Apophony 2412698 224069907 2008-07-07T04:32:43Z Doric Loon 185258 /* Ablaut vs. umlaut */ remove circular link {{Otheruses4| Apophony as a general linguistic term|Ablaut in a specifically Indo-European context|Indo-European ablaut}} In [[linguistics]], '''apophony''' (also '''ablaut''', '''gradation''', '''alternation''', '''internal modification''', '''stem modification''', '''stem alternation''', '''replacive morphology''', '''stem mutation''', '''internal inflection''') is the alternation of sounds within a word that indicates [[grammar|grammatical information]] (often [[inflectional]]). ==Description== Apophony is exemplified in [[English language|English]] as the ''internal'' vowel alternations that produce such related words as * s<u>'''i'''</u>ng, s<u>'''a'''</u>ng, s<u>'''u'''</u>ng, s<u>'''o'''</u>ng * r<u>'''i'''</u>se, r<u>'''ai'''</u>se * b<u>'''i'''</u>nd, b<u>'''a'''</u>nd * g<u>'''oo'''</u>se, g<u>'''ee'''</u>se The difference in these vowels marks variously a difference in [[Grammatical tense|tense]] or [[Grammatical aspect|aspect]] (e.g. ''sing/sang/sung''), [[Transitive verb|transitivity]] (''rise/raise''), [[part of speech]] (''sing/song'', ''bind/band''), or [[grammatical number]] (''goose/geese''). Similarly, there are consonant alternations which are also used grammatically: * belie<u>'''f'''</u>, belie</u>'''v'''</u>e * hou<u>'''s'''</u>e (noun), hou<u>'''s'''</u>e (verb) &nbsp; (phonetically: {{IPA|[haʊs]}} (noun), {{IPA|[haʊz]}} (verb)) That these sound alternations function grammatically can be seen as they are often equivalent to grammatical [[Affix|suffixes]] (an ''external modification''). Compare the following: :{| border="1" cellpadding="5" style="border-collapse: collapse; background: #f9f9f9; margin: 1em 1em 1em 0; vertical-align: top; border: 1px solid #ccc; line-height: 1.3em;" |- style="background: #efefef;" ! Present Tense ! Past Tense |- | jump | jump<u>'''ed'''</u> |- | s<u>'''i'''</u>ng | s<u>'''a'''</u>ng |- style="background: #efefef;" ! Singular ! Plural |- | book | book<u>'''s'''</u> |- | g<u>'''oo'''</u>se | g<u>'''ee'''</u>se |} The vowel alternation between ''i'' and ''a'' indicates a difference between present and past tense in the pair ''sing/sang''. Here the past tense is indicated by the vowel ''a'' just as the past tense is indicated on the verb ''jump'' with the past tense suffix ''-ed''. Likewise, the plural suffix ''-s'' on the word ''books'' has the same grammatical function as the presence of the vowel ''ee'' in the word ''geese'' (where ''ee'' alternates with ''oo'' in the pair ''goose/geese''). Most instances of apophony develop historically from changes due to [[phonological]] [[assimilation (linguistics)|assimilation]] that are later [[grammaticalized]] (or morphologized) when the environment causing the assimilation is lost. Such is the case with English ''goose/geese'' and ''belief/believe''. ==In word formation== Ablaut reduplication or ablaut-motivated compounding is a type of [[word formation]] of "expressives" in English (such as [[onomatopoeia]]). Examples of these include: * t'''i'''ck-t'''o'''ck * cr'''i'''ss-cr'''o'''ss * cl'''i'''ng-cl'''a'''ng * sn'''i'''p-sn'''a'''p Here the words are formed by a [[reduplication]] of a base and an alternation of the internal vowel. (See [[Reduplication#English reduplication|English reduplication]]). Some examples in Japanese: * k'''a'''s'''a'''-k'''o'''s'''o''' (rustle) * g'''a'''t'''a'''-g'''o'''t'''o''' (rattle) ==In Indo-European linguistics== ===Indo-European ablaut=== {{main|Indo-European ablaut}} In [[Indo-European studies|Indo-European]] linguistics, '''ablaut''' is the vowel alternation that produces such related words as s'''i'''ng, s'''a'''ng, s'''u'''ng, and s'''o'''ng. The difference in the vowels results from the alternation (in the [[Proto-Indo-European language]]) of the vowel ''e'' with the vowel ''o'' or with no vowel. For a more detailed explanation see [[Indo-European ablaut]]. To cite a few other examples of Indo-European ablaut, [[English language|English]] has a certain class of [[English verbs|verbs]] (i.e. [[Germanic verb#strong verb|strong verbs]]) in which the [[vowel]] changes to indicate a different grammatical [[Grammatical tense|tense]]-[[Grammatical aspect|aspect]]. :{| border="1" cellpadding="4" style="border-collapse: collapse; background: #f9f9f9; margin: 1em 1em 1em 0; vertical-align: top; border: 1px solid #ccc; line-height: 1.2em; text-align: center;" |- style="background: #f2f2f2;" ! Infinitive ! Preterite ! Past<br>Participle ! vowel alternation |- | sw<u>'''i'''</u>m | sw<u>'''a'''</u>m | sw<u>'''u'''</u>m | (i-a-u)<br>phonetically: {{IPA|[ɪ-æ-ʌ]}} |- | f<u>'''a'''</u>ll | f<u>'''e'''</u>ll | f<u>'''a'''</u>llen | (a-e-a)<br>phonetically: {{IPA|[ɔ-ɛ-ɔ]}} |- | dr<u>'''i'''</u>ve | dr<u>'''o'''</u>ve | dr<u>'''i'''</u>ven | (i-o-i)<br>phonetically: {{IPA|[aɪ-o-ɪ]}} |} As the examples above show, a change in the vowel of the verb stem creates a different verb form. (Note that some of the verbs also have a [[Affix|suffix]] in the [[Participle#Participles in Modern English|past participle]] form.) (See also [[English grammar#Irregular verbs|English grammar: Irregular verbs]].) For a more detailed explanation of how strong verbs are formed in English and related languages, see [[Germanic strong verb]]. ===Ablaut vs. umlaut=== {{main|I-mutation|Germanic umlaut}} In Indo-European linguistics, '''umlaut''' is the vowel alternation that produces such related words as f'''oo'''t and f'''ee'''t or t'''e'''ll and t'''o'''ld. The difference in the vowels results from the influence (in [[Proto-Germanic]] or a later Germanic language) of an ''i'' or ''y'' (which has since been lost) on the vowel which (in these examples) becomes ''e''. To cite another example of umlaut, some English [[Germanic weak verb|weak verbs]] show umlaut in the present tense. :{| border="1" cellpadding="4" style="border-collapse: collapse; background: #f9f9f9; margin: 1em 1em 1em 0; vertical-align: top; border: 1px solid #ccc; line-height: 1.2em; text-align: center;" |- style="background: #f2f2f2;" ! Infinitive ! Preterite<br>Past Participle ! vowel alternation |- | br<u>'''i'''</u>ng | br<u>'''ou'''</u>ght | (i-ou)<br>phonetically: {{IPA|[ɪ-ɔ]}} |} [[A-mutation]] and [[A-mutation|U-mutation]] are processes analogous to umlaut but involving the influence of an ''a'' (or other non-high vowel) or ''u'' respectively instead of an ''i''. Note that in Indo-European historical linguistics the terms ''ablaut'' and ''umlaut'' refer to different phenomena. They are not interchangeable. The Germanic scholars who coined the terms ''ablaut'' and ''[[Germanic umlaut|umlaut]]'' in the 19th century used them to distinguish two types of vowel alternation patterns with differing origins and differing reflexes in the modern languages. In this usage, ''umlaut'' is a specific case of vowel alternation that has developed from a historical instance of regressive [[vowel harmony]]. Indo-European ''ablaut'' is a different vowel alternation of uncertain origin. In purely [[descriptive linguistics|descriptive (synchronic)]] terms, Germanic umlaut is a regular system that always involves vowel fronting, whereas in the modern languages ''ablaut'' appears to have no regularity. This traditional distinction is retained by [[historical linguistics|historical (diachronic) linguists]], and is particularly important in the context of Indo-European evolution. It is rather less important for descriptive studies, where for most purposes the vowel alternation in ''foot/feet'' is analogous to that in ''sing/sang/sung''. However, the regularity of Germanic ''umlaut'' means that this distinction remains standard in textbooks for learners of German, Dutch and Scandinavian languages. (As an illustration, the preceding examples translate as follows into German: ''Fuß/Füße'' [Umlaut], ''singen/sang/gesungen'' [Ablaut].) Later linguists have broadened the meaning of ''ablaut'' to refer to vowel alternation generally, and of ''umlaut'' to refer also to other types and instances of regressive vowel harmony. When the terminology is used in this more inclusive way, ''umlaut'' is considered a sub-set of ablaut. Ambiguity can of course be avoided by using alternative terms (''apophony'', ''gradation'', ''alternation'', ''internal modification'') for the broader sense of the word. ==Types of apophony== Apophony may involve various types of alternations, including [[vowel]]s, [[consonant]]s, [[prosodic]] elements (such as [[Tone (linguistics)|tone]], [[syllable length]]), and even smaller features, such as [[nasality]] (on vowels). The sound alternations may be used [[inflection]]ally or [[derivation (linguistics)|derivationally]]. The particular function of a given alternation will depend on the language. ===Vowel apophony (ablaut)=== Apophony often involves vowels. [[Indo-European ablaut]] (also called Indo-European ''vowel gradation'') is a well attested example. The English example cited above demonstrates vowel ablaut. Another example is from [[Dinka language|Dinka]]: :{| border="1" cellpadding="4" style="border-collapse: collapse; background: #f9f9f9; margin: 1em 1em 1em 0; vertical-align: top; border: 1px solid #ccc; line-height: 1.2em; text-align: center;" |- style="background: #f2f2f2;" ! Singular ! Plural ! gloss ! vowel alternation |- | {{IPA|dom}} | {{IPA|dum}} | 'field/fields' | ({{IPA|o-u}}) |- | {{IPA|kat}} | {{IPA|kɛt}} | 'frame/frames' | ({{IPA|a-ɛ}}) |} : <cite>(Bauer 2003:35)</cite> The vowel alternation may involve more than just a change in vowel quality. In [[Athabascan]] languages, such as [[Navajo language|Navajo]], verbs have series of stems where the vowel alternates (sometimes with an added [[Affix|suffix]]) indicating a different tense-aspect. Navajo vowel ablaut, depending on the verb, may be a change in vowel, [[vowel length]], [[nasality]], and/or [[Tone (linguistics)|tone]]. For example, the verb stem ''-kaah/-ką́'' "to handle an open container" has a total of 16 combinations of the 5 modes and 4 aspects, resulting in 7 different verb stem forms (i.e. ''-kaah'', ''-kááh'', ''-kaał'', ''-kááł'', ''-ka’'', ''-ká'', ''-ką́''). {| border="1" cellpadding="4" style="border-collapse: collapse; background: #f9f9f9; margin: 1em 1em 1em 0; vertical-align: top; border: 1px solid #ccc; line-height: 1.2em; text-align: center;" | ! Imperfective ! Perfective ! Progressive-<br>Future ! Usitative-<br>Iterative ! Optative |- ! Momentaneous | kaah | ką́ | kááł | kááh | kááł |- ! Continuative | ká | ką́ | kaał | kaah | kaał |- ! Distributive | ka’ | ką́ | kaał | kaah | ka’ |- ! Conative | kááh | - | - | - | - |} Another verb stem ''-géésh/-gizh'' "to cut" has a different set of alternations and mode-aspect combinations, resulting in 3 different forms (i.e. ''-géésh'', ''-gizh'', ''-gish''): {| border="1" cellpadding="4" style="border-collapse: collapse; background: #f9f9f9; margin: 1em 1em 1em 0; vertical-align: top; border: 1px solid #ccc; line-height: 1.2em; text-align: center;" | ! Imperfective ! Perfective ! Progressive-<br>Future ! Usitative-<br>Iterative ! Optative |- ! Momentaneous | géésh | gizh | gish | gish | géésh |- ! Continuative | gizh | gizh | gish | gish | gizh |- ! Semelfactive | gish | gish | gish | gish | gish/géésh |} ===Prosodic apophony=== Various prosodic elements, such as tone, syllable length, and [[stress (linguistics)|stress]], may be found in alternations. For example, [[Vietnamese language|Vietnamese]] has the following tone alternations which are used derivationally: :{| border="1" cellpadding="4" style="border-collapse: collapse; background: #f9f9f9; margin: 1em 1em 1em 0; vertical-align: top; border: 1px solid #ccc; line-height: 1.2em;" |- style="background: #f2f2f2;" ! colspan="2" | &nbsp; ! tone alternation |- | ''đây'' "here" | ''đấy'' "there" | (ngang tone-sắc tone) |- | ''bây giờ'' "now" | ''bấy giờ'' "then" | (ngang tone-sắc tone) |- | ''kia'' "there" | ''kìa'' "yonder" | (ngang tone-huyền tone) |- | ''cứng'' "hard" | ''cửng'' "(to) have an erection" | (sắc tone-hỏi tone) |} :<cite>(Nguyễn 1997:42-44)</cite> [[Albanian language|Albanian]] uses different vowel lengths to indicate number and [[grammatical gender]] on nouns: :{| border="1" cellpadding="4" style="border-collapse: collapse; background: #f9f9f9; margin: 1em 1em 1em 0; vertical-align: top; border: 1px solid #ccc; line-height: 1.2em;" |- | {{IPA|[ɡuːr]}} "stone" | {{IPA|[ɡur]}} "stones" |- | {{IPA|[dy]}} "two (masculine)" | {{IPA|[dyː]}} "two (feminine)" |} :<cite>(Asher 1994:1719)</cite> English has [[Initial-stress-derived noun|alternating stress patterns]] that indicate whether related words are nouns (first syllable stressed) or verbs (second syllable stressed): :{| border="1" cellpadding="4" style="border-collapse: collapse; background: #f9f9f9; margin: 1em 1em 1em 0; vertical-align: top; border: 1px solid #ccc; line-height: 1.2em;" |- style="background: #f2f2f2;" ! noun ! verb |- | pérvert | pervért |- | ínsult | insúlt |- | pérmit | permít |- | cónvict | convíct |} Prosodic alternations are sometimes analyzed as not as a type of apophony but rather as prosodic [[affix]]es, which are known, variously, as ''suprafixes'', ''superfixes'', or ''simulfixes''. ===Consonant apophony (mutation)=== {{main|Consonant mutation}} Consonant alternation is commonly known as [[consonant mutation]] or [[consonant gradation]]. [[Bemba]] indicates [[causative]] verbs through alternation of the stem-final consonant. Here the alternation involves [[spirantization]] and [[palatalization]]: :{| border="1" cellpadding="5" style="border-collapse: collapse; background: #f9f9f9; margin: 1em 1em 1em 0; vertical-align: top; border: 1px solid #ccc; line-height: 1.3em;" |- style="background: #efefef;" ! Intransitive Verb ! Causative Verb |- | lu'''b'''a "to be lost" | lu'''fy'''a "to cause to be lost" |- | ko'''m'''a "to be deaf" | ko'''my'''a "to cause to be deaf" |- | po'''n'''a "to fall" | po'''ny'''a "to cause to fall" |- | en'''d'''a "to walk" | en'''sh'''a "to cause to walk" |- | lun'''g'''a "to hunt" | lun'''sh'''a "to cause to hunt" |- | ku'''l'''a "to grow" | ku'''sh'''a "to cause to grow" |} : <cite>(Kula 2000:174)</cite> [[Celtic languages]] are well-known for their initial consonant mutations. ===Stem alternations and other morphological processes=== Stem modifications (i.e. apophony) may co-occur with other morphological processes, such as [[affixation]]. An example of this is in the formation of plural nouns in [[German language|German]]: :{| border="1" cellpadding="5" style="border-collapse: collapse; background: #f9f9f9; margin: 1em 1em 1em 0; vertical-align: top; border: 1px solid #ccc; line-height: 1.3em;" |- style="background: #efefef;" ! Singular ! Plural |- | B'''u'''ch "book" | B'''ü'''ch'''er''' "books" |- | H'''au'''s "house" | H'''äu'''s'''er''' "houses" |} Here the singular/plural distinction is indicated through ablaut and additionally by a suffix ''-er'' in the plural form. English also displays similar forms with a ''-ren'' suffix in the plural and a ''-en'' suffix in the past participle forms along with the internal vowel alternation: :{| border="1" cellpadding="5" style="border-collapse: collapse; background: #f9f9f9; margin: 1em 1em 1em 0; vertical-align: top; border: 1px solid #ccc; line-height: 1.3em;" | ch'''i'''ld (singular) [ʧaɪld] | ch'''i'''ld'''ren''' (plural) [ʧɪldrən] |- | dr'''i'''ve (infinitive) [draɪv] | dr'''i'''v'''en''' (past participle) [drɪvən] |} A more complicated example comes from [[Chickasaw language|Chickasaw]] where the positive/negative distinction in verbs displays vowel ablaut along with [[Prefix (linguistics)|prefixation]] (''ak-'') and [[infixation]] (''-'-''): :{| border="1" cellpadding="5" style="border-collapse: collapse; background: #f9f9f9; margin: 1em 1em 1em 0; vertical-align: top; border: 1px solid #ccc; line-height: 1.3em;" |- style="background: #efefef;" ! Positive ! Negative |- | hilhali "I'm dancing" | akhi'lho "I'm not dancing" |} ===Apophony vs. transfixation (root-and-pattern)=== The [[Nonconcatenative morphology|nonconcatenative]] [[root-and-pattern morphology]] of the [[Afro-Asiatic languages]] is sometimes described in terms of apophony. The alternation patterns in many of these languages is quite extensive involving vowels and consonant [[gemination]] (i.e. doubled consonants). The alternations below are of [[Modern Standard Arabic]] (the symbol {{IPA|< ː >}} indicates gemination on the preceding consonant): :{| border="1" cellpadding="4" style="border-collapse: collapse; background: #f9f9f9; margin: 1em 1em 1em 0; vertical-align: top; border: 1px solid #ccc; line-height: 1.2em;" |- style="background: #f2f2f2;" ! word ! gloss ! alternation pattern |- | k'''a'''t'''a'''b | "to write" | (a - a) |- | k'''a'''t'''a'''b'''a''' | "he wrote" | (a - a - a) |- | k'''aa'''t'''a'''b | "to correspond with" | (aa - a) |- | k'''a'''t'''ta'''b | "to cause to write" | (a - {{IPA|ː}}a) |- | k'''u'''t'''ti'''b | "to be caused to write" | (u - {{IPA|ː}}i) |- | k'''i'''t'''aa'''b | "book" | (i - aa) |- | k'''u'''t'''u'''b | "books" | (u - u) |- | k'''aa'''t'''i'''b | "writer" | (aa - i) |- | k'''u'''t'''taa'''b | "writers" | (u - {{IPA|ː}}aa) |} For other examples, see [[Amharic language#Archaic plural forms|archaic plurals in Amharic]], [[Broken plural]], [[Triconsonantal root]]. [[Image:Nonconcatenative-muslim-derivation.png|right|thumb|A diagram of an autosegmental representation of the Arabic word ''muslim'' within linguistic theory. This differs from an analysis based on apophony.]] Other analyses of these languages consider the patterns not to be sound alternations, but rather discontinuous roots with discontinuous affixes, known as ''[[transfix]]es'' (sometimes considered ''[[simulfix]]es'' or ''[[suprafix]]es''). Some theoretical perspectives call up the notion of [[Morphology (linguistics)|morphological]] templates or [[morpheme]] "skeletons". Note that it would also be possible to analyze English in this way as well, where the alternation of ''goose/geese'' could be explained as a basic discontinuous root ''g-se'' that is filled out with an [[infix]] ''-oo-'' "(singular)" or ''-ee-'' "(plural)". Many would consider this type of analysis for English to be less desirable as this type of infixal morphology is not very prevalent throughout English and the morphemes ''-oo-'' and ''-ee-'' would be exceedingly rare. ===Replacive morphemes and apophony=== Another analytical perspective on sound alternations treats the phenomena not as merely alternation but rather a "replacive" morpheme that replaces part of a word. In this analysis, the alternation between ''goose/geese'' may be thought of as ''goose'' being the basic form where ''-ee-'' is a replacive morpheme that is substituted for ''oo''. : ''goose'' → ''g-ee-se'' This usage of the term ''[[morpheme]]'' (which is actually describing a replacement process, and not a true morpheme), however, is more in keeping with Item-and-Process models of morphology instead of Item-and-Arrangement models. (See [[Morphology (linguistics)]] for further discussion of morphological models.) ==See also== * [[Alternation (linguistics)]] * [[Consonant mutation]] * [[Metaphony]] * [[Morphology (linguistics)]] * [[Nonconcatenative morphology]] * [[Talk:Ablaut/references|References for ''ablaut'']] ==Bibliography== * Anderson, Stephen R. (1985). Inflectional morphology. In T. Shopen (Ed.), ''Language typology and syntactic description: Grammatical categories and the lexicon'' (Vol. 3, pp. 150-201). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. (Especially section 1.3 "Stem modifications"). * Asher, R. E. (Ed.). (1994). ''The Encyclopedia of language and linguistics''. Oxford: Pergamon Press. ISBN 0-08-035943-4. * Bauer, Laurie. (2003). ''Introducing linguistic morphology'' (2nd ed.). Washington, D.C.: Georgetown University Press. * Bauer, Laurie. (2004). ''A glossary of morphology''. Washington, D.C.: Georgetown University Press. *Hamano, Shoko. (1998). ''The Sound-Symbolic System of Japanese''. CSLI Publications,Stanford. * Haspelmath, Martin. (2002). ''Understanding morphology''. London: Arnold. * Kula, Nancy C. (2000). The phonology/morphology interface: Consonant mutations in Bemba. In H. de Hoop & T. van der Wouden (Eds.), ''Linguistics in the Netherlands 2000'' (pp. 171-183). Amsterdam: John Benjamins. * Nguyễn, Đình-Hoà. (1997). ''Vietnamese: Tiếng Việt không son phấn''. Amsterdam: John Benjamins Publishing Company. ISBN 1-55619-733-0. * Sapir, Edward. (1921). ''Language: An introduction to the study of speech''. New York: Harcourt, Brace & Co. * Spencer, Andrew; & Zwicky, Arnold M. (Eds.). (1998). ''The handbook of morphology''. Oxford: Blackwell. * Young, Robert W., & Morgan, William, Sr. (1987). ''The Navajo language: A grammar and colloquial dictionary'' (rev. ed.). Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press. ISBN 0-8263-1014-1. [[Category:Linguistic morphology]] [[br:Apofoniezh]] [[da:Aflyd]] [[de:Ablaut]] [[es:Apofonía]] [[fr:Ablaut]] [[hsb:Ablawt]] [[id:Ablaut]] [[is:Hljóðskipti]] [[it:Apofonia]] [[nl:Ablaut]] [[ja:母音交替]] [[pt:apofonia]] [[sk:Ablaut]]