Aphid 162296 226108624 2008-07-16T21:22:29Z 71.101.33.94 {{otheruses4|the insect}} {{Taxobox | name = Aphids | image = Aphids1533.JPG | image_width = 250px | regnum = [[Animal]]ia | phylum = [[Arthropod]]a | classis = [[Insect]]a | ordo = [[Hemiptera]] | subordo = [[Sternorrhyncha]] | superfamilia = '''Aphidoidea''' | subdivision_ranks = Families | subdivision = There are 10 families: * [[Anoeciidae]] * [[Aphididae]] * [[Drepanosiphidae]] * [[Greenideidae]] * [[Hormaphididae]] * [[Lachnidae]] * [[Mindaridae]] * [[Pemphigidae]] * [[Phloeomyzidae]] * [[Thelaxidae]] }} '''Aphids''', also known as '''plant lice''', are small plant-eating [[insect]]s, and members of the [[Taxonomic rank|superfamily]] '''Aphidoidea'''.<ref>Aphids are also sometimes known as blackflies and greenflies (page 86 of ''Bugs of the World'', George C. McGavin, [http://factsonfile.com Facts on File], 1993)</ref> [[Oxford University]] [[entymologist]] George C. McGavin has written that aphids are the most destructive insect pests on earth.<ref name=mcgavin>''Bugs of the World'', George C. McGavin, [http://factsonfile.com Facts on File], 1993, ISBN 0816027374</ref> About 4,400 species of aphids are known, which are presently classified into ten different families. Historically there were many fewer families of aphids, with most species included in the family [[Aphididae]]. Around 250 species are serious pests for [[agriculture]] and [[forestry]] as well as an annoyance for [[gardener]]s. They vary in size from one to ten [[millimetre]]s in length. Important natural enemies of aphids include predatory [[Coccinellidae|lady beetles]] ([[Coleoptera]]: [[Coccinellidae]]), [[flower-fly|hoverfly larvae]] ([[Diptera]]: [[Syrphidae]]), [[parasitic wasp]]s, [[crab spiders]]<ref>[http://www.eeb.cornell.edu/agrawal/slide%20presentations/diversity/pages/milkweed%20spider%20aphid.html Photo] of [[crab spider]] eating Aphis asclepiadis aphids on common [[milkweed]], Anurag Agrawal, Phytophagy Laboratory, Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology and Department of Entomology at [[Cornell University]].</ref> lacewings ([[Neuroptera]]: [[Chrysopidae]]), and [[entomopathogenic fungus|entomopathogenic fungi]] like ''Lecanicillium lecanii'' and the [[Entomophthorales]]. Aphids are distributed world-wide, but are most common in [[temperate zone]]s. It is possible for aphids to migrate great distances, mainly through passive dispersal by riding on winds. For example, the currant lettuce aphid (''Nasonovia ribisnigri Mosley'') is believed to have been spread from [[New Zealand]] to [[Tasmania]] in this manner.<ref>[http://www.abc.net.au/landline/content/2005/s1493620.htm ''Scientist battles lettuce aphid''], Pip Courtney, Landline, [[Australian Broadcasting Corporation]], October 30, 2005, ''Retrieved 1 January 2007''</ref> Aphids have also been spread by human transportation of infested plant materials. ==Taxonomy== Aphids are in the [[superfamily]] Aphidoidea in the homopterous division of the order [[Hemiptera]]. Recent classification within the Hemiptera has reduced the old taxon "Homoptera" to two suborders: [[Sternorrhyncha]] (e.g., aphids, [[Whitefly|whiteflies]], [[scale insect|scales]], [[Psylloidea|psyllids]], etc.) and [[Auchenorrhyncha]] (e.g., [[cicadas]], [[leafhoppers]], [[treehopper]]s, [[planthopper]]s, etc.) with the suborder [[Heteroptera]] containing a large group of insects known as the "[[true bugs]]". More recent reclassifications have resulted in a substantial rearrangement of the constituent families within the Aphidoidea superfamily, with some old families reduced to subfamily rank (e.g., [[Eriosomatidae]]), and numerous old subfamilies elevated to family rank. ==Anatomy== [[Image:Snodgrass Aphis pomi.jpg|thumb|The life stages of the green apple aphid (''Aphis pomi'')]] Most aphids have soft bodies, and are green, although other colors such as black, brown, and pink are not uncommon. Aphids have antennas with as many as six segments.<ref name=mcgavin/> Aphids feed themselves through sucking mouthparts called [[stylet]]s, enclosed in a sheath called a [[Rostrum (anatomy)|rostrum]], which is formed from modified versions of the [[mandible]] and [[maxilla]].<ref name=Stroyan>''Aphid'', Henry G. Stroyan, [[McGraw-Hill Encyclopedia of Science and Technology]], 8th Edition, 1997, ISBN 0-07-911504-7</ref> They have long, thin legs and two-jointed, two-clawed [[Arthropod leg|tarsi]]. Aphids usually have a pair of [[cornicle]]s,<ref>[[Cornicle]]s are also known as siphunculi.</ref> abdominal tubes through which droplets of a quick-hardening defensive fluid<ref name=Stroyan/> containing [[triacylglycerol]]s called ''cornicle wax'' are exuded. Other defensive compounds can also be produced by some types of aphids.<ref name=mcgavin/> Aphids have a tail-like protrustion called a "[[Cauda (disambiguation)|cauda]]" above their rectal apertures. Aphids have two compound eyes and two ocular tubercles made up of three lenses (which are called triommatidia), each of which is located behind and above the compound eyes.<ref>[http://krex.k-state.edu/dspace/bitstream/2097/154/1/NavdeepMutti2006.pdf ''Molecular Studies of the Salivary Glands of the Pea Aphid, Acyrthosiphon Pisum (Harris)''], Navdeep S. Mutti, PhD Thesis, [[Kansas State University]], 2006.</ref><ref>[http://books.google.com/books?id=3GHhGJC9z9EC&pg=PA4&lpg=PA4&dq=triommatidium+aphid&source=web&ots=iqPFzZ5Chc&sig=T0rPmpGCuFVf8EdXJzV_w1UEhS8&hl=en&sa=X&oi=book_result&resnum=2&ct=result#PPP8,M1 ''Aphid Ecology''], A. F. G. Dixon, Chapman and Hall, 1998, ISBN 0412741806</ref> When host plant quality becomes poor or conditions become crowded, female aphids will produce winged offspring, or "[[alate]]s", that can disperse to other food sources. The mouthparts and eyes are reduced in size, or even missing, in some species and forms of aphids.<ref name=mcgavin/> ==Diet== Many aphids are monophagous (i.e. feeding only on one species of plant), but not all are. Some aphid species, like the green peach aphid (''Myzus persicae''), feed on hundreds of plant species across many families. Aphids passively feed on [[sap]] of [[phloem]] vessels in plants, as do many of their fellow members of Hemiptera such as [[scale insect]]s and [[cicada]]s. Once a phloem vessel is punctured, the sap, which is stored under high pressure, is forced into the aphid's food canal. As they feed, aphids often transmit [[plant viruses]] to the plants, such as [[potato]]es, [[cereal]]s, [[sugarbeet]]s and [[citrus|citrus plants]].<ref name=Stroyan/> These viruses can sometimes kill the plants. Plants contain low densities of the nitrogenous compounds needed for building [[protein]]s, requiring aphids to consume an excess of sap to satisfy their nutritional requirements. The excess is expelled as "[[Honeydew (secretion)|honeydew]]", out of the [[anus|recta]] of aphids, in sufficient volumes that in some circumstances it can "fall like rain".<ref name=mcgavin/> Aphid honeydew is rich in [[carbohydrate]]s, of which the aphids ingest an excess, being phloem-feeders. ==Mutualism== [[Image:Ant cultivating aphids.jpg|left|thumb|Ant tending aphids]] Some species of [[ant]]s "farm" aphids, protecting them on the plants they eat, and eating the honeydew that the aphids release from the [[Rectum|terminations]] of their [[Gastrointestinal tract|alimentary canals]]. This is a "[[mutualism|mutualistic relationship]]". These "dairying ants" "milk" the aphids by stroking them with their [[antenna (biology)|antennae]].<ref>There are also dairying ants that "milk" [[mealybug]]s and other insects.</ref><ref name=Hooper>''Ant'', Linda M. Hooper-Bui, [[World Book Encyclopedia]], 2008, ISBN 978-0-7166-0108-1</ref> Therefore, sometimes aphids are called "ant cows". Some of these farming ants gather and store the aphid eggs in their nests over the winter. In the spring, the ants carry the newly-hatched aphids back to the plants. Some species of dairying ants (such as the European [[yellow meadow ant]], or ''Lasius flavus'')<ref name=wootton>''Insects of the World'', Anthony Wootton, Blandford, Cassell Plc, 1984, reprinted 1999, ISBN 0713723661</ref> manage large "herds" of aphids that feed on roots of plants in the ant colony. Queens that are leaving to start a new colony will take an aphid egg with them to found a new herd of underground aphids in the new colony. These farming ants protect the aphids by fighting off aphid predators.<ref name=Hooper/> An interesting variation in ant-aphid relationships involves the [[Lycaenid butterflies]] (such as the Sievers blue butterfly and the Japanese copper butterfly) and the [[Myrmica]] ants. For example, ''Niphanda fusca'' butterflies lay their eggs on plants where ants tend herds of aphids. The eggs hatch as [[caterpillar]]s which feed on the aphids. The ants in this case do not defend the aphids from the caterpillars, but carry the caterpillars to their nest. The ants feed the caterpillars in their nest, and the caterpillars produce honeydew for the ants in return. When the caterpillars reach full size, they crawl to the colony entrance and form [[Pupa#Cocoon|cocoon]]s. After two weeks, butterflies emerge and take flight.<ref>pages 78 and 79 of ''Insects and Spiders'', Time-Life Books, ISBN 0809496879</ref> There are also some [[bee]]s in [[coniferous forest]]s that collect aphid honeydew to make "forest honey".<ref name=Stroyan/>. Many aphids are host to [[endosymbiont]] [[bacteria]], ''[[Buchnera (proteobacteria)|Buchnera]]'', which live in specialized cells called [[bacteriocyte]]s inside the aphid. These bacteria synthesize some essential [[amino acid]]s that are absent in the phloem that the aphids eat.<ref>{{cite journal | last =Douglas | first =A E | title =Nutritional interactions in insect-microbial symbioses: Aphids and their symbiotic bacteria ''Buchnera'' | journal =Annual Review of Entomology | volume =43 | pages =17–38 | date =1998 | id =ISSN 00664170 | accessdate =2007-05-16 | doi =10.1146/annurev.ento.43.1.17}}</ref> ==Reproduction== [[Image:Aphid-giving-birth.jpg|thumb|right|200px|Aphid giving birth to live young]] Aphids are known for having unusual reproductive adaptations in some species. In some species, reproduction is fairly simple. In other aphid species, reproduction can be very complicated with both [[Sexual reproduction|sexual]] and [[Asexual reproduction|asexual]] forms, creation of [[Egg (biology)|egg]]s or live [[Nymph (biology)|nymph]]s and even be associated with switches between [[Woody plant|woody]] and [[Herbaceous plant|herbaceous]] host plant types at different times of the year.<ref name=mcgavin/><ref>About 10 percent of all aphid species produce generations that alternate between [[Woody plant|woody]] and [[Herbaceous plant|herbaceous]] plants (page 87 of ''Bugs of the World'', George C. McGavin, [http://factsonfile.com Facts on File], 1993).</ref> Many aphids undergo [[cyclical parthenogenesis]]. In the spring and summer, only females are present in the population. The overwintering eggs that hatch in the spring result in females, called ''[[fundatrices]]''. Reproduction is typically [[parthenogenetic]] and [[viviparous]]. Females undergo a modified [[meiosis]] that results in eggs that are genetically identical to their mother (parthenogenetic). The embryos develop within the mothers' [[ovarioles]], which then give live birth to first [[instar]] [[nymph]]s (viviparous). The resulting parthenogenic female offspring are called ''[[virginoparae]]''. Aphids typically live from 20-40 days and thus undergo multiple parthenogenetic, viviparous generations each summer. In [[Autumn|the fall]], a change in [[photoperiod]] and temperature cause females to parthenogenetically produce sexual females and males. The males are genetically identical to their mothers except they have one less [[sex chromosome]]. These sexual aphid forms might be lacking wings or even mouthparts.<ref name=mcgavin/> Sexual females and males mate and females lay eggs that will develop outside of the mother. Thus in the fall aphids undergo sexual, oviparous reproduction. The aphids spend the winter as eggs and emerge as females in the following spring. Aphids have been known to have what is called [[telescoping generations]]. The parthenogenetic, viviparous female aphid will have a daughter within her, who is already parthenogenetically producing her own daughter at the same time. This leads to the situation where the diet of a female aphid can have inter-generational effects on the body size and birth rate of aphids. In other words, what the aphid eats can directly change the size and fertility of the aphid's daughters and granddaughters.<ref>Effect of nitrogen fertilization on ''Aphis gossypii'' (Homoptera: Aphididae): variation in size, color, and reproduction, E. Nevo and M. Coll, J. Econ. Entomol. 94: 27-32, 2001.</ref><ref>[http://docserver.esa.catchword.org/deliver/cw/pdf/esa/freepdfs/0046225x/v34n4s26.pdf Effect of nitrogen fertilizer on the intrinsic rate of increase of the rusty plum aphid, ''Hysteroneura setariae'' (Thomas) (Homoptera: Aphididae) on rice (''Oryza sativa'' L.)], G. C. Jahn, L. P. Almazan, and J. Pacia, Environmental Entomology 34 (4): 938-943, 2005.</ref> The life cycle of the rose aphid (''[[Aphis rosae]]'') may be regarded as typical of the family, though exceptions occur in other species. Eggs produced in the autumn by fertilized females remain on the plant through the winter and hatching in the spring give rise to female individuals which may be winged or wingless. From these, females are born parthenogenetically: that is to say, without the intervention of males, and by a process that has been compared to internal budding, large numbers of young resembling their parents in every respect except size are produced, which themselves reproduce their kind in the same way. This process continues throughout the summer, generation after generation being produced until the number of descendants from a single individual of the spring-hatched brood may amount to many thousands. In the autumn winged males appear; union between the sexes takes place and the females lay the fertilized eggs which are destined to carry the species through the cold months of winter. If, however, the food-plant is grown in a glasshouse or greenhouse where protection against cold is afforded, the aphids may go on reproducing [[agamogenetically]] (asexually) without cessation for many years. Similarly, in the tropics, aphids exhibit only parthenogentic reproduction.<ref name=Stroyan/> The young may be born by the oviparous or viviparous methods and either gamogenetically or agamogenetically, and may develop into winged forms or remain wingless. Males are not produced in significant numbers until the close of the season. Although the factors which determine these phenomena are not clearly understood, it is believed that the appearance of the males is connected with the increasing cold of autumn and the growing scarcity of food, and that the birth of winged females is similarly associated with decrease in the quantity or vitiation of the quality of the nourishment imbibed. Sometimes the winged females migrate from the plant they were born on to start fresh colonies on others often of quite a different kind. Thus the [[apple aphid]] (''Aphis mali''), after producing many generations of [[apterous]] females on its typical food-plant, gives rise to winged forms which fly away and settle upon grass or corn-stalks. Some species of cabbage aphids (like ''[[Brevicoryne brassicae]]'') reproduce rapidly during the summer. They are all females, and can produce up to 41 generations of offspring. If none of these died, a female would have more than one and a half billion billion billion offspring (1.5 x 10<sup>27</sup>) by the end of the season. ==Evolution== Aphids probably first appeared around 280 million years ago, in the early [[Permian]] period. They probably fed on plants like [[Cordaitales]] or [[Cycadophyta]]. The oldest known aphid [[fossil]] is one of the species ''[[Triassoaphis cubitus Evans]]'' from the [[Triassic]].<ref>[http://www.biosci.ohio-state.edu/~herbers/Johnson/PDF%20Pubs/Johnson_etal_Novitates_2001.pdf ''Acropyga and Azteca Ants (Hymenoptera: Formicidae) with Scale Insects (Sternorrhyncha: Coccoidea): 20 Million Years of Intimate Symbiosis''], Christine Johnson, Dant Agosti, Jacques H. Delabie, Klaus Dumpert, D.J. Williams, Michael von Tschirnhaus and Ulrich Maschwitz, American Museum Novitates, June 22, 2001.</ref> There were relatively few species of aphids at that time, and the number of species only considerably increased since the appearance of [[angiosperm]]s 160 millions of years ago. This is due to the fact that angiosperms provide an occasion for aphids to become specialized. Organs like the [[cornicle]]s did not appear until the [[Cretaceous]] period. ==Defenses== [[Image:P-14 lady beetle.jpg|right|thumb|150px|A "P-14" [[lady beetle]] consuming an aphid<ref>The fourteen-spotted lady beetles are also known as "P-14 lady beetles", or ''propylea quatuordecimpunctata''.</ref>]] [[Image:Aphid-sap2.jpg |right|thumb|150px| Aphid excreting defensive fluid from the [[cornicle]]s.]] Aphids are soft-bodied, and have little protection from predators and diseases. Plants sometimes react to aphid infestation by forming a [[gall]], an abnormal swelling of plant tissue. Aphids can live inside the gall, which provides protection from predators and the elements. Infestation of a variety of Chinese trees by Chinese sumac aphids (''Melaphis chinensis Bell'') can create a "Chinese gall" which is valued as a commercial product. As "Galla Chinensis", Chinese galls are used as a medication used in [[Chinese medicine]] to treat coughs, diarrhea, night sweats, [[dysentry]] and to stop intestinal and uterine bleeding. Chinese galls are also an important source of [[tannin]]s.<ref name=Stroyan/> Some species of aphid, known as "woolly aphids" (''[[Eriosomatinae]]''), excrete a "fluffy wax coating" for protection.<ref name=Stroyan/> A small number of species also include "soldier" larvae that can defend their aphid community from soft-bodied attackers.<ref name=Stroyan/> For example, Alexander's horned aphids are a type of soldier aphid that has a hard [[exoskeleton]] and pincer-like mouthparts.<ref>page 144 of ''Insects and Spiders'', Time-Life Books, ISBN 0809496879</ref> The cabbage aphid (''[[Brevicoryne brassicae]]'') stores and releases chemicals that produce a violent [[chemical reaction]] and strong [[mustard oil]] smell to repel predators. There is some confusion in the literature about the function of the cornicle wax secretions. It was common at one time to suggest that the cornicles were the source of the honeydew, and this was even included in the ''[[Shorter Oxford English Dictionary]]''<ref>[http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v211/n5044/abs/211073a0.html ''Defence by Smear: Supercooling in the Cornicle Wax of Aphids''], John S. Edwards, Letters to Nature, [[Nature (journal)|Nature]], 211, 73 - 74, 02 July 1966; doi:10.1038/211073a0</ref> and even appears in the 2008 edition of the ''[[World Book Encyclopedia]]''.<ref>''Aphid'', Candace Martinson, [[World Book Encyclopedia]], 2008, ISBN 978-0-7166-0108-1 </ref> There also is evidence in the literature of cornicle wax luring predators in some cases.<ref>[http://www.springerlink.com/content/nu722h645q823h4n/ ''Kairomonal effect of an aphid cornicle secretion onLysiphlebus testaceipes (Cresson) (Hymenoptera: Aphidiidae)''], Tessa R. Grasswitz and Timothy D. Paine, Journal of Insect Behavior, Springer Netherlands, ISSN 0892-7553 (Print) 1572-8889 (Online), Issue Volume 5, Number 4 / July, 1992, DOI 10.1007/BF01058190 </ref> ==Effects on plants== Plants exhibiting aphid damage can have a variety of symptoms, such as mottled leaves, yellowing, stunted growth, curled leaves, browning, wilting, low yields and decreased growth rates and even death. Not only can the removal of sap from plants create a lack of vigour, but aphid saliva is toxic to plants. Aphids frequently transmit disease-causing organisms like [[plant virus]]es to their hosts. The green peach aphid (''Myzus persicae'') is a vector for more than 110 plant viruses. Cotton aphids (''Aphis gossypii'') often infect sugarcane, papaya and groundnuts with viruses.<ref name=mcgavin/> Aphids contributed to the spread of [[late blight]] (''Phytophthora infestans'') among [[potato]]es in the [[Great Irish Potato Famine]] of the 1840s.<ref>page 61 of ''The Most Extreme Bugs'', Catherine Nichols, Forward by Kevin Mohs and Ian McGee, Jossey-Bass, [[John Wiley and Sons]], 2007, ISBN 9780787986636</ref> Aphids, by coating plants with honeydew, can contribute to the spread of fungi which can damage plants as well.<ref>[http://creatures.ifas.ufl.edu/field/bugs/Y_sugarcane_aphid_01.htm Sooty mold fungus growing on honeydew deposited on lower sugarcane leaves by yellow sugarcane aphids, Sipha flava (Forbes)''], University of Florida</ref><ref>[http://www.umassgreeninfo.org/fact_sheets/diseases/sooty_mold.pdf ''Sooty mold''], Daniel H. Gillman, [[University of Massachusetts]] Extension, Fall 2005</ref><ref>[http://botit.botany.wisc.edu/toms_fungi/Sep2007.html ''Scorias spongiosa, the beech aphid poop-eater''], Hannah T. Reynolds and Tom Volk, Tom Volk's Fungus of the Month, [[University of Wisconsin-La Crosse]], September 2007</ref> Honeydew produced by aphids has been observed to reduce the effectiveness of fungicides as well.<ref>[http://cat.inist.fr/?aModele=afficheN&cpsidt=4448384 ''Interaction between phyllosphere yeasts, aphid honeydew and fungicide effectiveness in wheat under field conditions''], J. Dika and J. A. Van Pelt, Plant pathology, vol. 41, no6, pp. 661-675 (1 p.), 1992, ISSN 0032-0862 CODEN PLPAAD </ref> A hypothesis by Owen and Wiegert that plant fitness might be improved by insect feeding was floated in the mid-1970s. It was felt that the excess honeydew would provide nourishment for soil micro-organisms, including nitrogen fixers. In a nitrogen poor environment, this could provide an advantage to an infested plant over a noninfested plant. However, this does not appear to be supported by the observational evidence.<ref>[http://www.jstor.org/pss/3565718 ''Aphid Honeydew: A re-appraisal of the hypothesis of Owen and Wiegert''], Dhurpad Choudhury, Oikos, Vol. 45, No. 2 (Oct., 1985), pp. 287-290</ref> The damage of plants, and in particular commercial crops, has resulted in large amounts of resources and efforts being spent attempting to control the activities of aphids.<ref name=mcgavin/> ==Relation to phylloxera and adelgids== There is a lot of inconsistency in the literature about whether grape [[phylloxera]] (''Daktulosphaira vitifoliae''), the cause of the [[Great French Wine Blight]] and a plague that devastated European [[viticulture]] in the 19th century, is an aphid or not. Some sources list it as an aphid, and some list it as an aphid-like insect. The yellow phylloxera insects feed on the roots, leaves and shoots of grape plants. However, phylloxera do not produce honeydew or cornicle secretions, and so by these criteria at least, are not aphids.<ref>[http://arjournals.annualreviews.org/doi/abs/10.1146/annurev.ento.46.1.387?journalCode=ento ''Biology and Management of Grape Phylloxera''], Jeffrey Granett, ­ M. Andrew Walker, ­ Laszlo Kocsis, and ­ Amir D. Omer, Annual Review of Entomology, Vol. 46: 387-412, January 2001, doi 10.1146/annurev.ento.46.1.387</ref> Similarly, [[adelgid]]s are sometimes described in the literature as aphids, and sometimes as aphid-like insects, but have no cauda or cornicles. Entymologist Anothony Dixon expresses the ambiguity as: ­ {{quotation| Aphids, adelgids, and phylloxerids are very closely related and are either placed in the insect super family Aphidoidea (Blackman and Eastop, 1994) or into two super families the Phylloxeroidea and Aphidoidea, within the order Homoptera, the plant-sucking bugs.<ref name=Dixon>''Aphid Ecology - An optimization approach, Second Edition'', A.F.G. Dixon, Springer; 2nd ed. edition (1997), ISBN 0412741806</ref> }} Oxford University entymologist George McGavin weighs in: {{quotation| Like adelgids, phylloxerids are distinct from aphids in that they do not have abdominal cornicles or a tail-like cauda.<ref name=mcgavin/> }} ==Gallery== <gallery> Image:Aphids on broccoli.jpg|Aphid infestation on [[broccoli]] plant Image:Aphids-on-lupine1.jpg|[[Lupin|Lupine]] stalk infested with aphids Image:Aphidoidea fight.jpg |Two aphids fighting Image:Aphidoidea puceron Luc Viatour.jpg | Two aphids Image:Sa aphid colony highres dustfree.jpg |Cluster of aphids Image:Aphids 01.JPG |Aphids under attack on a thistle Image:Aphid-colored.jpg |Aphid colors Image:Ameisen.jpg |Aphids Image:Aphid-attack.jpg |[[Lady beetle]] [[larva]] consuming an aphid Image:Aphid_infestation.jpg|Aphid infestation on a [[sunflower]] stalk Image:Aphids.jpg|Aphids on rose foliage Image:Aphid rose.jpg|Aphids feeding on a [[rose]] bud. A [[lady beetle]] can be seen climbing the stalk. </gallery> ==See also== *[[Aeroplankton]] *[[Pineapple gall]] ==References == {{1911}} <div class="references-small"> * [http://books.google.com/books?hl=en&id=9RsFAAAAQAAJ&dq=British+Aphides+buckton&printsec=frontcover&source=web&ots=FH3mEzrNFX&sig=VdNawGndGUcaLE5XJidzV7mhKmc&sa=X&oi=book_result&resnum=1&ct=result ''Monograph of the British Aphides''], Volumes I-IV, [[George Bowdler Buckton]], [[Ray Society]], 1876-1883. {{reflist}}</div> ==External Links== *[http://creatures.ifas.ufl.edu/citrus/bc_aphid.htm brown citrus aphid] on the [[UF]] / [[IFAS]] Featured Creatures Web site [[Category:Hemiptera]] [[Category:Pest insects]] [[Category:Insect vectors of plant pathogens]] {{Link FA|pt}} [[ar:من]] [[da:Bladlus]] [[de:Blattläuse]] [[et:Lehetäilised]] [[es:Aphidoidea]] [[fa:شته]] [[fr:Aphidoidea]] [[ko:진딧물]] [[io:Afidio]] [[it:Aphidoidea]] [[he:כנימות עלים]] [[lt:Amariniai]] [[nl:Bladluizen]] [[ja:アブラムシ]] [[no:Bladlus]] [[pl:Mszyce]] [[pt:Afídio]] [[qu:Yura usa]] [[ru:Тли]] [[sl:Listne uši]] [[fi:Kirvat]] [[sv:Bladlöss]] [[uk:Тлі]]