Apollo 594 223733259 2008-07-05T14:34:12Z Deor 3022076 moved images to point where they're discussed in text {{pp-semi-vandalism|small=yes}} <!--this article uses the BCE/CE convention--> {{otheruses}} [[Image:Lycian Apollo Louvre left.jpg|thumb|200px|right|[[Lycian Apollo|''Lycian Apollo'']], early Imperial Roman copy of a 4th century BCE Greek original ([[Louvre|Louvre Museum]])]] In [[Greek mythology|Greek]] and [[Roman mythology]], '''Apollo''' (in [[Ancient Greek|Greek]], ''Ἀπόλλων''&mdash;''Apóllōn'' or ''Ἀπέλλων''&mdash;''Apellōn''), is one of the most important and many-sided of the [[Twelve Olympians|Olympian deities]]. The ideal of the ''[[kouros]]'' (a beardless youth), Apollo has been variously recognized as a god of light and the sun; truth and prophecy; [[archery]]; medicine and healing; music, poetry, and the arts; and more. Apollo is the son of [[Zeus]] and [[Leto]], and has a [[twins|twin]] sister, the chaste huntress [[Artemis]]. Apollo is known in Greek-influenced [[Etruscan mythology]] as ''Apulu''. In Roman mythology he is known as Apollo. As the patron of [[Delphi]] (''Pythian Apollo''), Apollo was an [[oracular]] god — the prophetic deity of the [[Pythia|Delphic Oracle]]. Medicine and healing were associated with Apollo, whether through the god himself or mediated through his son [[Asclepius]]. Apollo was also seen as a god who could bring ill-health and deadly [[Plague (disease)|plague]] as well as one who had the ability to cure. Amongst the god's custodial charges, Apollo became associated with dominion over [[Colonies in antiquity|colonists]], and as the patron defender of herds and flocks. As the leader of the [[Muse]]s (''Apollon Musagetes'') and director of their choir, Apollo functioned as the patron god of music and [[poetry]]. [[Hermes]] created the [[lyre]] for him, and the instrument became a common [[Apollo#Attributes and symbols|attribute]] of Apollo. Hymns sung to Apollo were called [[paean]]s. In Hellenistic times, especially during the third century BCE, as ''Apollo Helios'' he became identified among Greeks with [[Helios]], [[solar deity|god of the sun]], and his sister Artemis similarly equated with [[Selene]], [[lunar deity|goddess of the moon]].<ref>For the iconography of the Alexander-Helios type, see H. Hoffmann, 1963. "Helios," in ''Journal of the American Research Center in Egypt'' '''2''', pp. 117-23; cf. Yalouris 1980, no. 42.</ref> In Latin texts, however, Joseph Fontenrose declared himself unable to find any conflation of Apollo with [[Sol]] among the [[Classical Latin|Augustan poets]] of the first century, not even in the conjurations of [[Aeneas]] and [[Latinus]] in ''[[Aeneid]]'' XII (161-215).<ref>Joseph Fontenrose, "Apollo and Sol in the Latin poets of the first century BC", ''Transactions of the American Philological Association'' '''30''' (1939), pp 439-55; "Apollo and the Sun-God in Ovid", ''American Journal of Philology'' '''61''' (1940) pp 429-44; and "Apollo and Sol in the Oaths of Aeneas and Latinus" ''Classical Philology'' '''38'''.2 (April 1943), pp. 137-138.</ref> Apollo and Helios/Sol remained separate beings in literary and mythological texts until the third century CE. ==Etymology== The etymology of ''Apollo'' is uncertain. Several instances of [[popular etymology]] are attested from ancient authors. Thus, [[Plato]] in ''[[Cratylus]]'' connects the name with {{polytonic|ἀπόλυσις}} "redeem", with {{polytonic|ἀπόλουσις}} "purification", and with {{polytonic|ἁπλοῦν}} "simple", in particular in reference to the Thessalian form of the name, {{polytonic|Ἄπλουν}}, and finally with {{polytonic|Ἀει-βάλλων}} "ever-shooting". [[Hesychius of Alexandria|Hesychius]] connects the name Apollo with the Doric απελλα, which means "assembly", so that Apollo would be the god of political life, and he also gives the explanation σηκος ("fold"), in which case Apollo would be the god of flocks and herds. It is also possible<ref>Burkert so holds; ''Greek Religion'' p.144</ref> that ''apellai'' derives from an old form of Apollo which can be equated with Appaliunas, an Anatolian god whose name possibly means "father lion" or "father light". The Greeks later associated Apollo's name with the Greek verb απολλυμι (apollymi) meaning "to destroy".<ref>[http://www.behindthename.com/php/view.php?name=apollo Behind the Name: Meaning, Origin and History of the Name Apollo<!-- Bot generated title -->]</ref> It has also been suggested<ref> de Grummond, Nancy Thomson (2006) "Etruscan Myth, Sacred History, and Legend". (Philadelphia, PA: University of Pennsylvania Museum of Archaeology and Anthropology)</ref><ref>Mackenzie, Donald A. (2005) "Myths of Babylonia and Assyria" (Gutenberg)</ref> that Apollo comes from the [[Hurrian]] and [[Hittite]] divinity, Aplu, who was widely evoked during the "plague years". Aplu, it is suggested, comes from the Akkadian ''Aplu Enlil'', meaning "the son of Enlil", a title that was given to the god [[Nergal]], who was linked to [[Shamash]], Babylonian god of the sun. ==Origins of cult== It appears that both [[Greek mythology|Greek]] and [[Etruscan civilization|Etruscan]] Apollo came to the [[Aegean Sea|Aegean]] during the [[Iron Age]] (i.e. from c.1100 BCE to c. 800 BCE) from [[Anatolia]]. [[Homer]] pictures him on the side of the [[Trojan]]s, against the [[Achaean]]s, during the [[Trojan War]] and he has close affiliations with a [[Luwian]] deity, [[Apaliunas]], who in turn seems to have traveled west from further east. The [[Late Bronze Age]] (from 1700–1200 BCE) [[Hittites|Hittite]] and [[Hurrian]] ''Aplu'',<ref>Croft, John (2003) wrote in the [https://listhost.uchicago.edu/pipermail/ane/2003-May/009551.html Ancient Near East] mail list that "Apollo does not have a Greek provenance but an Anatolian one. Luwian Apaliuna seems to have travelled west from further East. Hurrian Aplu was a god of the plague, and resembles the mouse god Apollo Smitheus. Hurrian Aplu itself seems derived from the Babylonian "Aplu" meaning a "son of" — a title that was given to the Babylonian plague God, Nergal (son of Enlil)"</ref> like the Homeric Apollo, was a god of [[Plague (disease)|plague]]s, and resembles the mouse god ''Apollo Smintheus''. Here we have an [[apotrope|apotropaic]] situation, where a god originally bringing the plague was invoked to end it, merging over time through fusion with the [[Mycenae]]an "doctor" god Paieon (PA-JA-WO in [[Linear B]]); [[Paean]], in Homer, was the Greek physician of the gods. In other writers, the word is a mere epithet of Apollo in his capacity as a god of [[healing]], but it is now known from Linear B that Paean was originally a separate deity. Homer left the question unanswered, whilst [[Hesiod]] separated the two and, in later poetry Paean was invoked independently as a god of healing. It is equally difficult to separate Paean or Paeon in the sense of "healer" from Paean in the sense of "song." Such songs were originally addressed to Apollo, and afterwards to other gods (i.e. [[Dionysus]], [[Helios]], [[Asclepius]]) associated with Apollo. About the fourth century BCE, the paean became merely a formula of adulation; its object was either to implore protection against disease and misfortune, or to offer thanks after such protection had been rendered. It was in this way that Apollo became recognised as the god of music. Apollo's role as the slayer of the [[Python (mythology)|Python]] led to his association with battle and victory; hence it became the Roman custom for a paean to be sung by an [[army]] on the march and before entering into battle, when a fleet left the harbour, and also after a victory had been won. Apollo's links with oracles again seem to be associated with wishing to know the outcome of an illness. He is a god of music and the lyre. Healing belongs to his realm: he was the father of Asclepius, the god of [[medicine]]. The Muses are part of his retinue, so that [[music]], [[history]], [[poetry]] and [[dance]] all belong to him. ==Cult sites== Unusually among the Olympic deities, Apollo had two cult sites that had widespread influence: [[Delos]] and [[Delphi]]. In cult practice, Delian Apollo and Pythian Apollo (the Apollo of Delphi) were so distinct that they might both have shrines in the same locality.<ref>Burkert 1985:143.</ref> [[Theophoric names]] such as ''Apollodorus'' or ''Apollonios'' and cities named [[Apollonia]] are met with throughout the Greek world. Apollo's [[Cult (religion)|cult]] was already fully established when written sources commenced, about [[650s BC|650 BCE]]. ===Oracular shrines=== Apollo had a famous [[oracle]] in Delphi, and other notable ones in [[Clarus]] and [[Branchidae]]. His oracular shrine in [[Abae]] in [[Phocis]], where he bore the [[toponym]]ic epithet ''[[Abaeus]]'' ({{polytonic|Ἀπόλλων Ἀβαῖος}}, ''Apollon Abaios'') was important enough to be consulted by [[Croesus]] ([[Herodotus]], 1.46). His oracular shrines include: * In [[Didyma]], an oracle on the coast of [[Anatolia]], south west of [[Lydia]]n ([[Luwian]]) [[Sardis]], in which priests from the lineage of the Branchidae received inspiration by drinking from a healing spring located in the temple. * In [[Manbij|Hierapolis Bambyce]], Syria (modern Manbij), according to the treatise ''[[De Dea Syria]]'', the sanctuary of the [[Atargatis|Syrian Goddess]] contained a robed and bearded image of Apollo. Divination was based on spontaneous movements of this image.<ref>[[Lucian]] (attrib.), ''[[De Dea Syria]]'' [http://www.sacred-texts.com/cla/luc/tsg/tsg07.htm#35 35&ndash;37].</ref> * In [[Delos]], there was an oracle to the Delian Apollo, during summer. The Hieron (Sanctuary) of Apollo adjacent to the Sacred Lake, was the place where the god was said to have been born. * In [[Corinth]], the Oracle of Corinth came from the town of [[Tenea]], from prisoners supposedly taken in the Trojan War * In [[Bassae]] in the [[Peloponnese]] * In [[Abae]] in [[Phocis]] * In [[Delphi]], the [[Pythia]] became filled with the ''[[pneuma]]'' of Apollo, said to come from a spring inside the [[Adyton]]. * At [[Patara]], in [[Lycia]], there was a seasonal winter oracle of Apollo, said to have been the place where the god went from Delos. As at Delphi the oracle at Patara was a woman. * At [[Clarus]], on the west coast of [[Asia Minor]]; as at Delphi a holy spring which gave off a ''pneuma'', from which the priests drank. * In [[Segesta]] in [[Sicily]] Oracles were also given by sons of Apollo. * In [[Oropus]], north of [[Athens]], the oracle [[Amphiaraus]], was said to be the son of Apollo; Oropus also had a sacred spring. * in Labadea, 20 miles east of Delphi, [[Trophonius]], another son of Apollo, killed his brother and fled to the cave where he was also afterwards consulted as an oracle. ==Festivals== The chief Apollonian festivals were the [[Boedromia]], [[Carneia]], Carpiae, [[Daphnephoria]], [[Delia (festival)|Delia]], [[Hyacinthia]], [[Metageitnia]], [[Pyanepsia]], [[Pythia]] and [[Thargelia]]. ==Attributes and symbols== [[Image:Apolocitaredo8.jpg|thumb|left|320px|''[[Apollo Citharoedus]]'' ("Apollo with a kithara"), [[Musei Capitolini]], [[Rome]]]] Apollo's most common attributes were the bow and [[arrow]]. Other attributes of his included the [[kithara]] (an advanced version of the common [[lyre]]), the [[plectrum]] and the sword. Another common emblem was the [[sacrificial tripod]], representing his prophetic powers. The [[Pythian Games]] were held in Apollo's honor every four years at [[Delphi]]. The bay [[laurel tree|laurel]] plant was used in expiatory sacrifices and in making the [[laurel wreath|crown of victory]] at these games. The [[palm tree|palm]] was also sacred to Apollo because he had been born under one in [[Delos]]. Animals sacred to Apollo included [[wolf|wolves]], [[dolphin]]s, [[roe deer]], [[swan]]s, [[cicada]]s (symbolizing music and [[song]]), [[hawk]]s, [[raven]]s, [[crow]]s, [[snake]]s (referencing Apollo's function as the god of prophecy), [[mice]] and [[griffin]]s, mythical eagle-lion hybrids of Eastern origin. As god of colonization, Apollo gave oracular guidance on colonies, especially during the height of colonization, 750–550 BCE. According to Greek tradition, he helped [[Crete|Cretan]] or [[Arcadia]]n colonists found the city of [[Troy]]. However, this story may reflect a cultural influence which had the reverse direction: [[Hittites|Hittite]] [[Cuneiform script|cuneiform]] texts mention a Minor Asian god called ''Appaliunas'' or ''Apalunas'' in connection with the city of [[Wilusa]] attested in Hittite inscriptions, which is now generally regarded as being identical with the Greek [[Troy|Ilion]] by most scholars. In this interpretation, Apollo’s title of ''Lykegenes'' can simply be read as "born in Lycia", which effectively severs the god's supposed link with wolves (possibly a [[folk etymology]]). In literary contexts, Apollo represents harmony, order, and reason&mdash;characteristics contrasted with those of [[Dionysus]], god of wine, who represents ecstasy and disorder. The contrast between the roles of these gods is reflected in the adjectives [[Apollonian and Dionysian]]. However, the Greeks thought of the two qualities as complementary: the two gods are brothers, and when Apollo at winter left for [[Hyperborea]], he would leave the Delphic oracle to Dionysus. This contrast appears to be shown on the two sides of the [[Borghese Vase]]. Apollo is often associated with the [[Golden mean (philosophy)|Golden Mean]]. This is the Greek [[ideal]] of [[moderation]] and a [[virtue]] that opposes [[gluttony]]. ==Roman Apollo== The Roman worship of Apollo was adopted from the Greeks. As a quintessentially [[List of Greek mythological figures|Greek god]], Apollo had no direct Roman equivalent, although later Roman poets often referred to him as [[Phoebus]]. There was a tradition that the Delphic oracle was consulted as early as the period of the [[Roman Kingdom|kings of Rome]] during the reign of [[Tarquinius Superbus]].<ref>[[Livy]] [http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/cgi-bin/ptext?lookup=Liv.+1.56 1.56].</ref> On the occasion of a pestilence in the [[430s BC]], Apollo's [[Temple of Apollo Sosianus|first temple]] at Rome was established in the Flaminian fields, replacing an older cult site there known as the "Apollinare".<ref>Livy [http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text.jsp?doc=Perseus:text:1999.02.0026:book=3:chapter=63 3.63.7], [http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text.jsp?doc=Perseus:text:1999.02.0145:book=4:chapter=25 4.25.3].</ref> During the [[Second Punic War]] in [[212 BC]], the ''[[Ludi Apollinares]]'' ("Apollonian Games") were instituted in his honor, on the instructions of a prophecy attributed to one Marcius.<ref>Livy [http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text.jsp?doc=Perseus:text:1999.02.0147:book=25:chapter=12 25.12].</ref> In the time of [[Augustus]], who considered himself under the special protection of Apollo and was even said to be his son, his worship developed and he became one of the chief gods of Rome.<ref>{{cite book |author=J. H. W. G. Liebeschuetz |title=Continuity and Change in Roman Religion |year=1979 |publisher=Oxford University Press |location=Oxford |isbn=0-19-814822-4 |pages=pp. 82&ndash;85 }}</ref> After the [[battle of Actium]], which was fought near a sanctuary of Apollo, Augustus enlarged Apollo's temple, dedicated a portion of the spoils to him, and instituted [[quinquennial]] games in his honour.<ref>[[Suetonius]], ''[[On the Life of the Caesars#Life of Augustus|Augustus]]'' [http://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Suetonius/12Caesars/Augustus*.html#18.2 18.2]; [[Cassius Dio]] [http://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Cassius_Dio/51*.html#1 51.1.1&ndash;3].</ref> He also erected [[Temple of Apollo (Palatine)|a new temple]] to the god on the [[Palatine Hill|Palatine hill]].<ref>Cassius Dio [http://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Cassius_Dio/53*.html#1.3 53.1.3].</ref> Sacrifices and prayers on the Palatine to Apollo and [[Diana (mythology)|Diana]] formed the culmination of the [[Secular Games]], held in 17 BCE to celebrate the dawn of a new era.<ref>''Inscriptiones Latinae Selectae'' 5050, translated by {{cite book |author=Mary Beard |authorlink=Mary Beard (classicist) |coauthors=John North and Simon Price |title=Religions of Rome: Volume 2: A Sourcebook |year=1998 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |location=Cambridge |id=ISBN 0-521-45015-2 (hbk.); ISBN 0-521-45646-0 (pbk.) |pages=no. 5.7b }}</ref> == In art == [[Image:Roman Statue of Apollo.jpg|thumb|left|Apollo (the "Adonis" of Centocelle), Roman after a Greek original ([[Ashmolean Museum]])]] In art, Apollo is depicted as a handsome beardless young man, often with a [[kithara]] (as [[Apollo Citharoedus]]) or bow in his hand, or reclining on a tree (the [[Lycian Apollo]] and [[Apollo Sauroctonos]] types). The [[Apollo Belvedere]] is a [[marble]] [[sculpture]] that was rediscovered in the late [[15th century]]; for centuries it epitomized the ideals of [[Classical Antiquity]] for Europeans, from the [[Renaissance]] through the [[nineteenth century]]. The marble is a [[Hellenistic Greece|Hellenistic]] or Roman copy of a bronze original by the Greek sculptor [[Leochares]], made between 350 and [[325 BC]]. The lifesize so-called "[[Adonis]]" (shown at left) found in 1780 on the site of a ''[[Roman villa|villa suburbana]]'' near the [[Via Labicana]] in the Roman suburb of Centocelle and now in the [[Ashmolean Museum]], Oxford, is identified as an Apollo by modern scholars. It was probably never intended as a [[cult object]], but was a [[pastiche]] of several fourth-century and later Hellenistic model types, intended to please a Roman connoisseur of the second century AD, and to be displayed in his villa. [[Image:Apollo1.JPG|thumb|366px|right|Apollo with a radiant [[Halo (religious iconography)|halo]] in a Roman floor mosaic, [[El Djem]], Tunisia, late 2nd century]] In the late second century CE floor mosaic from [[El Djem]], Roman ''Thysdrus'' (right), he is identifiable as [[Helios|Apollo Helios]] by his effulgent [[Halo (religious iconography)|halo]], though now even a god's divine [[nudity|nakedness]] is concealed by his cloak, a mark of increasing conventions of modesty in the later [[Roman Empire|Empire]]. Another haloed Apollo in mosaic, from [[Hadrumentum]], is in the museum at [[Sousse]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.tunisiaonline.com/mosaics/mosaic05b.html |title=http://www.tunisiaonline.com/mosaics/mosaic05b.html |accessdate= |format= |work= }}</ref> The conventions of this representation, head tilted, lips slightly parted, large-eyed, curling [[Hairstyle|hair cut]] in locks grazing the neck, were developed in the third century BCE to depict [[Alexander the Great]] (Bieber 1964, Yalouris 1980). Some time after this mosaic was executed, the earliest depictions of Christ will be beardless and haloed. ==Mythology== ===Birth=== When [[Hera]] discovered that Leto was pregnant and that Zeus was the father, she banned Leto from giving birth on "[[terra firma]]", or the mainland, or any [[island]]. In her wanderings, [[Leto]] found the newly created [[floating island]] of [[Delos]], which was neither mainland nor a real island, and she gave birth there. The island was surrounded by swans. Afterwards, Zeus secured Delos to the bottom of the ocean. This island later became sacred to Apollo. It is also stated that Hera kidnapped [[Ilithyia]], the goddess of childbirth, to prevent Leto from going into labor. The other gods tricked Hera into letting her go by offering her a [[necklace]], nine yards long, of [[amber]]. Mythographers agree that Artemis was born first and then assisted with the birth of Apollo, or that [[Artemis]] was born one day before Apollo, on the island of [[Ortygia]] and that she helped Leto cross the sea to Delos the next day to give birth to Apollo. Apollo was born on the seventh day ({{polytonic|ἡβδομαγενης}}) of the month Thargelion &mdash;according to Delian tradition&mdash; or of the month Bysios&mdash; according to Delphian tradition. The seventh and twentieth, the days of the new and [[full moon]], were ever afterwards held sacred to him. === Youth === In his youth, Apollo killed the chthonic dragon [[Python (mythology)|Python]], which lived in [[Delphi]] beside the [[Castalian Spring]]. This was the spring which emitted vapors that caused the oracle at Delphi to give her prophesies. Apollo killed Python but had to be punished for it, since Python was a child of [[Gaia (mythology)|Gaia]]. Apollo has his ominous aspects, too. [[Marsyas]], a [[satyr]] who dared challenge him to a music contest, was flayed after he lost. Apollo brought down arrows of plague upon the Greeks because they dishonored his priest [[Chryses]]. Apollo's arrows of plague struck [[Niobe]], who, excessively proud of her seven sons and seven daughters, had disparaged Apollo's mother, Leto, for having only two children (Apollo and Artemis). === Admetus === When Zeus struck down Apollo's son Asclepius, with a lightning bolt for resurrecting the dead (transgressing [[Themis]] by stealing [[Hades]]'s subjects), Apollo in revenge killed the [[Cyclops]], who had fashioned the bolt for Zeus. Apollo would have been banished to [[Tartarus]] forever, but was instead sentenced to one year of [[Penal labour|hard labor]] as punishment, thanks to the intercession of his mother, [[Leto]]. During this time he served as shepherd for [[Admetus|King Admetus]] of [[Pherae]] in [[Thessaly]]. Admetus treated Apollo well, and, in return, the god conferred great benefits on Admetus. Apollo helped Admetus win [[Alcestis]], the daughter of [[Pelias|King Pelias]] and later convinced the [[Moirae|Fates]] to let Admetus live past his time, if another took his place. But when it came time for Admetus to die, his parents, whom he had assumed would gladly die for him, refused to cooperate. Instead, Alcestis took his place, but [[Heracles]] managed to "persuade" [[Thanatos]], the god of death, to return her to the world of the living. === Trojan War === Apollo shot arrows infected with the plague into the Greek encampment during the [[Trojan War]] in retribution for [[Agamemnon]]'s insult to [[Chryses]], a priest of Apollo whose daughter [[Chryseis]] had been captured. He demanded her return, and the Achaeans complied, indirectly causing the anger of Achilles, which is the theme of the ''[[Iliad]]''. When [[Diomedes]] injured [[Aeneas]] (''[[Iliad]]''), Apollo rescued him. First, [[Aphrodite]] tried to rescue Aeneas but Diomedes injured her as well. Aeneas was then enveloped in a cloud by Apollo, who took him to Pergamos, a sacred spot in [[Troy]]. Apollo aided [[Paris (mythology)|Paris]] in the killing of [[Achilles]] by guiding the arrow of his bow into [[Achilles]]' heel. One interpretation of his motive is that it was in revenge for Achilles' sacrilege in murdering [[Troilus]], the god's own son by [[Hecuba]], on the very altar of the god's own temple. === Niobe === A queen of [[Thebes (Greece)|Thebes]] and wife of [[Amphion]], [[Niobe]] boasted of her superiority to Leto because she had fourteen children ([[Niobids]]), seven male and seven female, while Leto had only two. Apollo killed her sons as they practiced athletics, with the last begging for his life, and Artemis her daughters. Apollo and Artemis used poisoned arrows to kill them, though according to some versions of the myth, a number of the Niobids were spared ([[Chloris]], usually). Amphion, at the sight of his dead sons, either killed himself or was killed by Apollo after swearing revenge. A devastated Niobe fled to [[Spil Mount|Mount Sipylos]] in [[Asia Minor]] and turned into stone as she wept. Her tears formed the river [[Achelous]]. Zeus had turned all the people of Thebes to stone and so no one buried the Niobids until the ninth day after their death, when the gods themselves entombed them. === Consorts and children === Love affairs ascribed to Apollo are a late development in Greek mythology.<ref>""The love-stories themselves were not told until later." ([[Karl Kerenyi]], ''The Gods of the Greeks'' 1951:140.</ref> Their vivid anecdotal qualities have made some of them favourites of painters since the Renaissance, so that they stand out more prominently in the modern imagination. ====Female lovers==== {{main|Apollo and Daphne}} In explanation of the connection of Apollon with ''daphne'', the [[Bay Laurel|Laurel]] whose leaves his priestess employed at [[Delphi]], it was told by [[Libanius]], a fourth-century CE teacher of rhetoric,<ref>Libanius, ''Narrationes''.</ref> that Apollo chased a nymph, [[Daphne]], daughter of [[Peneus]], who had scorned him. In [[Ovid]]'s telling for a Roman audience, Phoebus Apollo chaffs Cupid for toying with a man's weapon suited to a man, whereupon Cupid wounds him with an arrow with a golden dart; simultaneously, however, Eros had shot a leaden arrow into Daphne, causing her to be repulsed by Apollo. Following a spirited chase by Apollo, Daphne prayed to Mother Earth, or, alternatively, her father — a [[Sea and river deity|river god]] — to help her and he changed her into the Laurel tree, sacred to Apollo. Apollo had an affair with a human princess named [[Leucothea]], daughter of [[Orchamus]] and sister of [[Clytia]]. Leucothea loved Apollo who disguised himself as Leucothea's mother to gain entrance to her chambers. Clytia, jealous of her sister because she wanted Apollo for herself, told Orchamus the truth, betraying her sister's trust and confidence in her. Enraged, Orchamus ordered Leucothea to be buried alive. Apollo refused to forgive Clytia for betraying his beloved, and a grieving Clytia wilted and slowly died. Apollo changed her into an incense plant, either heliotrope or sunflower, which follows the sun every day. [[Marpessa]] was kidnapped by [[Idas]] but was loved by Apollo as well. [[Zeus]] made her choose between them, and she chose Idas on the grounds that Apollo, being immortal, would tire of her when she grew old. [[Castalia]] was a [[nymph]] whom Apollo loved. She fled from him and dived into the [[castalian Spring|spring]] at Delphi, at the base of [[Mt. Parnassos]], which was then named after her. Water from this spring was sacred; it was used to clean the Delphian temples and inspire poets. By [[Cyrene (mythology)|Cyrene]], Apollo had a son named [[Aristaeus]], who became the patron god of cattle, [[fruit trees]], hunting, husbandry and [[bee-keeping]]. He was also a [[culture-hero]] and taught humanity dairy skills and the use of nets and traps in hunting, as well as how to cultivate olives. With [[Hecuba]], wife of King [[Priam]] of [[Troy]], Apollo had a son named [[Troilus]]. An [[oracle]] prophesied that Troy would not be defeated as long as Troilus reached the age of twenty alive. He was ambushed and killed by [[Achilles]]. Apollo also fell in love with [[Cassandra]], daughter of Hecuba and Priam, and Troilus' half-sister. He promised Cassandra the gift of prophecy to seduce her, but she rejected him afterwards. Enraged, Apollo indeed gifted her with the ability to know the future, with a curse that she could only see the future tragedies and that no one would ever believe her. [[Coronis]], daughter of [[Phlegyas]], King of the [[Lapiths]], was another of Apollo's liaisons. Pregnant with [[Asclepius]], Coronis fell in love with [[Ischys]], son of [[Elatus]]. A crow informed Apollo of the affair. When first informed he disbelieved the crow and turned all crows black (where they were previously white) as a punishment for spreading untruths. When he found out the truth he sent his sister, Artemis, to kill Coronis (in other stories, Apollo himself had killed Coronis). As a result he also made the crow sacred and gave them the task of announcing important deaths. Apollo rescued the baby and gave it to the [[centaur]] [[Chiron]] to raise. Phlegyas was irate after the death of his daughter and burned the Temple of Apollo at Delphi. Apollo then killed him for what he did. In [[Euripides]]' play ''[[Ion (play)|Ion]]'', Apollo fathered [[Ion (mythology)|Ion]] by [[Creusa]], wife of [[Xuthus]]. Creusa left Ion to die in the wild, but Apollo asked [[Hermes]] to save the child and bring him to the oracle at [[Delphi]], where he was raised by a priestess. One of his other liaisons was with [[Acantha]], the spirit of the [[Acanthus (genus)|acanthus]] tree. Upon her death, Apollo transformed her into a sun-loving herb. ====Male lovers==== [[Image:Hyacinthus.jpg|thumb|250px|'''Apollo and Hyacinthus'''<br>Jacopo Caraglio; 16th c. Italian engraving]] Apollo, the eternal beardless [[kouros]] himself, had the most prominent male relationships of all the [[Greek Gods]]. That was to be expected from a god who was god of the [[palaestra]], the athletic gathering place for youth who all competed [[Nudity in sport|in the nude]], a god said to represent the ideal educator and therefore the ideal [[erastes]], or lover of a boy (Sergent, p.102). All his lovers were younger than him, in the style of the [[Pederasty in ancient Greece|Greek pederastic relationships]] of the time. Many of Apollo's young beloveds died "accidentally", a reflection on the function of these myths as part of [[rite of passage|rites of passage]], in which the youth died in order to be reborn as an adult. [[Hyacinth (mythology)|Hyacinth]] was one of his male lovers. Hyacinthus was a [[Sparta]]n prince, beautiful and athletic. The pair were practicing throwing the [[Discus throw|discus]] when Hyacinthus was struck in the head by a discus blown off course by [[Zephyrus]], who was jealous of Apollo and loved Hyacinthus as well. When Hyacinthus died, Apollo is said in some accounts to have been so filled with grief that he cursed his own immortality, wishing to join his lover in mortal death and made Zephyrus into the wind so that he could never truly touch or speak to anyone again. Out of the blood of his slain lover Apollo created the [[hyacinth (plant)|hyacinth flower]] as a memorial to his death, and his tears stained the flower petals with ''άί'' ''άί'', meaning alas. The Festival of Hyacinthus was a celebration of Sparta. Another male lover was [[Cyparissus]], a descendant of [[Heracles]]. Apollo gave the boy a tame deer as a companion but Cyparissus accidentally killed it with a [[Pilum|javelin]] as it lay asleep in the undergrowth. Cyparissus asked Apollo to let his tears fall forever. Apollo turned the sad boy into a [[Cupressaceae|cypress]] tree, which was said to be a sad tree because the sap forms droplets like tears on the trunk. === Birth of Hermes === [[Hermes]] was born on [[Mount Kyllini|Mount Cyllene]] in Arcadia. The story is told in the [[Homeric Hymn]] to [[Hermes]]. His mother, [[Maia (mythology)|Maia]], had been secretly impregnated by [[Zeus]]. Maia wrapped the infant in blankets but Hermes escaped while she was asleep. Hermes ran to [[Thessaly]], where Apollo was grazing his cattle. The infant Hermes stole a number of his cows and took them to a cave in the woods near [[Pylos]], covering their tracks. In the cave, he found a [[tortoise]] and killed it, then removed the insides. He used one of the cow's intestines and the tortoise shell and made the first [[lyre]]. Apollo complained to Maia that her son had stolen his cattle, but Hermes had already replaced himself in the blankets she had wrapped him in, so Maia refused to believe Apollo's claim. Zeus intervened and, claiming to have seen the events, sided with Apollo. Hermes then began to play music on the lyre he had invented. Apollo, a god of music, fell in love with the instrument and offered to allow exchange of the cattle for the lyre. Hence, Apollo became a master of the lyre. === Other stories === Apollo gave the order through the Oracle at Delphi, for [[Orestes (mythology)|Orestes]] to kill his mother, [[Clytemnestra]], and her lover, [[Aegisthus]]. Orestes was punished fiercely by the [[Erinyes]] (the [[Furies]], [[female]] personifications of [[revenge|vengeance]]) for this crime. Relentlessly pursued by the Furies, Orestes asked for the intercession of [[Athena]], who decreed that he be tried by a [[jury]] of his [[peer]]s, with Apollo acting as his attorney. In the [[Odyssey]], [[Odysseus]] and his surviving crew landed on an island sacred to Helios the sun god, where he kept sacred cattle. Though Odysseus warned his men not to (as [[Tiresias]] and [[Circe]] had told him), they killed and ate some of the cattle and Helios had [[Zeus]] destroy the ship and all the men, except [[Odysseus]]. Apollo also had a [[lyre]]-playing contest with [[Cinyras]], his son, who [[Suicide|committed suicide]] when he lost. Apollo killed the [[Aloadae]] when they attempted to storm [[Mount Olympus (Mountain)|Mt. Olympus]]. It was also said that Apollo rode on the back of a swan to the land of the [[Hyperboreans]] during the winter months, a swan that he also lent to his beloved Hyacinthus to ride. Apollo turned [[Cephissus]] into a [[sea monster]]. ==== Musical contests ==== ===== Pan ===== Once [[Pan (mythology)|Pan]] had the audacity to compare his music with that of Apollo, and to challenge Apollo, the god of the [[kithara]], to a trial of skill. [[Tmolus]], the mountain-god, was chosen to umpire. Pan blew on his pipes, and with his rustic melody gave great satisfaction to himself and his faithful follower, [[Midas]], who happened to be present. Then Apollo struck the strings of his lyre. Tmolus at once awarded the victory to Apollo, and all but Midas agreed with the judgment. He dissented, and questioned the justice of the award. Apollo would not suffer such a depraved pair of ears any longer, and caused them to become the ears of a [[donkey]]. ===== Marsyas ===== [[Image:TItian - The Flaying of Marsyas.jpg|thumb|230px|''The Flaying of Marsyas'' by [[Titian]], c.1570-76.]] [[Marsyas]] was a [[satyr]] who challenged Apollo to a contest of music. He had found an [[aulos]] on the ground, tossed away after being invented by [[Athena]] because it made her cheeks puffy. Marsyas lost and was [[flaying|flayed]] alive in a cave near [[Celaenae]] in [[Phrygia]] for his [[hubris]] to challenge a god. His blood turned into the river Marsyas. Another variation is that Apollo played his instrument (the lyre) upside down. Marsyas could not do this with his instrument (the [[flute]]), and so Apollo hung him from a tree and flayed him alive.<ref>''Man Myth and Magic'' by Richard Cavendish</ref> == Graeco-Roman epithets and cult titles == Apollo, like other Greek deities, had a number of [[epithet]]s applied to him, reflecting the variety of roles, duties, and aspects ascribed to the god. However, while Apollo has a great number of appellations in Greek myth, only a few occur in [[Latin literature]], chief among them '''[[Phoebus]]''' ("shining one"), which was very commonly used by both the Greeks and Romans in Apollo's role as the god of light. In Apollo's role as healer, his appellations included '''Akesios''', '''Iatros''', and '''Acestor'''<ref>[[Euripides]], ''[[Andromache (play)|Andromache]]'' 901</ref> meaning "healer". He was also called '''Alexikakos''' ("restrainer of evil") and '''Apotropaeus''' ("he who averts evil"), and was referred to by the Romans as '''Averruncus''' ("averter of evils"). As a plague god and defender against rats and locusts, Apollo was known as '''Smintheus''' ("mouse-catcher") and '''Parnopius''' ("grasshopper"). The Romans also called Apollo '''Culicarius''' ("driving away [[midge (insect)|midges]]"). In his healing aspect, the Romans referred to Apollo as '''Medicus''' ("the Physician"), and a [[Roman temple|temple]] was dedicated to ''Apollo Medicus'' at Rome, probably next to the temple of [[Bellona]]. As a sun-god he was worshiped as '''Aegletes''', the radiant god.<ref>[[Apollonius of Rhodes]], iv. 1730</ref><ref>[[Apollodorus]], i. 9. § 26</ref> As a god of archery, Apollo was known as '''Aphetoros''' ("god of the bow") and '''Argurotoxos''' ("with the silver bow"). The Romans referred to Apollo as '''Articenens''' ("carrying the bow") as well. As a pastoral shepherd-god, Apollo was known as '''Nomios''' ("wandering"). As the protector of roads and homes he was '''[[Agyieus]]'''. Apollo was also known as '''Archegetes''' ("director of the foundation"), who oversaw colonies. He was known as '''Klarios''', from the Doric ''klaros'' ("allotment of land"), for his supervision over cities and colonies. He was known as '''Delphinios''' ("Delphinian"), meaning "of the womb", in his association with ''Delphoi'' ([[Delphi]]). At Delphi, he was also known as '''Pythios''' ("Pythian"). An [[aitiology]] in the [[Homeric hymns]] connects the epitheton to [[dolphin]]s. '''Kynthios''', another common epithet, stemmed from his birth on Mt. [[Cynthus]]. He was also known as '''Lyceios''' or '''Lykegenes''', which either meant "[[wolf]]ish" or "of [[Lycia]]", Lycia being the place where some postulate that his cult originated. Specifically as god of prophecy, Apollo was known as '''Loxias''' ("the obscure"). He was also known as '''Coelispex''' ("he who watches the heavens") to the Romans. Apollo was attributed the epithet '''Musagetes''' as the leader of the [[muse]]s, and '''Nymphegetes''' as "[[nymph]]-leader". '''Acesius''' was the epithet of Apollo worshipped in [[Elis]], where he had a temple in the [[agora]]. This surname, which has the same meaning as ''akestor'' and ''alezikakos'', characterized the god as the averter of evil.<ref name=Smith>"Acesius". ''Smith's Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography and Mythology''. London, 1880. </ref> '''Acraephius''' or '''Acraephiaeus''' was his epithet worshipped in the [[Boeotia]]n town of Acraephia, reputedly founded by his son, [[Acraepheus]]. '''Actiacus''' was his epithet in [[Actium]], one of the principal places of his worship.<ref>[[Ovid]], ''[[Metamorphoses]]'' xiii. 715</ref><ref>[[Strabo]], x. p. 451</ref> == Celtic epithets and cult titles == '''Apollo''' was worshipped throughout the [[Roman Empire]]. In the traditionally [[Celtic nations|Celtic]] lands he was most often seen as a healing and sun god. He was often equated with [[List of Celtic gods|Celtic gods]] of similar character. <ref>''Dictionary of Celtic Myth and Legend'', Miranda J. Green, Thames and Hudson Ltd, 1997</ref> '''[[Apollo Atepomarus]]''' ("the great horseman" or "possessing a great horse"). Apollo was worshipped at [[Mauvières]] ([[Indre]]) under this name. Horses were, in the Celtic world, closely linked to the sun. <ref>Corpus Inscriptionum Latinarum XIII, 1863-1986</ref><ref>Pagan Celtic Britain, A. Ross, 1967</ref><ref>The Gods of the Celts, M.J. Green, 1986, London</ref> '''[[Apollo Belenus]]''' ('bright' or 'brilliant'). This epithet was given to Apollo in parts of [[Gaul]], North [[Italy]] and [[Noricum]] (part of modern [[Austria]]. Apollo Belenus was a healing and sun god. <ref>Fontes Historiae Religionis Celticae, J. Zwicker, 1934-36, Berlin</ref><ref>Corpus Inscriptionum Latinarum V, XI, XII, XIII</ref><ref>''Le culte de Belenos en Provence occidentale et en Gaule'', Ogam (vol 6), J. Gourcest, 1954</ref><ref>''Le cheval sacre dans la Gaule de l'Est'', Revue archeologique de l'Est et du Centre-Est (vol 2), E. Thevonot, 1951</ref><ref>''Temoignages du culte de l'Apollon gaulois dans l'Helvetie romaine'', Revue celtique (vol 51), 1934</ref> '''[[Apollo Cunomaglus]]''' ('hound lord'). A title given to Apollo at a shrine in [[Wiltshire]]. Apollo Cunomaglus may have been a god of healing. Cunomaglus himself may originally have been an independent healing god. <ref>The Excavation of the Shrine of Apollo at Nettleton, Whilshire 1956-1971, Society of Antiquaries of London</ref> '''[[Apollo Grannus]]'''. Grannus was a healing spring god, later equated with Apollo <ref>The Celtic Heritage in Hungary, M. Szabo, 1971, Budapest</ref><ref name=thevonat>Divinites et sanctuaires de la Gaule, E. Thevonat, 1968, Paris</ref><ref name=devries>La religion des Celtes, J. de Vries, 1963, Paris</ref> '''Apollo Maponus'''. A god known from inscriptions in Britain. This may a local fusion of Apollo and [[Maponus]]. '''[[Apollo Moritasgus]]''' ('masses of sea water'). An epithet for Apollo at Alesia, where he was worshipped as god of healing and, possibly, of physicians. <ref><Alesia, archeologie et histoire, J. Le Gall, 1963, Paris</ref> '''[[Apollo Vindonnus]]''' ('clear light'). Apollo Vindonnus had a temple at [[Essarois]], near [[Chatillon-sur-Seine]] in [[Burgundy]]. He was a god of healing, especially of the eyes. <ref name=thevonat/> '''[[Apollo Virotutis]]''' ('benefactor of mankind?'). Apollo Virotutis was worshipped, among other places, at Fins d'Annecy ([[Haute-Savoie]]) and at [[Jublains]] ([[Maine-et-Loire]]) <ref name=devries/><ref>Corpus Inscriptionum Latinarum XIII</ref> ==Reception== Apollo has often featured in postclassical art and literature. [[Percy Bysshe Shelley]] composed a "Hymn of Apollo" (1820), and the god's instruction of the Muses formed the subject of [[Igor Stravinsky]]'s ''[[Apollon musagète]]'' (1927&ndash;1928). Apollo also gave his name to [[NASA]]'s [[Apollo program|Apollo Lunar program]] in the 1960s. ==Media== *[[Media:Apollo and Hyacinth - wiki.ogg|1. ''Apollo and Hyacinthus,'' read by Timothy Carter]] ==Notes== {{reflist|2}} == References == * {{1911 |article=Apollo |author=John Henry Freese |url=http://en.wikisource.org/w/index.php?title=User:Tim_Starling/ScanSet_TIFF_demo&vol=02&page=EB2A196}} == Further reading == ===Primary sources=== *[[Homer]], ''Iliad'' ii.595–600 (c. 700 BCE) *[[Sophocles]], ''Oedipus Rex'' *[[Palaephatus]], ''On Unbelievable Tales'' 46. Hyacinthus (330 BCE) *[[Apollodorus]], ''Library'' 1.3.3 (140 BCE) *[[Ovid]], ''Metamorphoses'' 10. 162–219 (1–8 CE) *[[Pausanias (geographer)|Pausanias]], ''Description of Greece'' 3.1.3, 3.19.4 (160–176 CE) *[[Philostratus the Elder]], ''Images'' i.24 Hyacinthus (170–245 CE) *[[Philostratus the Younger]], ''Images'' 14. Hyacinthus (170–245 CE) *[[Lucian]], ''Dialogues of the Gods'' 14 (170 CE) *[[First Vatican Mythographer]], 197. Thamyris et Musae ===Secondary sources=== * M. Bieber, 1964. ''Alexander the Great in Greek and Roman Art'' (Chicago) *[[Walter Burkert]], 1985. ''Greek Religion'' (Harvard University Press) III.2.5 ''passim'' *[[Robert Graves]], 1960. ''The Greek Myths'', revised edition (Penguin) *Miranda J. Green, ''Dictionary of Celtic Myth and Legend'', Thames and Hudson Ltd, 1997 *[[Karl Kerenyi]], ''Apollon: Studien über Antiken Religion und Humanität'' rev. ed. 1953. *Karl Kerenyi , 1951 ''The Gods of the Greeks'' * [[Pauly-Wissowa]], ''Realencyclopädie der klassischen Altertumswissenschaft'': II, "Apollon". The best repertory of cult sites (Burkert). *Pfeiff, K.A., 1943. ''Apollon: Wandlung seines Bildes in der griechischen Kunst''. Traces the changing iconography of Apollo. * [[William Smith (lexicographer)]], ''[[Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography and Mythology]]'', 1870, article on Apollo,<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.ancientlibrary.com/smith-bio/0239.html |title=http://www.ancientlibrary.com/smith-bio/0239.html |accessdate= |format= |work= }}</ref> * N. Yalouris, 1980. 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