher brings the experiences of this realm into ideas, concepts, and expressive language in a form which people can understand who do not yet have the capacity to achieve the supersensory experiences necessary for individual research."<ref name="Schneider20"/>
Steiner hoped to form a spiritual movement which would free the individual from any external authority: "The most important problem of all human thinking is this: to comprehend the human being as a personality grounded in him or herself."<ref name="Schneider20">Peter Schneider, ''Einführung in die Waldorfpädogogik'', pp. 20-1; Schneider quotes here from Steiner's dissertation, ''Truth and Knowledge''</ref> For Steiner, it was the human capacity for [[rationality|rational]] thought which would allow individuals to comprehend spiritual research on their own and to bypass the danger of dependency on an authority.<ref name="Schneider20"/>
Steiner contrasted the anthroposophical approach with both conventional [[mysticism]], which he considered lacking the clarity necessary for exact knowledge, and [[natural science]], which he considered arbitrarily limited to investigating the outer world.
===Nature of the human being===
{{main|Anthroposophical view of the human being}}
Steiner saw human beings as consisting of a physical body, the nature of which is common to the inorganic world; a life body (also called the [[etheric body]]) which all living creatures (including plants) possess; the bearer of [[sentience]] or [[consciousness]] (also called the [[astral body]]), held also by all [[animal]]s, and the [[ego]], in which is anchored the faculty of self-awareness unique to human beings.
Anthroposophy describes a broad evolution of human [[consciousness]] as follows. Early stages of human evolution possess an intuitive perception of reality, including a [[clairvoyance|clairvoyant]] perception of spiritual realities. Humanity has progressively evolved an increasing reliance on [[intellect]]ual faculties and a corresponding loss of intuitive or clairvoyant experiences, which have become atavistic. The increasing intellectualization of consciousness, initially a progressive direction of evolution, has led to an excessive reliance on abstraction and a loss of contact with both natural and spiritual realities, however; in order to go further new capacities must be developed which combine the clarity of intellectual thought with the [[imagination]], and beyond this with consciously achieved [[inspiration]] and [[intuition|intuitive]] insights.<ref name=RAMcD>pp. 299-301</ref>
[[Image:Representative of humanity.gif|thumb|right|225px|''The Representative of Humanity'', detail of a sculpture in wood by Rudolf Steiner and Edith Maryon.]]
Anthroposophy speaks of the [[reincarnation|reincarnating]] human spirit: that the human being passes between stages of existence, incarnating into an earthly body, living on earth, leaving the body behind and entering into the spiritual worlds before returning to be born again into a new life on earth. Steiner called the dependence between different lives [[karma]].<ref>Rudolf Steiner, Theosophy, ISBN 0-85440-269-1</ref><ref>Rudolf Steiner, An Outline of Esoteric Science, ISBN 0-88010-409-0</ref> After the [[death]] of the physical body, the human spirit recapitulates the past life, perceiving its events as they were experienced by the objects of its actions. A complex transformation takes place between the review of the past life and the preparation for the next life; the individual's karmic condition eventually leading to a choice of parents, physical body, disposition and capacities which will provide the challenges and opportunities needed for further development, which includes karmically chosen tasks for the future life.<ref name=RAMcD>Robert A. McDermott, "Rudolf Steiner and Anthroposophy", in Faivre and Needleman, ''Modern Esoteric Spirituality'', ISBN 0-8245-1444-0, p. 288ff</ref>
===Christ between Lucifer and Ahriman===
[[Lucifer]] and his counterpart [[Ahriman]] figure in anthroposophy as two polar, generally [[evil]] influences on world and human evolution. Steiner described both positive and negative aspects of both figures, however: Lucifer as the light spirit which "plays on human pride and offers the delusion of divinity", but also motivates [[creativity]] and [[spirituality]]; Ahriman as the dark spirit which tempts human beings to "deny [their] link with divinity and to live [[materialism|entirely on the material plane]]", but also stimulates intellectuality and [[technology]]. Both figures exert a negative effect on humanity when their influence becomes misplaced or one-sided, yet their influences are necessary for human [[Freedom (philosophy)|freedom]] to unfold.<ref name="Essential"/><ref name="Willmann"/>
According to anthroposophy, each human being has the task to find a balance between these opposing influences; each person is helped in this task through the mediation of the ''Representative of Humanity'', also known as the [[Christ]] being, a spiritual entity who stands between and harmonizes the two extremes.<ref name="Willmann"/>
==Applications==
{{Further|[[Rudolf Steiner#Breadth of activity|Rudolf Steiner's Breadth of activities]]}}
Applications of anthroposophy include:
===Steiner/Waldorf education===
{{main|Waldorf education}}
Out of the anthroposophical movement have come over 900 schools world-wide.<ref>German Education Research Group, [http://www.waldorfschule.info/index.71.0.3.html "International Associations and Waldorf Schools in alphabetical order of country"]</ref> These are called [[Waldorf education|Steiner/Waldorf schools]] or simply Waldorf schools, after the first such school, founded in 1919. Sixteen Waldorf schools in 14 countries have been affiliated with the United Nations' UNESCO Associated Schools Project Network, a program which sponsors education projects which foster improved quality of education throughout the world, in particular in terms of its ethical, cultural and international dimensions.<ref>[http://unesdoc.unesco.org/images/0012/001223/122345E.pdf Agenda Fact Sheet, ''United Nations Educational Scientific and Cultural Organization'' dated [[18 April]] [[2001]]] The foundation, Friends of Waldorf Education (Freunde der Erziehungskunst), is one of the 26 non-governmental organizations worldwide to maintain official relations with UNESCO. [http://portal.unesco.org/en/ev.php-URL_ID=32925&URL_DO=DO_PRINTPAGE&URL_SECTION=201.html UNESCO Official Relations]</ref> Waldorf schools receive full or partial governmental funding in some European nations and in parts of the United States (as Waldorf method public or charter schools). Since the first school opened in Germany in 1919, Waldorf education has spread to every continent, and has been characterized as "the leader of the international movement for a New Education,"<ref name="Ullrich">Ullrich, Heiner, [http://www.ibe.unesco.org/publications/ThinkersPdf/steinere.pdf "Rudolf Steiner"] "''Prospects: the quarterly review of comparative education'', UNESCO: International Bureau of education, vol XXIV, no. 3/4, 1994, pp. 8-9 2000</ref> Schools based on Steiner/Waldorf education are found in a wide variety of communities and cultures: the impoverished [[favela|''favelas'']] of São Paulo<ref name="White">White, Ralph, [http://www.lapismagazine.org/archives/L08/querido-interview.html Interview with Rene M. Querido] ''Lapis Magazine''</ref> and the wealthy suburbs of New York City,<ref name="White"/> in [http://www.tridha.com/ India], [[SEKEM|Egypt]], [http://www.steiner-australia.org/ Australia], [http://www.ecswe.org/ Holland] and [http://www.members.awsna.org/Public/SchoolListPage.aspx Mexico]. Though most of the early Waldorf schools were teacher-founded, the schools today are usually initiated and later supported by an active parent community.<ref name="Ullrich"/> Waldorf education is one of the most visible practical applications of an anthroposophical view and understanding of the human being.<ref>Lenart, Claudia M: [http://www.consciouschoice.com/2003/cc1606/steinerchicago1606.html "Steiner's Chicago Legacy Shines Brightly"], ''Conscious Choice'' June 2003</ref>
===Biodynamic agriculture===
{{main|Biodynamic agriculture}}
Biodynamic agriculture, the first intentional form of organic farming,<ref> Claudia M. Lenart, [http://consciouschoice.com/2003/cc1606/steinerchicago1606.html "Steiner's Chicago Legacy Shines Brightly"], ''Conscious Choice'', June 2003</ref> began in the 1920s when Rudolf Steiner gave a series of lectures since published as ''Agriculture''. Steiner is considered one of the founders of the modern [[organic farming]] movement.<ref>Apples: Botany, Production and Uses
By David Curtis Ferree, Ian J. Warrington, ISBN 0851993575, p. 553</ref><ref>David Kupfer, [http://www.wildnesswithin.com/kupfer.html "Trailblazers, Heroes & Pioneers: The Organic Farming Movement"]</ref>
===Anthroposophical medicine===
{{main|Anthroposophical medicine}}
Steiner gave several series of lectures to physicians and medical students; out of this grew a [[complementary medicine|complementary medical]] movement which now includes hundreds of M.D.s, chiefly in Europe and North America, and which has its own clinics, hospitals, and medical schools.<ref name="Essential"/> One of the most studied applications has been the use of mistletoe extracts in cancer therapy.<ref>[http://www.cancer.gov/cancertopics/pdq/cam/mistletoe Study by the National Cancer Institute on mistletoe's use for treating cancer]</ref>
===Centers for helping those with special needs (including Camphill Villages)===
Early in the twentieth century, when proper care for those with special needs was largely ignored in many countries, anthroposophical homes and communities were founded for the needy. The first was the Sonnenhof in [[Switzerland]], founded by [[Ita Wegman]] in 1922; later, in 1940, the [[Camphill Movement]] was founded by [[Karl König]] in Scotland. The latter in particular has spread widely, and there are now well over a hundred Camphill communities and other anthroposophical homes for children and adults in need of special care in more than 22 countries around the world.<ref>[http://www.camphill.org/history.php Camphill]</ref>
===Architecture===
[[Image:First Goetheanum.jpg|thumb|right|250px|The First Goetheanum, 1920, Dornach, Switzerland.]]
Steiner himself designed around thirteen buildings, many of them significant works in a unique, organic-expressionistic style.<ref>Sharp, Dennis, ''Rudolf Steiner and the Way to a New Style in Architecture'', Architectural Association Journal, June 1963</ref> Foremost among these are his designs for the two [[Goetheanum]] buildings in Dornach, Switzerland. Thousands of further buildings have been built by later generations of anthroposophic architects.<ref>Raab and Klingborg, ''Waldorfschule baut'', Verlag Freies Geistesleben, 2002.</ref> Architects who have been strongly influenced by the anthroposophic style include [[Imre Makovecz]] in Hungary, [[Hans Scharoun]] and [[Joachim Eble]] in Germany, [[Erik Asmussen]] in Sweden, [[Kenji Imai]] in Japan, [[Thomas Rau]], [[Anton Alberts]] and [[Max van Huut]] in Holland, [[Christopher Day]] and [[Camphill Architects]] in the UK, [[Thompson and Rose]] in America, [[Denis Bowman]] in Canada, and [[Walter Burley Griffin]] and [[Gregory Burgess]] in Australia.<ref>Raab, Klingborg and Fånt, ''Eloquent Concrete, London: 1979.</ref><ref>Pearson, David, ''New Organic Architecture''. University of California Press, 2001, ISBN 9781856751025</ref>
One of the most famous contemporary buildings by an anthroposophical architect is an [[ING Bank]] building in [[Amsterdam]], which has been given many awards for its ecological design and approach to a self-sustaining ecology as an [[autonomous building]].
===Eurythmy===
In the arts, Steiner's new art of [[eurythmy]] gained early renown.{{Fact|date=January 2008}} Eurythmy seeks to renew the spiritual foundations of [[dance]], revealing speech and music in visible movement. There are now active stage groups and training centers, mostly of modest proportions, in 12 countries.<ref>[http://www.eurythmie-info.de/Buehnen.htm Stage groups] and [http://www.eurythmie-info.de/Ausbild.htm Trainings]</ref>
===Social Finance===
{{see also|Social finance}}
Around the world today there are a number of banks, companies, charities and schools for developing co-operative forms of business which work out of Steiner's ideas about economic associations, aiming at harmonious and socially responsible roles in the world economy.<ref name="Essential">pages 392-3</ref> The first anthroposophic bank was the ''[[GLS bank|Gemeinschaftsbank für Leihen und Schenken]]'' in [[Bochum]], [[Germany]], founded in 1974.<ref>[http://www.gls.de/ Gemeinschaftsbank für Leihen und Schenken]</ref> [[Socially responsible investing|Socially-responsible banks]] founded out of anthroposophy in the English-speaking world include [[Triodos Bank]], founded in 1980 and active in the [[UK]] and [[Netherlands]], and [[RSF Social Finance]]<ref>[http://www.earthtimes.org/articles/show/news_press_release,132566.shtml Earth Times]</ref> in San Francisco. RSF has been independently rated one of the top 10 organisations which "best exemplify the building of economic opportunity and hope for individuals through community investing."<ref>[http://www.greenmoneyjournal.com/article.mpl?articleid=241&newsletterid=1 Green Money Journal]</ref><ref>[http://www.sdearthtimes.com/et0403/et0403s6.html San Diego Earth Times]</ref>
===Organizational development, counselling and biography work===
[[Bernard Lievegoed]], a psychiatrist, founded a new method of individual and institutional development oriented towards humanizing organizations and linked with Steiner's ideas of the threefold social order. This work is represented by the [[NPI Institute for Organizational Development]] in Holland and sister organizations in many other countries.<ref name="Essential">pp. 394-5</ref> Various forms of biographic and counselling work have been developed on the basis of anthroposophy.
===Speech and drama===
There are also anthroposophical movements to renew speech and drama, the most important of which have their basis in the work of [[Marie Steiner-von Sivers]] (''speech formation'', also known as ''Creative Speech'') and the ''Chekhov Method'' originated by [[Michael Chekhov]] (nephew of [[Anton Chekhov]]).<ref>Byckling, L: [http://www.utoronto.ca/tsq/01/chekhovwest.shtml Michael Chekhov as Actor, Teacher and Director in the West]. ''Toronto Slavic Quarterly'' No 1 - Summer 2002. University of Toronto, Academic Electronic Journal in Slavic Studies.</ref>
===Other areas===
Other areas of anthroposophic work include:
*John Wilkes' fountain-like [[flowform]]s. These sculptural forms guide water into rhythmic movement and are used both in water-purification projects and as decorative fountains.<ref>[http://www.anbg.gov.au/anbg/public-art/friends-cascade/index.html Australian Governmental Cascade Project]</ref><ref>Dr. Philip Kilner and Dr. Guang-Zhong Yang,[http://www.doc.ic.ac.uk/~gzy/heart/flowforms/flowforms.htm Flowforms]</ref>
*[[Phenomenology (science)|Phenomenological approaches to science]],<ref name="Essential"/>
*New approaches to [[painting]] and [[sculpture]].<ref name="Essential"/>
==Social goals==
{{main|Social Threefolding}}
For a period after [[World War I]], Steiner was extremely active and well-known in [[Germany]], in part because he lectured widely proposing social reforms. Steiner was a sharp critic of [[nationalism]], which he saw as outdated, and a proponent of achieving social solidarity through individual freedom.<ref name="Essential"/> A petition proposing a radical change in the German constitution and expressing his basic social ideas (signed by [[Herman Hesse]], among others) was widely circulated. His main book on social reform is ''Toward Social Renewal''.<ref name="Essential"/>
Anthroposophy continues to aim at reforming society through maintaining and strengthening the independence of the spheres of [[culture|cultural life]], [[human rights]] and the [[economy]]. It emphasizes a particular ideal in each of these three realms of society:<ref name="Essential"/>
# Freedom in cultural life
# [[Equality]] of [[rights]], the sphere of [[legislation]] and the [[judiciary]]
# [[:wikt:fraternity|Fraternity]] in the [[economy|economic sphere]]
==Esoteric path==
{{cquote2|A person seeking inner development must first of all make the attempt to give up certain formerly held inclinations. Then, new inclinations must be acquired by constantly holding the thought of such inclinations, virtues or characteristics in one's mind. They must be so incorporated into one's being that a person becomes enabled to alter his soul by his own will-power. This must be tried as objectively as a chemical might be tested in an experiment. A person who has never endeavored to change his soul, who has never made the initial decision to develop the qualities of endurance, steadfastness and calm logical thinking, or a person who has such decisions but has given up because he did not succeed in a week, a month, a year or a decade, will never conclude anything inwardly about these truths.|Rudolf Steiner|"On the Inner Life",<ref>http://www.rsarchive.org/Lectures/InnDev_index.html</ref>}}
===Paths of spiritual development===
According to Steiner, a real [[supernatural|spiritual]] world exists out of which the material one gradually condensed and evolved. Steiner held that the spiritual world can be researched in the right circumstances through direct experience, by persons practicing rigorous forms of [[ethics|ethical]] and [[Cognition|cognitive]] [[self-discipline]]. Steiner described many exercises which he said were suited to strengthening such self-discipline; the most complete exposition of these is found in his book [http://www.rsarchive.org/Books/GA010/ ''How To Know Higher Worlds'']. The aim of these exercises is to develop higher levels of [[higher consciousness|consciousness]] through [[meditation]] and [[observation]]. Details about the spiritual world, Steiner suggested, could on such a basis be discovered and reported, though no more infallibly than the results of natural science.<ref name="Schneider"/>
Steiner regarded his research reports as being important aids to others seeking to enter into spiritual experience. He suggested that a combination of spiritual exercises (for example, concentrating on an object such as a seed), moral development (control of thought, feelings and will combined with openness, tolerance and flexibility) and familiarity with other spiritual researchers' results would best further an individual's spiritual development. He consistently emphasised that any inner, spiritual practice should be undertaken in such a way as not to interfere with one's responsibilities in outer life.<ref name="Schneider"/>
In anthroposophy, artistic expression is also treated as a potentially valuable bridge between spiritual and material reality.<ref>Lindenberg, p. 97</ref>
===Prerequisites to and stages of inner development===
For Steiner, the aim of spiritual development is to achieve "knowledge of higher worlds" (cf. his eponymous central work). Steiner's stated prerequisites to beginning on a spiritual path including a willingness to take up serious cognitive studies, a respect for factual evidence, and a responsible attitude. Central to progress on the path itself is a harmonious cultivation of the following qualities:<ref name="Willmann_path">Carlo Willmann, ''Waldorfpädagogik'', ISBN 3-412-16700-2, pp. 10-13</ref>
* Control over one's own thinking
* Control over one's will
* Composure
* Positivity
* Impartiality
Steiner sees meditation as a concentration and enhancement of the power of thought. By focusing consciously on an idea, feeling or intention the meditant seeks to arrive at pure thinking, a state exemplified by but not confined to pure mathematics. In Steiner's view, conventional sensory-material knowledge is achieved through relating perception and concepts. The anthroposophic path of esoteric training articulates three further stages of supersensory knowledge, which do not necessarily follow strictly sequentially in any single individual's spiritual progress.<ref name="Willmann_path"/><ref name=Stein>Stein, W. J., ''Die moderne naturwissenschaftliche Vorstellungsart und die Weltanschauung Goethes, wie sie Rudolf Steiner vertritt'', reprinted in Meyer, Thomas, ''W.J. Stein / Rudolf Steiner'', pp. 267-75; 256-7..</ref>
* Through focusing on symbolic patterns, images and poetic mantras, the meditant can achieve consciously directed Imaginations which allow sensory phenomena to appear as the expression of underlying beings of a soul-spiritual nature.
* By transcending such imaginative pictures, the meditant can become conscious of the meditative activity itself, which leads to experiences of expressions of soul-spiritual beings unmediated by sensory phenomena or qualities. Steiner calls this stage Inspiration.
* By intensifying the will-forces through exercises such as a chronologically-reversed review of the day's events, a further stage of inner independence from sensory experience is achieved, leading to direct contact, and even union, with spiritual beings ("Intuition") without loss of individual awareness.<ref name="Willmann_path"/>
===Exercises===
Steiner described numerous exercises which he believed would bring spiritual development; other anthroposophists have added many others. A central principle is that "for every step in spiritual perception, three steps are to be taken in moral development." According to Anthroposophy, moral development reveals the extent to which one has achieved control over one's inner life and can exercise it in harmony with the spiritual life of other people; it shows the real progress in spiritual development, the fruits of which are given in spiritual perception. It also guarantees the capacity to distinguish between false perceptions or illusions (which are possible in perceptions of both the outer world and the inner world) and true perceptions, or, better said, to distinguish in any perception between the influence of subjective elements (i.e. viewpoint) and the objective reality to which the perception points.<ref name="Schneider"/>
{{main|Rudolf Steiner's exercises for spiritual development}}
==Place in Western philosophy==
Steiner built upon [[Goethe]]'s conception of an imaginative power capable of synthesizing the sense-perceptible form of a thing (an image of its outer appearance) and the concept we have of that thing (an image of its inner structure or nature). Steiner added to this the conception that a further step in the development of thinking is possible when the thinker observes his or her own thought processes. "The organ of observation and the observed thought process are then identical, so that the condition thus arrived at is simultaneously one of perception through thinking and one of thought through perception."<ref name="Schneider"/>
Thus, in Steiner's view, we can overcome the subject-object divide through inner activity, even though all human experience begins by being conditioned by it. In this connection, Steiner examines the step from thinking which is determined by outer impressions to what he calls sense-free thinking. He characterizes thoughts which he considers to be without sensory content, such as mathematical or logical thoughts, as free deeds. Steiner believed that he had thus located the origin of free will in our thinking, and in particular in sense-free thinking.<ref name="Schneider"/>
Some of the [[Epistemology|epistemic]] basis for Steiner's later anthroposophical work is contained in the seminal work, [[Philosophy of Freedom]],<ref>Ellen Pifer, "Saul Bellow Against the Grain", University of Pennsylvania Press, 1990; see also Steiner's doctoral thesis, ''Truth and Science''</ref>. In his early works, Steiner sought to overcome what he perceived as the dualism of [[Cartesian dualism|Cartesian]] idealism and [[Kant]]ian subjectivism by developing Goethe's conception of the human being as a natural-supernatural entity, that is: natural in that humanity is a product of nature, supernatural in that through our conceptual powers we extend nature's realm, allowing it to achieve a reflective capacity in us as philosophy, art and science.<ref name="Tarnas">Richard Tarnas, ''The Passion of the Western Mind'', ISBN 0712673326</ref> Steiner was one of the first European philosophers to overcome the subject-object split in [[Western thought]].<ref name="Tarnas"/> Though not well-known among philosophers, his philosophical work was taken up by [[Owen Barfield]] (and through him influenced the [[Inklings]], a group which included such writers as [[J. R. R. Tolkien]] and [[C. S. Lewis]])<ref>Doris T. Myers, "C.S. Lewis in Context." Kent State University Press, 1994. </ref> and [[Richard Tarnas]].
===Possibility of a union of science and spirit===
Steiner believed in the possibility of applying the clarity of scientific thinking to spiritual experience, which he saw as deriving from an objectively existing spiritual world.<ref>Christoph Lindenberg, ''Rudolf Steiner'', Rowohlt 1992, ISBN 3-499-50500-2, pp. 77ff</ref> Steiner identified [[mathematics]], which attains certainty through thinking itself, thus through inner experience rather than empirical observation,<ref>Albert Einstein, [http://www.tu-harburg.de/rzt/rzt/it/Geometry.html Geometry and Experience]</ref> as the basis of his [[epistemology]] of spiritual experience.<ref>Rudolf Steiner, ''Anthroposophy and Science'', lecture of [[March 16]] [[1921]]</ref>
==Relationship to religion==
===The Christ as the center of earthly evolution===
Steiner's writing, though appreciative of all religions and cultural developments, emphasizes Western tradition as having evolved to meet contemporary needs.<ref name="Lachman"/> He describes Christ and his mission on earth of bringing individuated consciousness as having a particularly important place in human evolution.<ref name="Essential"/>
Steiner emphasized his belief that:
*Christianity has evolved out of previous religions;
*The being which manifests in Christianity also manifests in all faiths and religions;
*Each religion is valid and true for the time and cultural context in which it was born;
*The historical forms of Christianity need to be transformed considerably to meet the continuing evolution of humanity.<ref name="Willmann"/>
For Steiner, Christ is a being who unifies all religions. He believed that Christ is not any particular religious faith, but instead is the central force in human evolution. This ''Christ Being'' is, according to Steiner, not only the Redeemer of [[the Fall of Man|the Fall from Paradise]], but also the unique pivot and meaning of earth's evolutionary processes and of human history, which he believed to be manifested in all religions and cultures.<ref name="Willmann"/>
{{blockquote|"Spiritual science does not want to usurp the place of Christianity; on the contrary it would like to be instrumental in making Christianity understood. Thus it becomes clear to us through spiritual science that the being whom we call Christ is to be recognized as the center of life on earth, that the Christian religion is the ultimate religion for the earth's whole future. Spiritual science shows us particularly that the pre-Christian religions outgrow their one-sidedness and come together in the Christian faith. It is not the desire of spiritual science to set something else in the place of Christianity; rather it wants to contribute to a deeper, more heartfelt understanding of Christianity."<ref>Rudolf Steiner,[http://wn.rsarchive.org/Lectures/AntChr_index.html "Anthroposophy and Christianity"]</ref>}}
This view has certain similarities to the concepts of [[Christogenesis]] advocated by [[Pierre Teilhard de Chardin]].
===Divergence from conventional Christian thought===
Steiner's views of [[Christianity]] diverge from conventional Christian thought in key places, and include [[gnostism|gnostic]] elements:
* One central point of divergence is Steiner's views on [[reincarnation]] and [[karma]].
* Steiner differentiated three contemporary paths by which he believed it possible to arrive at [[Christ]]:
** Through heart-filled experiences of the [[Gospels]]; this is the historically dominant path but Steiner believed it was now falling away.
** Through inner experiences of a spiritual reality; this Steiner regarded as increasingly the path of spiritual or religious seekers today.
** Through [[initiation]], corresponding to the path of anthroposophical knowledge, whereby the reality of Christ's death and resurrection are experienced; Steiner believed this to be the path which people will tend to take in the future.<ref name="Willmann"/>
* Steiner also believed that there were two different [[Jesus]] children involved in the [[Incarnation]] of the [[Christ]]: one child descended from [[Solomon]], as described in the [[Gospel of Matthew]], the other child from [[Nathan (son of David)|Nathan]], as described in the [[Gospel of Luke]].<ref name="Essential"/> (The genealogies given in the two gospels diverge some thirty generations before Jesus' birth, and 'Jesus' was a common name in biblical times.)
* His view of [[the second coming]] of Christ is also unusual; he suggested that this would not be a physical reappearance, but that the Christ being would become manifest in non-physical form, visible to spiritual vision and apparent in community life for increasing numbers of people beginning around the year 1933.<ref>http://wn.rsarchive.org/Lectures/ReapChrist/19100125p01.html</ref>
* He emphasized his belief that the future would require humanity to recognize this ''Spirit of Love'' in all its genuine forms, regardless of how people named this being. He also warned that the traditional name, Christ, might be used yet the true essence of this being of love ignored.
===The Christian Community===
Towards the end of Steiner's life, a group of theology students (Lutheran as well as Catholic) approached Steiner for help in reviving Christianity, in particular "to bridge the widening gulf between modern science and the world of spirit."<ref name="Essential"/> They approached a notable [[Lutheran]] pastor, [[Friedrich Rittelmeyer]], already working with Steiner's ideas to join their efforts. Out of their co-operative endeavor, the ''Movement for Religious Renewal'', now generally known as [[The Christian Community]], was born. Steiner emphasized that this help was given independently of his anthroposophical work,<ref name="Essential"/> as he saw anthroposophy as independent of any particular [[religion]] or religious denomination.<ref name="Willmann"/>
==Reception of anthroposophy==
===Notable supporters===
Anthroposophy has had many prominent supporters outside of the movement.
Among these have been many writers, artists and musicians; these include Pulitzer Prize-winning and Nobel Laureate [[Saul Bellow]],<ref>Robert Fulford, "Bellow: the novelist as homespun philosopher", The National Post, [[October 23]] [[2000]]</ref> [[Andrej Belyj]],<ref>[http://www.kirjasto.sci.fi/bely.htm Books and Writers, ''Andrey Bely'']</ref><ref>J.D. Elsworth, ''Andrej Bely:A Critical Study of the Novels'', Cambridge:1983, cf. [http://links.jstor.org/sici?sici=0036-0341(198601)45%3A1%3C53%3AABACSO%3E2.0.CO%3B2-K]</ref> [[Josef Beuys]],<ref>John F. Moffitt, "Occultism in Avant-Garde Art: The Case of Joseph Beuys", ''Art Journal'', Vol. 50, No. 1, (Spring, 1991), pp. 96-98</ref> [[Wassily Kandinsky]],<ref>Peg Weiss, "Kandinsky and Old Russia: The Artist as Ethnographer and Shaman", ''The Slavic and East European Journal'', Vol. 41, No. 2 (Summer, 1997), pp. 371-373</ref><ref>[http://www.artsablaze.co.uk/News/kandinsky.htm Arts Ablaze, ''Kandinsky: The Path to Abstraction 1908-1922'']</ref> Nobel Laureates [[Selma Lagerlöf]]<ref>[http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/literature/laureates/1909/lagerlof-bio.html Nobel Foundation, ''Selma Lagerlöf'']</ref> and [[Albert Schweitzer]], [[Andrei Tarkovsky]]<ref>[http://www.acs.ucalgary.ca/~tstronds/nostalghia.com/TheTopics/Layla.html Layla Alexander Garrett, Nostalghia, ''Andrey Tarkovsky-Enigma and Mystery'']</ref> and [[Bruno Walter]],<ref>Bruno Walter, "Mein Weg zur Anthroposophie". In: ''Das Goetheanum'' 52 (1961), 418–2</ref> and [[Alternative Nobel Prize]] winner [[Ibrahim Abouleish]].<ref>Ibrahim Abouleish, ''Sekem: A Sustainable Community in the Egyptian Desert'', ISBN 0863155324</ref>
===Religious nature===
Anthroposophy has sometimes been called religious<ref>For example [http://encarta.msn.com/encnet/refpages/search.aspx?q=anthroposophy&Submit2=Go - MSN Encarta Encyclopedia]</ref> and there have been criticisms that any spiritual movement, anthroposophy in particular, is necessarily religious in nature. In 2005, a California federal court ruled that a group alleging that anthroposophy is a religion for [[Establishment Clause]] purposes did not provide any legally admissible evidence in support of its view; the case is under appeal. In 2000, a court case was brought in France against a government minister for describing anthroposophy as a cult; the court ruled that the minister's comments were defamatory.<ref>{{cite web
| title = Guyard Guilty of Defamation
| publisher = Cesnur
| date = [[2000-03-23]]
| url = http://www.cesnur.org/testi/guyard_en.htm
| accessdate = 2006-11-13 }}</ref>
===Scientific basis===
Though Rudolf Steiner studied [[natural science]] at the Vienna Technical University at the undergraduate level, his [[doctorate]] was in [[epistemology]] and very little of his work is directly concerned with the traditional realm of contemporary science, the natural world; when in his mature work he did refer to science it was often to present [[Holism in science|Goethean science]] as an alternative to what he considered the materialistic science of his contemporaries.<ref name=Hammer/> His primary interest, however, was in applying the methodology of science to realms of inner experience and the spiritual worlds (Steiner's appreciation that the essence of science is its method of inquiry is unusual among [[esoteric]]ists<ref name=Hammer/>), and Steiner called anthroposophy ''[[Geisteswissenschaft]]'' (lit.: Science of the mind, or cultural or spiritual science), a term generally used in German to refer to the [[humanities]] and [[social science]]s;<ref>[http://www.philolex.de/geistwis.htm Philolex entry]</ref> in fact, the term "[[science]]" is used more broadly in [[Europe]] as a general term which refers to any exact knowledge.<ref>Jacques Barzun, ''Science: The Glorious Entertainment'', Harper and Row 1964. P. 191</ref>
:"[Anthroposophy's] methodology is to employ a scientific way of thinking, but to apply this methodology, which normally excludes our inner experience from consideration, instead to the human being proper."<ref name=Stein/>
As Freda Easton explained in her study of Waldorf schools, "Whether one accepts anthroposophy as a science depends upon whether one accepts Steiner's interpretation of a science that extends the consciousness and capacity of human beings to experience their inner spiritual world."<ref>Freda Easton, ''The Waldorf Impulse in Education'', Columbia University dissertation 1995</ref> [[Sven Ove Hansson]] has disputed anthroposophy's claim to a scientific basis, stating that its ideas are not empirically derived and neither reproducible nor testable.<ref>Sven Ove Hansson, ''Is Anthroposophy Science?'', Professor, Philosophy Unit of the Swedish Royal Institute of Technology, in Conceptus XXV (1991), No. 64, pp. 37-49.</ref> Carlo Willmann points out that as, on its own terms, anthroposophical methodology offers no possibility of being falsified except through its own procedures of spiritual investigation, no [[intersubjectivity|intersubjective validation]] is possible by conventional scientific methods; it thus cannot stand up to [[positivism|positivistic science]]'s criticism.<ref name="Willmann">p. 7</ref> Peter Schneider calls such objections untenable on the grounds that if a non-sensory, non-physical realm exists, then according to Steiner the experiences of pure thinking possible within the normal realm of consciousness would already be experiences of that, and it would be impossible to exclude the possibility of empirically-grounded experiences of other supersensory content.<ref name="Schneider"/> Olav Hammer suggests that anthroposophy carries [[scientism]] "to lengths unparalleled in any other Esoteric position" due to its dependence upon claims of clairvoyant experience, its subsuming natural science under "spiritual science", and its development of what Hammer calls "fringe" sciences such as [[anthroposophical medicine]] and [[biodynamic agriculture]] justified partly on the basis of the ethical and ecological values they promote, rather than purely on a scientific basis.<ref name=Hammer/>
Though Steiner saw that spiritual vision itself is difficult or impossible for others to achieve, he recommended open-mindedly exploring and rationally testing the results of such research; he also urged others to follow a spiritual training which would allow them directly to apply the methods he used eventually to achieve comparable results.<ref name="Schneider"/> Some results of Steiner's research have been investigated and supported by scientists working to further and extend scientific observation in directions suggested by an anthroposophical approach.<ref>''Genetics and the Manipulation of Life, The Forgotten Factor of Context'', by biologist Craig Holdrege; ''The Wholeness of Nature, Goethe's Way toward A Science of Conscious Participation in Nature'', by physicist Henri Bortoft; ''Developmental Dynamics in Humans and Other Primates'', by theoretical chemist Jos Verhulst.</ref>
===Statements on race===
Anthroposophical ideas have been criticized from both sides in the race debate; for their strongly anti-racist stance:
*From the mid-1930s on, [[National Socialist]] ideologues attacked the anthroposophical world-view as being opposed to Nazi racism and nationalistic principles; anthroposophy considered "Blood, Race and Folk" as primitive instincts which needed to be overcome.<ref>Jakob Wilhelm Hauer, 7. Februar 1935. BAD R 4901-3285.</ref><ref>Report of the SD-Hauptamtes Berlin: "Anthroposophy”, May 1936, BAD Z/B I 904.</ref>
as well as for "rankings" of races which occur in Steiner's philosophy:
*<blockquote>"...with regard to race, a naive version of the evolution of consciousness, a theory foundational to both Steiner's anthroposophy and Waldorf education, sometimes places one race below another in one or another dimension of development."<ref name="McDermott">Ray McDermott et al: [http://www.springerlink.com/content/5q9t836w350v8768/ ''Waldorf education in an inner-city public school''.] The Urban Review, Volume 28, Number 2 / June, 1996, pp. 119-140</ref></blockquote>
To clarify its stance, the Anthroposophical Society in America has stated:
<blockquote>We explicitly reject any racial theory that may be construed to be part of Rudolf Steiner's writings. The Anthroposophical Society in America is an open, public society and it rejects any purported spiritual or scientific theory on the basis of which the alleged superiority of one race is justified at the expense of another race.<ref>The General Council of the Anthroposophical Society in America (1998) [http://www.anthroposophy.org/Gov/StatementOnDiversity.php Position Statement on Diversity]. </ref></blockquote>
==See also==
{{Portalpar|Spirituality|EndlessKnot03d.png}}
*[[Hermeticism]]
*[[Esotericism in Germany and Austria]]
*[[Pneumatosophy]]
*[[Psychosophy]]
==Notes==
{{reflist|2}}
==Further reading==
*Ahern, G. (1984): ''Sun at Midnight: the Rudolf Steiner movement and the Western esoteric tradition'' Aquarian Press.
*Archiati, Pietro, ''The Great Religions: Pathways to our Innermost Being'', Temple Lodge Press ISBN 1-902636-01-5
*Archiati, Pietro, ''Reincarnation in Modern Life: Toward a New Christian Awareness''. Temple Lodge Press. ISBN 0-904693-88-0
*Barnes, Henry, ''A Life for the Spirit: Rudolf Steiner in the Crosscurrents of Our Time'', Anthroposophic Press, 1997.
*Davy, John, ''Hope, Evolution and Change", Hawthorn Press. ISBN 0-9507062-7-2
*Edelglass, Stephen et al., ''The Marriage of Sense and Thought'', Lindisfarne Press. ISBN 0-940262-82-7
*Forward, William and Blaxland-de Lange, Simon (eds.), ''Trumpet to the Morn'' (Golden Blade 2001), ISBN 0-9531600-3-3
*Forward, William and Blaxland-de Lange, Simon (eds.), ''Working with Destiny II'' (Golden Blade 1998), ISBN 0-9531600-0-9
*Gleich, Sigismund, ''The Sources of Inspiration of Anthroposophy'', Temple Lodge Press ISBN 0-904693-87-2
*Goebel, Wolfgang and Glöckler, Michaela, ''A Guide to Child Health''. Floris Books. ISBN 0-86315-390-9
*Gulbekian, Sevak (ed.), ''The Future is Now: Anthroposophy at the New Millennium'', Temple Lodge Press ISBN 1-902636-09-0
*Hauschka, Rudolf, ''At the Dawn of a New Age'', Anthroposophic Press ISBN 0-919924-25-5
*Hindes, James H. (1995) ''Renewing Christianity'' Floris Books
*Klocek, Dennis, ''The Seer's Handbook: A Guide to Higher Perception'', SteinerBooks 2006. ISBN 0-88010-548-8
*König, Karl, ''The Human Soul'', Floris Books ISBN 0-86315-042-X
*Kühlewind, Georg, ''The Logos-Structure of the World: Language as a Model of Reality'', Lindisfarne Press ISBN 0-940262-48-7
*Lievegoed, Bernard, ''The Battle for the Soul: The Working Together of Three Great Leaders of Humanity'', Hawthorn Press ISBN 1-869890-64-7
*Lievegoed, Bernard, ''Man on the Threshold''. Hawthorn Press ISBN 0-9507062-6-4
*McDermott, Robert A., ''The Essential Steiner: Basic Writings of Rudolf Steiner'', Lindisfarne Press ISBN 9781584200512.
*Murphy, Christine (ed.), ''Iscador: Mistletoe and Cancer Therapy''. Lantern Books, 2005. ISBN 1-930051-76-X
*Nesfield-Cookson, Bernard, ''Michael and the Two-Horned Beast: The Challenge of Evil Today in the Light of Rudolf Steiner's Science of the Spirit'', Temple Lodge Press ISBN 0-904693-98-8
*Nesfield-Cookson, Bernard, ''Rudolf Steiner's Vision of Love: spiritual science and the logic of the heart''. Rudolf Steiner Press'
*Oort, Henk van, 'Anthroposophy' A Concise Introduction to Rudolf Steiner's Spiritual Philosophy'(2008)ISBN 978-1-902636-92-4
*Paddock, Fred and M. Spiegler, Ed.(2003) ''Judaism and Anthroposophy''. SteinerBooks
*Pietzner, Carlo, ''Transforming Earth, Transforming Self'', Camphill Books ISBN 0-88010-428-7
*Prokofieff, Sergei, ''The East in the Light of the West'', Temple Lodge Press ISBN 0-904693-57-0
*Prokofieff, Sergei, ''The Occult Significance of Forgiveness''. Temple Lodge Press. ISBN 0-904693-71-6.
*Schaefer, Christopher and Voors, Tyno, ''Vision in Action''. Lindisfarne Press ISBN 0-940262-74-6
*Schwenk, Theodor ''Sensitive Chaos''. Rudolf Steiner Press ISBN 1-85584-055-3
*Shepherd, A. P. 1885-1968 :''The Battle for The Spirit: The Church and Rudolf Steiner'' Anastasi
*Shepherd, A. P., 1885-1968 : ''A Scientist of the Invisible: An introduction to the life and work of Rudolf Steiner'' Floris Books
*Soesman, Albert (1990). ''The Twelve Senses" Hawthorn Press
*Steiner, Marie, ''Esoteric Studies'', Temple Lodge Press ISBN 0-904693-58-9
*Steiner, Rudolf:
**''Intuitive Thinking As a Spiritual Path: A [[Philosophy of Freedom]]''; Anthroposophic Press ISBN 0-88010-385-X
**''Theosophy'', Anthroposophic Press
**''Cosmic Memory'', Anthroposophic Press
**''How to Know Higher Worlds'' Anthroposophic Press 1994 ISBN 0-88010-508-9
**''An Outline of Esoteric Science'' Anthroposophic Press
**''Verses and Meditations''. Rudolf Steiner Press ISBN 1-85584-197-5
**''Esoteric Development'' Anthroposophic Press
**''A Western Approach to Reincarnation and Karma'' Anthroposophic Press
*Steiner, Rudolf and Welburn, Andrew, ''The Mysteries: Rudolf Steiner's Writings on Spiritual Initiation'', Floris Books ISBN 0-86315-243-0
*Suchantke, Andreas, ''Eco-Geography''. Lindisfarne Press ISBN 0-940262-99-1
*Swassjan, Karen, ''The Ultimate Communion of Mankind'' Temple Lodge Press ISBN 0-904693-82-1
*Treichler, Rudolf, ''Soulways''. Hawthorn Press ISBN 1-869890-13-2
*Verhulst, Jos, ''Developmental Dynamics in Humans and Other Primates''. Adonis Press ISBN 0-932776-29-9
*Warren, Edward, ''Freedom as Spiritual Activity'', Temple Lodge Press ISBN 0-904693-60-0
*Welburn, Andrew ''Rudolf Steiner's Philosophy and the Crisis of Contemporary Thought'' Floris Books
*Wilkes, John, ''Flowforms: The Rhythmic Power of Water'' Floris Books ISBN 0-86315-392-5
==External links==
*[http://www.rsarchive.org/ Rudolf Steiner Archive] (online works)
*[http://www.philosophyoffreedom.com/ Philosophy of Freedom community website]
*[http://www.anthroposophy.net/ The Anthroposophy Network]
*[http://www.anthros.net/ Anthros.net - Webguide for Anthroposophy in three leading languages]
*[http://www.anth.org.uk/ Anthroposophical links in Great Britain]
*[http://anthromedia.net/index.php?id=1171 anthromedia.net - Anthroposophy Internet Portal]
*[http://www.antroposofi.info Antroposofiskt Infocenter - Anthroposophy Swedish Internet Portal]
===Anthroposophical Societies===
*[http://www.goetheanum.ch/ General Anthroposophical Society (Goetheanum)]
*[http://www.anthroposophy.org/ Anthroposophical Society in America]
*[http://www.anthroposophy.org.uk/ Anthroposophical Society in Great Britain]
*[http://www.anthroposophyindia.org/ Anthroposophical Initiatives in India]
*[http://www.sab.org.br/ Sociedade Antroposófica no Brasil]
*[http://www.antroposofi.nu/ Anthroposophical Society in Sweden]
*[http://www.anthroposophy.org.au/ Anthroposophical Society in Australia]
*[http://www.anthroposophy.org.nz/ Anthroposophical Society in New Zealand]
===Articles===
*[http://www.ibe.unesco.org/publications/ThinkersPdf/steinere.pdf Heiner Ullrich, "Rudolf Steiner"], ''Prospects: the quarterly review of comparative education'' (Paris, UNESCO: International Bureau of Education), vol. XXIV, no. 3/4, 1994, p. 555-572
*[http://eyelight.webservepro.com/anthroposophy/introRS.html Article: Rudolf Steiner introduced by Owen Barfield.]
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