Arauco War 2800682 225977910 2008-07-16T08:30:32Z Asiaticus 1343307 /* Campaigns between 1568 and 1598 */ {{Refimprove|date=April 2008}} {{Infobox Military Conflict |conflict=Arauco War |date=[[1536]] – [[Chilean War of Independence]] |place=[[Chile]] |image=[[image:Espanoles_guerreando_en_chile_ovalle.jpg|270px]] |caption=Picture from [[Alonso de Ovalle]]'s ''Historia de Chile'' |result=Establishment of the [[Bío-Bío River]] as frontier, Mapuches are independent until the [[occupation of the Araucania]] in 1883. |combatant1=[[Image:Flag of New Spain.svg|20px]] [[Spanish Empire]] |combatant2=[[Mapuche]], [[Huilliche]] and [[Picunche]] warriors |commander1=[[Pedro de Valdivia]] †<br>[[Francisco de Villagra]] <br>[[García Hurtado de Mendoza]]<br>[[Martín García Óñez de Loyola|García Óñez de Loyola]] †<br>[[Alonso de Ribera]] |commander2=[[Lautaro (toqui)|Lautaro]] †<br>[[Caupolican]] †<br>[[Colocolo (tribal chief)|Colo-Colo]] <br>[[Pelantaru]] <br>[[Mestizo Alejo]] |strength1= |strength2= |casualties1= 30,000-42,000 Spanish<sup>1</sup><br>60,000 [[Indian auxiliaries]] |casualties2=90,000-100,000<sup>1</sup> |casualties3= |notes=<sup>1</sup> About half of the Spanish died by direct concequences of the war. Casualities as estimated in 1664 by Spanish }} {{Campaignbox Arauco War}} The '''Arauco War''' was a long conflict between colonial Spaniards and the [[Mapuche]] people of the region of [[Araucanía]], of modern [[Chile]]. The beginning of the conflict is usually placed at the [[Battle of Reynogüelén]], which occurred in [[1536]] between an expedition of [[Diego de Almagro]] and a well organized and numerous group of Mapuche soldiers, near the confluence of the [[Ñuble River|Ñuble]] and [[Itata River|Itata]] rivers. Its end however, is more difficult to pin down. After [[1609]], each governor of Chile held "Parlamentos" with the Mapuche chiefs, in which they discussed the maintenance of a treaty between both parties, violations of which were quite frequent. ==Campaigns of Pedro de Valdivia (1546–1553)== [[Image:Pedro de Valdivia.jpg|thumb|left|217px|[[Pedro de Valdivia]]]] During the early phase of the [[Conquest of Chile]], the Spanish [[conquistador]], [[Pedro de Valdivia]] conducted a nine year campaign to secure the city of [[Santiago, Chile|Santiago]], which had been destroyed on [[September 11]], [[1541]] by the [[Mapochoes]] under the direction of their chief, [[Michimalonco]]. Valdivia hoped to enlarge the territory under his jurisdiction and, despite injuries from a fall from his horse, resolved to take personal command of a land expedition into [[Araucanía]]. In [[1544]], he had sent a naval expedition comprised of the barks, ''San Pedro'' and ''Santiaguillo'', under the command of [[Juan Bautista Pastene]], to reconnoiter the southwestern coast of South America to the [[Strait of Magellan]]. The expedition set sail from [[Valparaíso]], entered the [[Bay of Concepción|bay of San Pedro]], and made landings at what is now known as [[Concepción, Chile|Concepción]] and at [[Valdivia, Chile|Valdivia]], which was later named in honor of the commander. Encountering severe storms further south, he then returned to Valparaiso. Valdivia himself set out in [[1546]], with sixty horsemen plus native guides and porters, and crossed the [[Itata River]] and were attacked by [[Mapuche]] warriors in the [[Battle of Quilacura]] near the [[Bío-Bío River]]. Realizing that it would be impossible to proceed in such hostile territory with so limited a force, Valdivia wisely elected to return to Santiago after finding a site for new city at what is now [[Penco]] and was the first site of [[Concepción, Chile|Concepción]]. ===Founding of Concepción, Imperial, and Valdivia=== In [[1550]], a new expedition was launched, consisting of a naval force under Pastene, and a land force of two hundred Spaniards mounted and foot and a number of [[Mapochoes|Mapocho]] auxilleries under Valdivia. They planned to reunite on the shores of the Bay of Concepción. The expedition advanced beyond the [[Itata River]] and [[Laja River (Chile)|Laja River]], to the shores of the [[Bio-Bio River]]. Along the way they had several battles with groups of [[Mapuche]]s as they explored the region killing many with little loss to themselves. After spending over a week in the area and encountering increasing opposition, the Spanish marched toward the Sea through the valleys of the Laja and Bío-Bío rivers, towards the coast at Penco. On the banks of the [[Andalién River]], they camped for two days between the river and a lake, where they were attacked on the second night by a large force of [[Mapuche|Araucanians]] under their [[toqui]] [[Ainavillo]] in the [[Battle of Andalien]]. The night attack was defeated, the Spaniards suffering one killed and many wounds to men and especially their mounts. After a day treating their wounds they continued onward towards their rendezvous at the Bay of Concepción.<ref name=Valdivia>Valdivia, '''Carta 15 de octubre de 1550'''</ref><ref>Jerónimo de Vivar, '''Crónica y relación copiosa y verdadera de los reinos de Chile''', Capítulo XCIV and XCV ; Marmolejo, '''Historia''' Capítulo X ; Lobera , '''Crónica''' Capítulo XXXI </ref> There Valdivia began building fort at what is now Penco. On [[February 23]]rd, the naval force under Pastene anchored in the bay, and provided materials to finish the fort, brought supplies and reinforcements.<ref name=Valdivia/> On [[March 1]] Valdivia founded here the city of [[Penco|Concepción del Nuevo Extremo]]. On [[March 3]]rd of that year, the fort was completed and was attacked nine days later by the largest force of Mapuches yet seen in the [[Battle of Penco]]. This force was broken and routed despite the small size of the Spanish forces.<ref name=Valdivia/><ref>Vivar, '''Crónica''' Capítulo XCVII ; Marmolejo, '''Historia''' Capítulo XI ; Lobera , '''Crónica''' Capítulo XXXIII </ref> Despite the resulting submission of the local tribes, Valdivia sent an emissary to the [[Viceroy of Peru]], asking for additional forces; he knew that it would not be possible to complete the conquest of Arauco with only the forces at his disposal. After reinforcement at Concepción in [[1551]], he organized another expedition to establish the fort [[Carahue|La Imperial]] on the banks of the [[Imperial River (Chile)|Imperial River]]. He then returned to Concepción to prepare another expedition and await the reinforcements the Viceroy had promised to send by sea. Leaving orders that the new troops should disembark on the ''Tierras de Valdivia'' that Pastene had discovered earlier, Valdivia left with two hundred soldiers in the direction of Fort Imperial. Once he had passed it on his way south, he ordered [[Jerónimo de Alderete]] to drive inland and establish a fort, with the goal of securing his eastern flank. To this end, Alderente reached [[Lake Villarrica]] and established [[Villarrica, Chile|a fort]] there. Meanwhile, Valdivia's column advanced southwards and joined the reinforcements sent from [[Peru]], under the command of [[Francisco de Villagra]]. There, [[Valdivia, Chile|Fort Valdivia]] was established. After garrisoning the new forts, Valdivia returned to his base at Concepción in [[1552]]. === Lautaro and the Battle of Tucapel === With the goal of securing the lines of communication with the southern forts, Valdivia launched a third expedition which established forts at [[Tucapel]], [[Purén]], [[Angol|Confines]], [[Arauco, Chile|Arauco]], and [[Lebu, Chile|Lebu]]. The Araucanians didn't offer any resistance to the conquistadors in their fort-building. In [[1553]], the Mapuches held a council at which, because of the growth of Spanish forces in their territory, they resolved to make war. They chose as their [[Toqui|"toqui"]] (wartime chief) a man called [[Caupolicán]] and as his vice toqui [[Lautaro (toqui)|Lautaro]], because he had served as an auxiliary to the Spanish cavalry, his experiences with the Spanish gave him insight into the best methods for fighting the conquistadors. With six thousand warriors under his command, Lautaro attacked the fort at [[Tucapel]]. The Spanish garrison was unable to withstand the assault and retreated to [[Purén]]. Certain that the Spaniards would attempt to retake it, Lautaro seized Tucapel. Valdivia, with a reduced force, mounted a counter-attack, but he was quickly surrounded and his army was massacred by the Mapuches in the [[Battle of Tucapel]]. This was Pedro de Valdivia's last battle; he was captured and later killed in captivity <ref>Valdivia was executed shortly after being made captive with a lance by order of Caupolicán and his head was put on display with the heads of two other brave Spaniards, according to Indians who had been at the battle and interveiwed by the author, Vivar, Cap. CXV. </ref>. ==Campaigns of Caupolicán and Lautaro (1554–1557)== After the defeat at Tucapel, the [[Spain|Spanish]] hurriedly reorganized their forces, reinforcing fort Imperial for its defence and abandoning Confines and Arauco in order to strengthen Concepción. However, Araucanian tradition dictated a lengthy victory celebration, which kept Lautaro from exploiting the weakness of the Spanish position as he desired. It was only in February of [[1554]] that he succeeded in putting together an army of 8,000 men, just in time to confront a punitive expedition under the command of [[Francisco de Villagra]] at the [[Battle of Marihueñu]]. Despite this new victory, Lautaro was again unable to pursue the opportunity due to the celebrations and beliefs of his people. By the time he arrived at Concepción, it was already abandoned. After burning it, he could not continue the offensive with his remaining forces, and the campaign came to an end as the warriors demobilized. In [[Santiago, Chile|Santiago]], Villagra reorganized his forces, and that same year of [[1554]], he departed again for Arauco and reinforced the strongholds of Imperial and Valdivia, without any interference from the Mapuches, who were dealing with their first epidemic of [[smallpox]], which was brought by the Spanish. In [[1555]], the [[Real Audiencia]] in [[Lima]], ordered him to reconstruct Concepción, which was done under the command of Capitan Alvarado. Lautaro attacked Concepción when he learned that it was being rebuilt, with 4,000 warriors. He put the town under siege, which Alvarado attempted to break unsuccessfully. Only 38 Spaniards managed to escape by sea from this second destruction of the city. Meanwhile in the north the victories of Lautauro lead to uprisings by the previously subdued [[Promaucaes]] in the valley of the Mataquito River and the [[Picunche]] in the valley of the [[Aconcagua River]] but these were put down <ref>Vivar, '''Crónica''' , Capítulo CXXVII. </ref>. In 1556, the Promauces sent a message to the Mapuche of Arauco promising food to support their army and warriors to join it in a war against the Spanish in Santiago <ref>Vivar, '''Crónica''', Capítulo CXXVIII</ref>. ===Lautaro's campaign against Santiago=== After his victories in the south and the messages promising support from the north, Lautaro planned an assault on [[Santiago, Chile|Santiago]]. With the ravages of the recent epidemic and the needs of the campaign against the Spanish still occupying cities within Mapuche territory still going on, he was not able to draw many troops from the main Mapuche army for his campaign to the north <ref> Contempory sources have various numbers in his army: 3,000 men, Vivar, Cap. CXXVIII; 300 men, Marmolejo, Cap. XXII; 8,000 men, Lobera, Cap. LIV. </ref>. He had to rely on recruiting warriors among the people north of the [[Bio Bio River]] among subjugated Mapuche and the Promaucaes north of the [[Itata River]], who were now inspired by the previous successes of Lautaro to revolt again. But when he entered the places subject to Santiago, he began taking reprisals against the Promaucaes who refused to join him, doing great damage and depopulating the land. The refugees fled to the city for aid and protection <ref> Lobera, Chapter LIV</ref>. In October of [[1556]] he reached the [[Mataquito River]] in his northward march. There he built a fortified camp near [[Teno]] in a place called [[Peteroa]] as a base of operations against Santiago. Lautaro ambushed a first probe by a small Spanish force from Santiago. A larger force under [[Pedro de Villagra]] later [[Battle of Peteroa|attacked the fortress at Peteroa]] over several days but were not able to take it and were forced away by flooding. However with unfavorable losses and more Spaniards coming to Villagra's support, Lautaro retreated towards the [[Maule River]] hoping to establish himself there. However the Spanish cavalry of [[Juan Godíñez]] pursued to the Maule River cutting down stragglers and one of Lautaro's detachments was cut to pieces. Lautaro's army gave them the slip, but was forced to fall back beyond the [[Itata River]]. Captain Gudiñez returned victorious from this pursuit and put great fear into the Promaucaes by punishing them with distruction of their herds, fields and houses and by cutting off some heads, as a lesson not to call upon the Mapuche army or give aid to them <ref> [[Diego de Rosales]], '''Historia general de el Reyno de Chile, Flandes Indiano''', Tomo II, Cap. VIII. </ref>. In January 1557, [[Francisco de Villagra]] marched south to aid the remaining cities against the Mapuche army led by Caupolicán. Informed by his allies the city of Santiago was now relatively unprotected, Lautaro evaded Villagra, letting him pass to the south while he marched again toward Santiago with a new army including allies under Panigualgo <ref> Said to be 10,000 men, Lobera, Cap. LV </ref>. However Lautaro's mistreatment of the intimidated local Indians to extract provisions had created dissention among his allies. His allies separated from him after the army reached the Mataquito River at [[Lora, Chile|Lora]], after a dispute over his actions with an allied leader named Chillan who accused Lautaro of acting like the Spaniards<ref> Diego de Rosales, '''Historia general''', Tomo II, Cap. X. It is not known if the leader called Chillan by Rosales was Lobera's Panigualgo.</ref>. He moved his remaining army over a league up river and again established a fortified camp on the Mataquito River amid a [[carrizal]] at the foot of a wooded hill. However its location was betrayed to Francisco de Villagra by local Indians previously abused by Lautaro. Villagra sent word to Juan Godíñez near Santiago to meet him as he hurried north. The Spanish forces met without Lautaro being alerted and made a surprise night march over the hills of Caune, to the hill overlooking the Lautaro's camp, on the shore of the Mataquito River. On [[April 29]]th, at dawn Villagra began the [[Battle of Mataquito]] with a surprise attack on the camp in which they killed Lautaro and obtained a decisive victory, destroying his army and dispersing his allies. ==Campaigns of Caupolicán and García Hurtado de Mendoza == [[Image:García Hurtado de Mendoza.JPG.jpg|thumb|right|200px|'''García Hurtado de Mendoza''']] After the death of Jerónimo de Alderete in [[Panama]] while returning to Chile, [[García Hurtado de Mendoza, Marquis of Cañete]] was designated the interim governor of Chile in [[1557]], and immediately sailed south from Peru, this time with a much stronger force than before: 600 soldiers, 6 pieces of artillery, and 1,000 horses. He landed in La Serena and had the rival contenders for the for the governorship, Francisco de Villagra and [[Francisco de Aguirre (conquistador)|Francisco de Aguirre]] arrested and sent to Peru and put his own men in control of the province. Sending his cavalry by land he sailed south in winter and landed in early June 1557 on the island of [[La Quiriquina]] at the mouth of the Bay of Concepción. He ordered a party to land at Penco and reconstruct the fort of Concepción. A Mapuche army attempted to storm the fort but were defeated by artillery and gunfire. After his cavalry and horses arrived overland from Santiago, Mendoza began his advance to the south of the Bio-Bio and another Mapuche army including [[Galvarino (Mapuche)|Galvarino]] attempted to stop them in the open field in the [[Battle of Lagunillas]] but again were defeated after hard fighting and as a result their fortress at [[Andalicán]] the gateway to [[Arauco Province|Arauco]] was left undefended and was captured soon after the battle. Caupolicán lead the Mapuche unsuccessfully resisting the advance of Mendoza by attacking him from ambush in the [[Battle of Millarapue]]. After further fighting near the site of the ruined fortress of Tucapel, Mendoza left the fort and city of [[Cañete, Chile|Cañete de la Frontera]] and continued to the south. There he established the city of [[Osorno]] and explored southward to the [[Gulf of Ancud]]. Attempting to throw off the Spanish occupation Caupolicán attacked the fort of Cañete expecting the gates to be opened by the treachery of a [[yanaconas|yanacona]] within but he was betrayed instead and was badly defeated. Although he was able to escape immediately after this last battle when Spanish cavalry did not arrive in time to pursue, he was eventually captured and sentenced to death by Captain [[Alonso de Reinoso]] and executed by [[impalement]]. After the death of Caupolicán, García Hurtado de Mendoza thought that finally they had subjugated the Mapuche. On the contrary, the manner of Caupolicán's death inspired the Mapuches to continue the struggle with a [[guerrilla war]] in which there was no day that some yanaconas or once in a while some [[encomendero]] did not die at hands of Mapuches. When the number of missing or dead reached 400 yanaconas and 10 Spaniards, the governor was convinced that he had been mistaken. In [[Quiapo (Arauco, Chile)|Quiapo]], the Mapuches under their new toqui [[Caupolicán the younger]] constructed a fort that was to stop the forces of Mendoza from marching into Arauco and rebuilding a fort there. Mendoza advanced from Cañete and crushed another Mapuche army at the [[Battle of Quiapo]]. After the battle, Hurtado de Mendoza had most of the captured Mapuche executed, but saved [[Peteguelén]], son of Cuyomanque an important cacique in the Arauco region. Through his help and that of the grateful father, he was able contact and to bring most of the leaders of Arauco and Tucapel to submit to Spanish rule following the reconstruction of the fort in Aruaco.<ref> Pedro Mariño de Lobera, Crónica del Reino de Chile, Parte tercera, Capítulo XI </ref> Mendoza also founded the city of [[Angol|San Andrés de Los Infantes]] not far from the old fort of Confines. In February [[1561]], [[Philip II of Spain|Phillip II]] relieved García Hurtado de Mendoza, replacing him as governor with the victor over Lautaro, Francisco de Villagra. Mendoza left Chile with the belief that he had overcome the Mapuche. He was one of the few governors who obtained a certain degree of success in the War. This success was due to the large numbers of experienced soldiers, equipment and arms that he brought which were not available to the previous conquerors and because the Mapuche did not have a strategist to equal Lautaro. The Mapuches pretended peace, but secretly contiued to prepare for a new revolt. Soon after the defeat at Quiapo the surviving leaders gathered and elected [[Illangulién]] as the new toqui. With most of the nations warriors dead or wounded and the population decimated by the effects of war, starvation and disease he decided to retreat into the marshes of Lumaco and there gather their strength and train a new generation of warriors for a future revolt. The Mapuche had learned to work iron, use Spanish weapons (including firearms and cannon), ride horses captured from their conquerors and learned better strategies and tactics. The defeats inflicted by Mendoza had made the Mapuche a united people and one committed to renewing the war against the Spanish to recover their freedom. == Second Great Rebellion of the Mapuche 1561== === Campaigns of Francisco de Villagra === Hostilities resumed with the arrival of Francisco de Villagra to replace Mendoza. It began with the murder of the hated encomendero Pedro de Avendaño and three other Spaniards in July 1561. The Mapuches spread the news and it initiated a new general rising greater than the previous ones. At the end of 1562, the Mapuches under a leader named Meuco, had fortified a pucará in the valley of Lincoya, in the province of Mareguano, three leagues from the city of Los Infantes <ref> Lobera, Capítulo XVII</ref>. Arias Pardo Maldonado destroyed the pucará but he did not gain a complete victory,since most of the Mapuches escaped. Elsewhere the corregidor of Cañete Juan Lazarte was killed at the gates Cañete trying to recapture mounts stolen by about thirty mapuches. The Mapuches reconstructed the pucará of Lincoya in January of 1563, but Pedro de Villagra was sent again to destroy it. Once again the Mapuche rebuilt it, but this time with sections readily accessible to the cavalry, dispite suspicions of veteran Spaniards they attacked the location, and many fell into well disguised pits. There the governors son, Pedro de Villagra "el Mozo" and forty two other Spaniards died. When Francisco de Villagra heard the news of his sons death he became ill and left for Concepcion leaving his cousin, Pedro de Villagra, in charge of the campaign. The Mapuches, attacked on two fronts against the forts of Los Infantes and Arauco surrounding them but were unable to take them. Again Petegüelen offered peace to the Spaniards and Villagra accepted, but this peace was deceptive since the Mapuches needed to harvest their feilds. In April of 1563, the Mapuche reestablished the siege of Arauco. This lasted forty two days with the Mapuches losing 500 warriors mostly from [[disentery]] contracted from drinking contaminated water. Finally they choose to retire and to raise the siege. Francisco de Villagra died in Concepcion on June 22, 1563, leaving his cousin Pedro de Villagra as interim governor. === Campaigns of Pedro de Villagra === [[Battle of Angol]] [[Lorenzo Bernal del Mercado]] [[Paillataru]] [[Siege of Concepcion]] [[Second Battle of Reinohuelén]] [[Battle of Tulmillán]] === The War during the rule of the Real Audiencia of Chile === [[Rodrigo de Quiroga]] [[Real Audiencia of Chile]] == Campaigns between 1568 and 1598 == Despite having founded cities and forts in Mapuche territory, all further Spanish conquest attempts failed. The [[Kingdom of Chile]] became a problematic region which the Spaniards would possibly have abandoned if they not feared colonization by another European nation in the region. Several Spanish generals and nobles were assigned posts in Chile. [[Melchor Bravo de Saravia|Melchor Bravo de Saravia y Sotomayor]] [[Pailacar]] [[Battle of Purén]] === Campaigns of Rodrigo de Quiroga === [[Rodrigo de Quiroga]] The [[mestizo]]s [[Paynenancu|Alonso Diaz]] and [[Juan de Lebú]] [[Martín Ruiz de Gamboa]] === Campaigns of Alonso de Sotomayor === [[Alonso de Sotomayor]] [[Cayancaru]] [[Nangoniel]] [[Cadeguala]] [[Guanoalca]] [[Quintuguenu]] [[Paillamachu]] [[Pedro de Viscarra de la Barrera]] === Campaigns of Martín García Oñez de Loyola === In September of [[1592]], [[Martín García Óñez de Loyola]] was appointed as [[Captain General]] directly by Philip II. He insisted in penetrating Mapuche territory with an army of soldiers coming directly from Panama. He established a fort Santa Cruz in May of 1594, at the confluence of the Bio-Bio and [[Laja River (Chile)|Laja River]]s. The fort was elevated to the rank of city in 1595 giving it the name of [[Santa Cruz de Oñez]]. Later, on [[21 December]] of [[1598]] Oñez de Loyola became the second governor of Chile to die in war with the Mapuches, surprised by [[Pelantaro]] in the [[Battle of Curalaba]]. ==End of the Spanish conquest (1598–1604)== === Mapuche Uprising of 1598 === {{main|Destruction of Seven Cities}} The Battle of Curalaba became the beginning of a general uprising that would in a few years eliminate all Spanish settlements south of the [[Bio-Bio River]] with the exception of [[Chiloé Island]] and [[Valdivia, Chile|Valdivia]], which was destroyed but rebuilt many years later. The viceroy of Peru hastily appointed [[Francisco de Quiñónez]] as replacement of the deceased Loyola. He was an experienced military man with great prudence but with little aptitude for the crisis that he was called upon to face. This governor saw with horror the state of the colony and asked urgently for reinforcements. Meanwhile he tried to support those places that were possible to defend. Nevertheless, things were soon out of his control despite everything done to stabilize the situation, and he sickened and asked for his relief. In September 1600, [[Alonso García de Ramón]] the old ''maestre de campo'' of Alonso de Sotomayor, arrived as the new governor of Chile. ==17th-century== === Alonso de Ribera and the creation of the Army of Chile === [[Alonso de Ribera]] [[Huenecura]] Alonso García de Ramón replaced Alonso de Ribera as governor for the second time in 1605. [[Aillavilu]] [[Ancanamon]] === Defensive War === Alonzo de Rivera returned as governor in 1612 appointed by [[Philip III of Spain|King Philip III]] at the specific request of Father [[Luis de Valdivia]]. Valdivia was the originator of a new system of [[defensive warfare]] in Chile. He planned a static frontier separating the Spanish zone from the Indigenous zone, permitting no one but missionaries to enter the south from the Spanish side. The king was in agreement, and although Ribera himself did not totally agree, he followed the royal orders and established the defensive system. [[Loncothegua]] [[Lientur]] === Resumption of Offensive War === [[Pedro Osores de Ulloa]] [[Luis Fernández de Córdoba y Arce]] [[Francisco Laso de la Vega]] [[Butapichón]] [[Quepuantú]] [[Huenucalquin]] [[Curanteo]] [[Curimilla]] === The Beginning of Parliaments === [[Francisco López de Zúñiga, Marquis of Baides|Francisco López de Zúñiga]] [[Lincopinchon]] [[Martín de Mujica y Buitrón]] [[Alonso de Figueroa y Córdoba]] === The govenment of Antonio de Acuña Cabrera === [[Francisco Antonio de Acuña Cabrera y Bayona]] The [[Insurrection of 1655|last major uprising]] came in [[1655]] when Mapuche armies under [[Clentaru]] overwhelmed the Spaniards and came to the shores of the [[Maule River]]. After that, the Spanish tactics varied from a "defensive war" proposed by [[Jesuit]] missionaries, and parliaments with [[lonco]]s to make agreements with the Mapuche in so called parliaments. This allowed the growth of commerce and increased the [[mestizo|mestization]]. === Campaigns of the Mestizo Alejo and Misqui === [[Mestizo Alejo]] [[Misqui]] [[Pedro Porter Cesanete]] [[Francisco de Meneses]] === The later Seventeenth Century === [[Juan Henríquez de Villalobos]] [[Ayllicuriche]] [[Marcos José de Garro Senei de Artola]] [[Tomás Marín González de Poveda, Marquis of Cañada Hermosa|Tomás Marín de Poveda]] [[Millalpal]] ==18th-century== === The Mapuche rebellion of 1723 === After 30 years of peace the [[War of Arauco]] continued with a Mapuche uprising in [[1723]]<ref> [[Vicente Carvallo y Goyeneche]], Descripcion Histórico Geografía del Reino de Chile, Tomo II, Capítulo LXXV, LXXVI and LXXVII </ref>. [[Vilumilla]] [[Gabriel Cano de Aponte]] === The risings of 1759 and 1766 === [[Manuel de Amat y Juniet]] [[Antonio de Guill y Gonzaga]] [[Curiñancu ]] === The Mapuche Rebellion of 1769 === [[Juan de Balmaseda y Censano Beltrán]] [[Francisco Javier de Morales y Castejón de Arrollo]] [[Agustín de Jáuregui|Agustín de Jáuregui y Aldecoa]] [[Ambrosio de Benavides]] [[Treaty of Lonquilmo]] of 1784 === The Huilliche Rebellion of 1792 === [[Ambrose O'Higgins, Marquis of Osorno|Ambrose O'Higgins]] === Relations at the end of the 18th Century === Although the Mapuches did not allow the free transit of huincas ("whites") into the zones that they considered their own land, from about 1780, the associated Mapuche peoples began to accept the limited presence of Spaniards and Creoles in their territories. Also, with the passage of time the Mapuches slowly entered into more frequent interaction with the Hispanic-Creole culture. Thus they would adopt many of their customs and form of life, thanks to the schools for natives, ambassadors, fairs and the parliaments. The Parliament of Negrete of 1803 was the last great parliament of the colonial period of Chile, in which both sides solemnized their peace and alliances. The commerce and unions between Spaniards and Mapuche, generated in addition a mestization that acted like a bridge between both cultures. Thus a coexistence was established between the Spanish, Creoles,and Mapuches, in which things remained nearly the same over most of the next century. Risings and malons were less and less frequent, but among the Mapuches opposition understandably remained towards total integration. ==Chilean War of Independence and Guerra a muerte== During the [[Chilean War of Independence]] many Mapuche chiefs allied with the Royalist Spanish that fought for reestablishing the old colonial order in Chile. The Royalist [[brigadier]] [[Gabino Gaínza]] negotiated with Mapuche chiefs during the [[Parlament of Quilín]] in [[1814]] and gained their support against the Chilean patriots. In 1817 and 1818 the royalists had suffered many defeats, but continued resistance in south [[Central Chile]] together with the Mapuches. [[José de San Martín]] who had liberated north-central Chile with [[Bernardo O'Higgins]] launched a series of actions against armed bands in the mountains, consisting of assorted outlaws, royalists, and Indians who had taken advantage of the chaos of military expeditions and forced recruitments to pillage and sack the countryside. This time of irregular warfare was later called the ''[[Guerra a muerte]]'' (Fight to the death) for its merciless tactics, as neither the guerillas nor the government soldiers took prisoners. Only after the band of [[Vicente Benavides]] was liquidated in 1822 was the region around Concepcion finally pacified. ==Occupation of Araucanía== ===Background=== {{main|Occupation of the Araucanía}}{{main|Conquest of the Desert}} In 1860 Chilean president [[José Joaquín Pérez Mascayano]] decided to incorporate the territory between the [[Bio-Bio River]] and [[Toltén River]] (the Araucanía). With the proclamation of the [[Kingdom of Araucania and Patagonia]] by [[Orélie-Antoine de Tounens]] it became a priority to incorporate the Araucanía even if Orélie Antonie never was a serious threat. The authorities decided to apply the plan proposed by General [[Cornelio Saavedra Rodríguez]] which included a mix of military and cultural penetration together with agreements with local chiefs. The plan also included the foundation of cities, building of roads and other public infrastructure such as schools and hospitals. ===The occupation=== [[Image:OcupArau.JPG|thumb|right|300px|[[Cornelio Saavedra Rodríguez]] in meeting with the main [[lonco]]s of Araucania in [[1869]]]] Cornelio Saavedra advanced in relatively short time to the [[Malleco River]] and founded the city of [[Angol]], together with the forts of [[Mulchén]] and [[Lebu, Chile|Lebu]] in [[1862]]. From [[Valdivia, Chile|Valdivia]] in the south the troops also succeeded in advancing along the coast into the Toltén River. This first phase of occupation was carried out with relatively low levels of resistance, but soon after the [[lonco]] [[Quilapán]] started a revolt near Malleco River. When the [[War of the Pacific]] started in [[1879]] much of the troops in the south of Chile were moved north to fight [[Peru]] and [[Bolivia]]. In [[1880]] several Mapuche tribes took advantage of this situation and launched a series of spontaneous attacks on to the Chilean forts established in the frontier. With a victorious Chilean army returning from the War of the Pacific, the government of [[Domingo Santa María]] launched the final campaign to incorporate the heartland of the Mapuches into Chile. Colonel [[Gregorio Urrutia]] was chosen for this task. The old Spanish town of [[Villarrica, Chile|Villarrica]] was refounded and the forts of [[Carahue]], [[Lautaro, Chile|Lautaro]], [[Pillánlelbu]], [[Temuco]], [[Nueva Imperial]] and [[Pucón]] where founded. The tribes living close to this forts their territory, and about 10,000 Mapuche Indians were killed in skirmishes by the Chilean army. Many of the survivors escaped to mountains where they joined with the [[Pehuenche]]s and other tribes escaping from Argentine territory. Some indigenous remnants were placed into reductions and their land was given to Chilean and foreign settlers. Some historians consider the occupation of the Araucania to be the end of a 300-years long [[War of Arauco]]. ===Aftermath=== Araucanía was not fully "pacified" after the campaigns, and it remained an insecure land, in spite of military efforts. Even nowadays some Mapuche groups continue "pillaging" [[hacienda]]s in their ancestral lands. With the construction of the [[Malleco viaduct]] in the 1890s, the region became more accessible and colonization southward in Chile increased even more. ==See also== *[[Occupation of the Araucanía]] *[[Conquest of the Desert]] *[[History of Chile]] *[[Pedro de Valdivia]] *[[Indian Lautaro|Lautaro]] *[[Caupolican]] *[[Araucanization]] == References == {{refs}} == Sources == * [[Pedro de Valdivia]], [http://www.historia.uchile.cl/CDA/fh_complex/0,1393,SCID%253D11300%2526ISID%253D405%2526JNID%253D12,00.html '''Cartas de Pedro de Valdivia''' (Letters of Pedro Valdivia)], University of Chile: Diarios, Memorias y Relatos Testimoniales: (on line in Spanish) * [[Jerónimo de Vivar]], [http://www.artehistoria.jcyl.es/cronicas/contextos/11498.htm '''Crónica y relación copiosa y verdadera de los reinos de Chile''' (Chronicle and abundant and true relation of the kingdoms of Chile)]ARTEHISTORIA REVISTA DIGITAL; Crónicas de América (on line in Spanish) * [[Alonso de Góngora Marmolejo]],[http://www.historia.uchile.cl/CDA/fh_complex/0,1393,SCID%253D10200%2526ISID%253D404%2526JNID%253D12,00.html '''Historia de Todas las Cosas que han Acaecido en el Reino de Chile y de los que lo han gobernado (1536-1575)''' (History of All the Things that Have happened in the Kingdom of Chile and of they that have governed it (1536-1575))], University of Chile: Document Collections in complete texts: Cronicles (on line in Spanish) * [[Pedro Mariño de Lobera]],[http://www.cervantesvirtual.com/servlet/SirveObras/13582842323460728544424/index.htm '''Crónica del Reino de Chile , escrita por el capitán Pedro Mariño de Lobera....reducido a nuevo método y estilo por el Padre Bartolomé de Escobar'''. Edición digital a partir de Crónicas del Reino de Chile Madrid, Atlas, 1960, pp. 227-562, (Biblioteca de Autores Españoles ; 569-575).] Biblioteca Virtual Miguel de Cervantes (on line in Spanish) * [[Melchor Jufré del Águila]], [http://www.historia.uchile.cl/CDA/fh_complex/0,1393,SCID%253D10534%2526ISID%253D404%2526JNID%253D12,00.html '''Compendio historial del Descubrimiento y Conquista del Reino de Chile'''(Historial compendium of the Discovery and Conquest of the Kingdom of Chile)], University of Chile: Document Collections in complete texts: Cronicles (on line in Spanish) * [[Alonso González de Nájera]], [http://books.google.com/books?id=OiJJAAAAMAAJ COLECCIÓN DE DOCUMENTOS INÉDITOS PARA LA HISTORIA DE ESPAÑA, TOMO XLVIII: Desengaño y reparo de la guerra del reino de Chile (Disappointment and repairs of the war of the kingdom of Chile), MADRID, IMPRENTA DE LA VIUDA DE CALERO. Calle de Santa Isabel, núm. 26. 1866.] Digitized Sep 12, 2007 * [[Diego de Rosales]], '''“Historia General del Reino de Chile”, Flandes Indiano''', 3 tomos. Valparaíso 1877 - 1878. ** [http://books.google.com/books?id=2SaDFre_Ez4C Historia general de el Reyno de Chile: Flandes Indiano Vol. 1] ** [http://books.google.com/books?id=C34CAAAAYAAJ Historia general de el Reyno de Chile: Flandes Indiano Vol. 2] ** [http://books.google.com/books?id=HhHbyQaRGnkC Historia general de el Reyno de Chile: Flandes Indiano Vol. 3] * [http://books.google.com/books?id=PFADAAAAMAAJ '''Coleccíon de historiadores de Chile y documentos relativos a la Historia Nacional''', '''Tomo II''' By Instituto Chileno de Cultura Hispánica, Academia Chilena de la Historia Published 1862 Imprenta del Ferrocarril, Digitized Jul 27, 2006] ** [[Pedro de Cordoba y Figueroa]], [http://books.google.com/books?id=PFADAAAAMAAJ&printsec=frontcover#PRA2-PA347,M1 HISTORIA DE CHILE(1492-1717)] * [http://books.google.com/books?id=ZlLx6KdkZ2oC Coleccíon de historiadores de Chile Tomo XV, HlSTORlA GEOGRÁFlCA, NATURAL Y CIVIL DEL REINO DE CHILE POR EL JESUITA FELIPE GOMEZ DE VIDAURRE, TOMO II ,CON UNA INTRODUCCIÓN BIOGRÁFICA Y NOTAS POR J. T. MEDINA , SANTIAGO DE CHILE, IMPRENTA ERCILLA, 1889] Google Books, Digitized Aug 4, 2005(History of Chile 1535-1764) * [[Vicente Carvallo y Goyeneche]], [http://www.historia.uchile.cl/CDA/fh_complex/0,1393,SCID%253D7181%2526ISID%253D404%2526JNID%253D12,00.html '''Descripcion Histórico Geografía del Reino de Chile''' (Description Historical Geography of the Kingdom of Chile)], University of Chile: Document Collections in complete texts: Cronicles (on line in Spanish)(History of Chile 1425-1788) {{Mapuche}} [[Category:History of South America]] [[Category:History of Chile]] [[Category:Wars involving Spain]] [[Category:Arauco War| ]] [[Category:Mapuche]] [[Category:Spanish conquests in the Americas]] [[Category:Rebellions against the Spanish Empire]] [[de:Arauco-Krieg]] [[es:Guerra de Arauco]] [[he:מלחמת האראוקו]] [[ja:アラウコ戦争]] [[sv:Araucokriget]]