Architecture 903378 225707338 2008-07-15T00:31:43Z Bobo192 97951 Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/76.161.66.106|76.161.66.106]] ([[User talk:76.161.66.106|talk]]) to last version by CarsracBot {{refimprove|date=July 2008}} {{this|building architecture}} [[Image:Brunelleshi-and-Duomo-of-Florence.gif|thumb|Section of the dome of [[Florence Cathedral]].]] The term '''architecture''' can be used to mean a process, a profession or documentation. As a process, architecture is the activity of [[design]]ing and [[construction|constructing]] [[building]]s and other physical [[structure]]s by a person or a [http://www.human-assisted.info/ machine], primarily done to provide socially purposeful shelter. A wider definition often includes the design of the total built environment, from the macro level of how a building integrates with its surrounding man made landscape (see [[town planning]], [[urban design]], and [[landscape architecture]]) to the micro level of architectural or construction details and, sometimes, [[furniture]]. Wider still, architecture is the activity of designing any kind of [[system]]. As a profession, architecture is the role of those persons or machines providing [[architect|architectural services]]. As documentation, usually based on drawings, architecture defines the [[structure]] and/or [[behavior]] of a building or any other kind of [[system]] that is to be or has been constructed. Architects have as their primary object providing for the spatial and shelter needs of people in groups of some kind (families, schools, churches, businesses, etc.) by the creative organisation of materials and components in a land- or city-scape, dealing with [[mass]], [[space]], [[form]], [[volume]], [[texture]], [[structure]], [[light]], [[shadow]], [[materials]], [[Brief (architecture)|program]], and pragmatic elements such as cost, construction limitations and technology, to achieve an end which is functional, economical, practical and often with artistic and aesthetic aspects. This distinguishes architecture from [[engineering]] design, which has as its primary object the creative manipulation of materials and forms using [[mathematics|mathematical]] and [[applied science|scientific]] principles. Separate from the design process, architecture is also experienced<ref> S. Rasmussen ''Experiencing Architecture'' MIT Press </ref> through the senses, which therefore gives rise to aural<ref> B. Blesser and L. Salter ''Spaces Speak, Are You Listening? Experiencing Aural Architecture'' MIT Press 2007. online [http://SpacesSpeak.com] </ref>, visual, olfactory,<ref> A. Barbara and A. Perliss ''Invisible Architecture: Experiencing Places Through the Sense of Smell'' Skira, 2006</ref> and tactile<ref> J. Pallasmaa ''The Eyes of the Skin: Architecture and the Senses''</ref> architecture. As people move through a space, architecture is experienced as a time sequence.<ref> P. Thiel ''People, Paths, and Purposes'' University of Washington Press, 1997</ref> Even though our culture considers architecture to be a visual experience, the other senses play a role in how we experience both natural and built environments. Attitudes towards the senses depend on culture.<ref> D. Howes ''The Variety of Sensory Experiences'' University of Toronto Press, 1991</ref> The design process and the sensory experience of a space are distinctly separate views, each with its own language and assumptions. Architectural works are perceived as cultural and political [[symbol]]s and works of art. Historical [[civilization]]s are often known primarily through their architectural achievements. Such buildings as the [[pyramids]] of [[Ancient Egypt|Egypt]] and the [[Rome|Roman]] [[Colosseum]] are cultural symbols, and are an important link in public consciousness, even when [[scholars]] have discovered much about a past civilization through other means. Cities, regions and cultures continue to identify themselves with (and are known by) their architectural monuments.<ref>The [[Tower Bridge]], the [[Eiffel Tower]] and the [[Colosseum]] are representative of the buildings used on advertising brochures.</ref> [[Image:Duomo Firenze.jpg|thumb|[[Brunelleschi]], in the building of the dome, not only transformed the cathedral and the city of Florence, but also the role and status of the architect.]] ==Etymology and application of the term== The word ''"architecture"'' comes from the [[Latin]] ''architectura'' and that from [[Greek language|Greek]] ''αρχιτέκτων'' (''architekton''), "master builder", from the combination of ''αρχι-'' (''archi-''), "chief" or "leader" and ''τέκτων'' (''tekton''), a "builder" or "carpenter".<ref>[http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/cgi-bin/ptext?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.04.0057%3Aentry%3D%2316018 Architekton, Henry George Liddell, Robert Scott, ''A Greek-English Lexicon'', at Perseus]</ref><ref>[http://www.etymonline.com/index.php?search=architect&searchmode=none Online Etymology Dictionary]</ref> While the primary application of the word "architecture" pertains to the [[built environment]], by extension, the term has come to denote the [[art]] and [[discipline]] of creating an actual (or inferring an implied or apparent) plan of any complex object or [[system]]. The term can be used to connote the ''implied architecture'' of [[mathematics]] or of abstract things such as [[music]], the ''apparent architecture'' of natural things, such as [[geology|geological]] formations or the [[structural biology|structure of biological cells]], or explicitly ''planned architectures'' of human-made things such as [[software]], [[computers]], [[Enterprise architecture|enterprise]]s, and [[database]]s, in addition to buildings. In every usage, an architecture may be seen as a ''subjective [[Map (mathematics)|mapping]]'' from a human perspective (that of the ''user'' in the case of abstract or physical artifacts) to the [[Element (mathematics)|elements]] or [[wikt:component|components]] of some kind of [[structure]] or system, which preserves the relationships among the elements or components. ==The Architect== {{main|Architect}} [[Image:Gaertnerhaus und Maschinenhaus Glienicke AA.jpg|thumb|Design for a gardener's cottage and engine house in the grounds of a castle. Ludwig Persius, [[Berlin]], 1836.]] Architecture as a [[profession]] is the practice of providing [[architect#Architects in Practice|architectural services]]. The practice of architecture includes the planning, designing and oversight of a building's construction by an architect. Architectural services typically address both feasibility and [[cost]] for the [[Construction|builder]], as well as function and [[aesthetics]] for the user. Architecture did not start to become professionalized until the late nineteenth century. Before then, architects had ateliers and architectural education varied, from a more formal training as at the [[École des Beaux-Arts]] in France, which was founded in the mid seventeenth century, to the more informal system where students worked in an [[atelier]] until they could become independent. There were also so-called gentlemen architects, which were architects with private means. This was a tradition particularly strong in [[England]] during the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries. [[Lord Burlington]], designer of [[Chiswick House]], (1723-49) is an example. Some architects were also sculptors, such as [[Bernini]], theater designers such as [[Filippo Juvarra]] and [[John Vanbrugh]], and painters, such as [[Michelangelo]] and [[Le Corbusier]]. In the 1440s, the Florentine architect, [[Alberti]], wrote his ''De Re Aedificatoria'', published in 1485, a year before the first edition of [[Vitruvius]], with which he was already familiar.<ref>Leon Battista Alberti, ''The Ten Books of Architecture'', publisher? ISBN </ref><ref name="Vitruvius">D. Rowland - T.N. Howe: Vitruvius. Ten Books on Architecture. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge 1999, ISBN 0-521-00292-3</ref> Alberti gives the earliest definition of the role of the architect. The architect is to be concerned firstly with the construction. This encompasses all the practical matters of site, of materials and their limitations and of human capability. The second concern is "articulation"; the building must work and must please and suit the needs of those who use it. The third concern of the architect is aesthetics, both of proportion and of ornament. The role of the architect is constantly evolving, and is central to the design and implementation of the [[Social environment|environments]] in which people live. In order to obtain the skills and knowledge required to design, plan, and oversee a diverse range of projects, architects must go through extensive formal education, coupled with a requisite amount of professional practice. The work of an architect is an [[Interdisciplinarity|interdisciplinary field]], drawing upon [[mathematics]], [[science]], [[art]], [[technology]], [[social sciences]], [[politics]] and [[history]], and is often governed by the architect's personal approach or [[philosophy]]. [[Vitruvius]], the earliest known architectural theorist, states: ''"Architecture is a science, arising out of many other sciences, and adorned with much and varied learning: by the help of which a judgement is formed of those works which are the result of other arts."'' He adds that an architect should be well versed in other fields of learning such as [[music]] and [[astronomy]].<ref name="Vitruvius" /> Vitruvius' broad definition of the architect still holds true to some extent today, even though business concerns and the computer have reshaped the activities and definition of the modern architect in significant ways. ==Theory of Architecture== ===Historic treatises=== [[Image:Persepolis Colonne flandin.jpg|thumb|right|Plan, front view and side view of a typical column of [[Persepolis]] palace of [[Persia]].]] [[Image:Parsa7.jpg|thumb|right|[[Persepolis]] palace after 2500 years, [[Persia]].]] The earliest written work on the subject of architecture is ''[[De architectura]]'', by the Roman architect [[Vitruvius]] in the early 1st century CE.<ref name="Vitruvius" /> According to Vitruvius, a good building should satisfy the three principles of ''firmitatis utilitatis venustatis'',<ref>Translated by Henry Wotton, in 1624, as "firmness, commodity and delight" [http://www.gardenvisit.com/landscape/LIH/history/vitruvius.htm#ch1-3]</ref><ref name="elements">Vitruvius [http://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/L/Roman/Texts/Vitruvius/home.html] </ref> which translates roughly as - * Durability - it should stand up robustly and remain in good condition. * Utility - it should be useful and function well for the people using it. * Beauty - it should delight people and raise their spirits. According to Vitruvius, the architect should strive to fulfil each of these three attributes as well as possible. [[Image:Parthenon-Restoration-Nov-2005-a.jpg|thumb|left|The [[Parthenon]], [[Athens]], "the supreme example among architectural sites." [[Banister Fletcher|(Fletcher)]].<ref>Banister Fletcher, ''A History of Architecture on the Comparative Method''</ref>]] [[Leone Battista Alberti]], who elaborates on the ideas of Vitruvius in his treatise, [[De Re Aedificatoria]], saw beauty primarily as a matter of proportion, although ornament also played a part. For Alberti, the rules of proportion were those that governed the idealised human figure, the [[Golden Mean]]. The most important aspect of beauty was therefore an inherent part of an object, rather than something applied superficially; and was based on universal, recognisable truths. The notion of style in the arts was not developed until the 16th century, with the writing of [[Vasari]].<ref>Françoise Choay, ''Alberti and Vitruvius'', editor, Joseph Rykwert, Profile 21, Architectural Design, Vol 49 No 5-6</ref> The treatises, by the 18th century, had been translated into Italian, French, Spanish and English. In the early nineteenth century, [[Augustus Welby Northmore Pugin]] wrote Contrasts (1836) that, as the titled suggested, contrasted the modern, industrial world, which he disparaged, with an idealized image of neo-medieval world. [[Gothic architecture]], Pugin believed, was the only “true Christian form of architecture.” The 19th century English art critic, [[John Ruskin]], in his ''Seven Lamps of Architecture'', published 1849,<ref>John Ruskin, ''The Seven Lamps of Architecture'', G. Allen (1880), reprinted Dover, (1989) ISBN 0-486-26145-X</ref> was much narrower in his view of what constituted architecture. Architecture was the "art which so disposes and adorns the edifices raised by men ... that the sight of them" contributes "to his mental health, power, and pleasure". For Ruskin, the aesthetic was of overriding significance. His work goes on to state that a building is not truly a work of architecture unless it is in some way "adorned". For Ruskin, a well-constructed, well-proportioned, functional building needed string courses or rustication, at the very least. On the difference between the ideals of "architecture" and mere [[construction|"construction"]], the renowned 20th C. architect [[Le Corbusier]] wrote: "You employ stone, wood, and concrete, and with these materials you build houses and palaces: that is construction. Ingenuity is at work. But suddenly you touch my heart, you do me good. I am happy and I say: This is beautiful. That is Architecture".<ref>Le Corbusier, ''Towards a New Architecture'', Dover Publications(1985). ISBN 0-486-25023-7</ref> [[Image:Wainwright building st louis USA.jpg|thumb|left|The [[Wainwright Building]] in St. Louis, designed by [[Louis Sullivan]].]] [[Image:PlazaCastillaMadrid.JPG|thumb|right|[[Puerta de Europa|Europe's Gate]], Madrid; the first intentionally inclined buildings in the world.]] ===Modern concepts of architecture=== The great 19th century architect of skyscrapers, [[Louis Sullivan]], promoted an overriding precept to architectural design: "[[Form follows function]]". While the notion that structural and aesthetic considerations should be entirely subject to functionality was met with both popularity and scepticism, it had the effect of introducing the concept of "function" in place of Vitruvius "utility". "Function" came to be seen as encompassing all criteria of the use, perception and enjoyment of a building, not only practical but also aesthetic, psychological and cultural. Nunzia Rondanini stated, "Through its aesthetic dimension architecture goes beyond the functional aspects that it has in common with other human sciences. Through its own particular way of expressing values, architecture can stimulate and influence social life without presuming that, in and of itself, it will promote social development. To restrict the meaning of (architectural) formalism to art for art's sake is not only reactionary; it can also be a purposeless quest for perfection or originality which degrades form into a mere instrumentality".<ref> Rondanini, Nunzia ''Architecture and Social Change'' Heresies II, Vol. 3, No. 3, New York, Neresies Collective Inc., 1981.</ref> Among the philosophies that have influenced modern architects and their approach to building design are [[rationalism]], [[empiricism]], [[structuralism]], [[poststructuralism]], and [[phenomenology]]. [[Image:Sydney Opera House Sails edit02.jpg|thumb|[[Sydney Opera House]], designed by [[Utzon]]. photo E.Lau.]] In the late 20th century a new concept was added to those included in the compass of both structure and function, the consideration of [[sustainability]]. To satisfy the modern ethos a building should be constructed in a manner which is environmentally friendly in terms of the production of its materials, its impact upon the natural and built environment of its surrounding area and the demands that it makes upon non-sustainable power sources for heating, cooling, water and waste management and lighting. ==History== {{main|History of architecture}} [[Image:HT village house 4.jpg|thumb|Vernacular architecture in [[Denmark]].]] ===Origins and the ancient world=== Architecture first evolved out of the dynamics between needs (shelter, security, worship, etc.) and means (available [[building material]]s and attendant skills). As human cultures developed and knowledge began to be formalized through oral traditions and practices, architecture became a [[craft]]. Here there is first a process of trial and error, and later improvisation or replication of a successful trial. What is termed [[Vernacular architecture]] continues to be produced in many parts of the world. Indeed, vernacular buildings make up most of the built world that people experience every day. [[Image:Bayon Angkor Spiegelung.jpg|thumb|left|''[[Angkor]]'', [[Cambodia]].]] Early human settlements were mostly [[rural]]. Due to a surplus in production the economy began to expand resulting in urbanization thus creating [[urban area]]s which grew and evolved very rapidly in some cases, such as that of Çatal Huyuk in [[Anatolia]] and [[Mohenjo Daro]] in Pakistan. In many ancient civilizations, like the Egyptians' and Mesopotamians', architecture and urbanism reflected the constant engagement with the divine and the [[supernatural]], while in other ancient cultures such as [[Persia]] architecture and [[urban planning]] was used to exemplify the power of the state. The architecture and [[urbanism]] of the [[Classical antiquity|Classical civilizations]] such as the [[Ancient Greece|Greek]] and the [[Ancient Rome|Roman]] evolved from civic ideals rather than religious or empirical ones and new building types emerged. Architectural styles developed. Texts on architecture began to be written in the Classical period. These became canons to be followed in important works, especially religious architecture. Some examples of canons are found in the writings of [[Vitruvius]], the ''[[Kao Gong Ji]]'' of ancient [[China]]<ref>7th-5th centuries BCE.</ref> and [[Vaastu Shastra]] of ancient [[India]]. The architecture of different parts of [[Asia]] developed along different lines to that of Europe, Buddhist, Hindu and Sikh architecture each having different characteristics. Buddhist architecture, in particular, showed great regional diversity. In many [[Asia]]n countries a pantheistic religion led to architectural forms that were designed specifically to enhance the [[natural landscape]]. [[Image:Taj Mahal in March 2004.jpg|thumb|The [[Taj Mahal]], in [[India]], is a [[UNESCO]] [[World Heritage Site]] and was cited as "the jewel of [[Islamic art|Muslim art]] in [[India]] and one of the universally admired masterpieces of the world's heritage."]] ===The Medieval builder=== {{Unreferencedsection|date=July 2008}} [[Islamic architecture]] began in the 7th century [[Common Era|CE]], developing from the architectural forms of the ancient [[Middle East]] but developing features to suit the religious and social needs of the society. Examples can be found throughout the Middle East, North Africa and Spain, and were to become a significant stylistic influence on European architecture during the Medieval period. [[Image:Wells.cathedral.front.arp.jpg|thumb|left|[[Wells Cathedral]], [[Somerset]], England.]] In [[Europe]], in both the [[Classical antiquity|Classical]] and [[Medieval]] periods, buildings were not attributed to specific individuals and the names of the architects frequently unknown, despite the vast scale of the many religious buildings extant from this period. During the Medieval period [[guild]]s were formed by craftsmen to organise their trade and written contracts have survived, particularly in relation to ecclesiastical buildings. The role of architect was usually one with master builder, except in the case where a cleric, such as the [[Abbot Suger]] at Saint Denis, Paris, provided the design. Over time the complexity of buildings and their types increased. General civil construction such as roads and bridges began to be built. Many new building types such as schools, hospitals, and recreational facilities emerged. ===Renaissance and the architect=== {{Unreferencedsection|date=July 2008}} [[Image:La Rotonda.png|thumb|''[[La Rotonda]]'', by [[Palladio]].]] With the [[Renaissance]] and its emphasis on the individual and humanity rather than religion, and with all its attendant progress and achievements, a new chapter began. Buildings were ascribed to specific architects - [[Brunelleschi]], [[Alberti]], [[Michelangelo]], [[Palladio]] - and the cult of the individual had begun. But there was no dividing line between [[artist]], [[architect]] and [[engineer]], or any of the related vocations. At this stage, it was still possible for an artist to design a bridge as the level of structural calculations involved was within the scope of the generalist. With the emerging knowledge in scientific fields and the rise of new materials and technology, architecture and [[engineering]] began to separate, and the architect began to lose ground on some technical aspects of building design. He therefore concentrated on [[aesthetics]] and the [[humanist]] aspects. [[Image:StPancrasMidlandHotel.jpg|thumb|left|St Pancras Midland Hotel, [[London]]]]There was also the rise of the "gentleman architect" who usually dealt with wealthy clients and concentrated predominantly on visual qualities derived usually from historical prototypes, typified by the many country houses of Great Britain that were created in the [[Neo Gothic]] or [[Scottish Baronial]] styles. Formal architectural training, in the 19th century, at, for example [[Ecole des Beaux Arts]] in [[France]], gave much emphasis to the production of beautiful drawings and little to context and feasibility. Effective architects generally received their training in the offices of other architects, graduating to the role from draughtsmen or clerks. Meanwhile, the [[Industrial Revolution]] laid open the door for mass production and consumption. Aesthetics became a criterion for the middle class as ornamented products, once within the province of expensive craftsmanship, became cheaper under machine production. Vernacular architecture became increasingly ornamental. House builders could access current architectural design in their work by combining features found in pattern books and architectural journals. ===Modernism and reaction of architecture=== {{Unreferencedsection|date=July 2008}} {{main|Modern architecture}} The dissatisfaction with such a general situation at the turn of the twentieth century gave rise to many new lines of thought that served as precursors to [[Modern Architecture]]. Notable among these is the [[Deutscher Werkbund]], formed in 1907 to produce better quality machine made objects. The rise of the profession of [[industrial design]] is usually placed here. Following this lead, the [[Bauhaus]] school, founded in [[Germany]] in 1919, consciously rejected [[history]] and looked at architecture as a synthesis of art, craft, and technology. When [[Modern architecture]] was first practiced, it was an [[avant-garde]] movement with moral, philosophical, and aesthetic underpinnings. Immediately after [[World War I]], pioneering modernist architects sought to develop a completely new style appropriate for a new post-war social and economic order, focused on meeting the needs of the middle and working classes. They rejected the architectural practice of the academic refinement of historical styles which served the rapidly declining aristocratic order. [[Image:FallingwaterWright.jpg|thumb|left|''[[Fallingwater]]'' by [[Frank Lloyd Wright]].]] The approach of the Modernist architects was to reduce buildings to pure forms, removing historical references and ornament in favor of functionalist details. Buildings that displayed their construction and structure, exposing steel beams and concrete surfaces instead of hiding them behind traditional forms, were seen as beautiful in their own right. Architects such as [[Mies van der Rohe]] worked to create beauty based on the inherent qualities of building materials and modern construction techniques, trading traditional historic forms for simplified geometric forms, celebrating the new means and methods made possible by the [[Industrial Revolution]]. Many architects resisted Modernism, finding it devoid of the decorative richness of ornamented styles. As the founders of the [[International style (architecture)|International Style]] lost influence in the late 1970s, [[Postmodernism]] developed as a reaction against the austerity of Modernism. [[Robert Venturi]]'s contention that a "decorated shed" (an ordinary building which is functionally designed inside and embellished on the outside) was better than a "duck" (a building in which the whole form and its function are tied together) gives an idea of this approach. ===Architecture today=== {{main|Contemporary architecture}} [[Image:Oriente Station Lisboa roof.jpg|thumb|[[Gare do Oriente]] Railway Station, [[Lisbon]], by [[Santiago Calatrava]].]] Part of the architectural profession, and also some non-architects, responded to [[Modernism]] and [[Postmodernism]] by going to what they considered the root of the problem. They felt that architecture was not a personal philosophical or aesthetic pursuit by individualists; rather it had to consider everyday needs of people and use technology to give a livable environment. The ''Design Methodology Movement'' involving people such as [[Christopher Alexander]] started searching for more people-oriented designs. Extensive studies on areas such as behavioral, environmental, and social sciences were done and started informing the design process. As the complexity of buildings began to increase (in terms of structural systems, services, energy and technologies), architecture started becoming more multi-disciplinary. Architecture today usually requires a team of specialist professionals, with the architect being one of many, although usually the team leader. During the last two decades of the twentieth century and into the new millennium, the field of architecture saw the rise of specializations by project type, technological expertise or project delivery methods. In addition, there has been an increased separation of the 'design' architect {{Ref_label|A|a|none}} from the 'project' architect.{{Ref_label|B|b|none}} Moving the issues of environmental [[sustainability]] into the mainstream is a significant development in the architecture profession. Sustainability in architecture was pioneered in the 1970s by architects such as [[Ian McHarg]] in the US and [[Brenda and Robert Vale]] in the UK and New Zealand. There has been an acceleration in the number of buildings which seek to meet [[green building]] [[sustainable design]] principles. It is now expected that architects will integrate sustainable principles into their projects.<ref>The U.S. Green Building Council's [[Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design|LEED]] (Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design) rating system has been instrumental in this. Other [[energy efficiency]] and green building rating systems include Energy Star, Green Globes, and CHPS (Collaborative for High Performance Schools),LEED.</ref> [[Image:Bangalore India.jpg|thumb|Contemporary architecture in [[Bangalore]], [[India]]]] The [[American Institute of Architects]] acknowledges that half of today's global warming greenhouse gas emissions come from buildings - more than transportation or industry.<ref>http://www.aia.org/SiteObjects/files/architectsandclimatechange.pdf</ref> AIA states that immediate action by the building sector is essential to avoid hazardous man-made climate change. They have an "Architecture 2030" plan<ref>http://www.architecture2030.org/home.html</ref> to reduce new building energy consumption by 90% in 2030, and net zero greenhouse gas emissions by 2035. [[Passive solar building design]] has been demonstrating essential elements of 70% to 90% energy consumption reduction in roughly 300,000 buildings since the 1978 U.S. Solar Energy Tax Incentives. Many of these energy efficiency features can be added at little-or-no additional net cost during construction. Newer [[zero energy building]]s have reduced net annual energy consumption, producing excess energy and selling it back to the power company during moderate months. The demand for zero energy buildings is growing rapidly - subsidies are available for this type of building<ref>http://www.dsireusa.org/</ref> - The supply of zero energy buildings has fallen far short of current demand. [[Off-the-grid]] buildings are now demonstrating total self sufficiency. The 2009 [[Bank of America Tower (New York)]] has many innovative energy features. President George Bush’s 2006 Solar America Initiative expects architects and builders to design and construct new zero energy buildings by 2015.<ref>http://www.whitehouse.gov/news/releases/2006/01/20060131-6.html</ref> The U.S. Energy Independence and Security Act of 2007<ref>{{cite web | title = U.S. Energy Independence and Security Act of 2007 | url = http://www.thomas.gov/cgi-bin/query/C?c110:./temp/~c110z6D5F8 | accessdate = 2007-12-23 }}</ref> funded the new Solar Air Conditioning Research and Development Program, to develop technology innovations and [[mass production]] [[economies of scale]]. The U.S. Department of Energy and the National Renewable Energy Laboratory (NREL) also sponsor The Solar Decathlon,<ref>{{ cite web | title= The Solar Decathlon | url = http://www.solardecathlon.org/about.html | accessdate = 2008-06-09 }}</ref> an international competition among universities for solar energy alternatives when it comes to houses. The houses built by the team are exhibited on the National Mall for the public to experience. ==See also== {{Cleanup-section|date=July 2008}} {{sisterlinks}} : ''Main list: [[List of basic architecture topics]]'' <div style="-moz-column-count:3; column-count:3;"> *[[Acoustics]] *[[Air rights]] *[[Ancient lights]] *[[Architect]] *[[Architectural engineering]] *[[Architecture for Humanity]] *[[Architectural design values]] *[[Architectural history]] *[[Architectural lighting]] *[[Architectural journalism]] *[[Architectural photography]] *[[Architectural style]] *[[Architectural theory]] *[[Architecture timeline]] *[[Arcology]] *[[Building]] *[[Building biology]] *[[Building code]] *[[Building engineering]] *[[Building Envelope]] *[[Building materials]] *[[Civil Engineering]] *[[Computer-aided architectural design]] *[[Construction]] *[[Copyright in architecture]] *[[Energy-plus-house]] *[[Environmental design]] *[[Feminism and modern architecture]] *[[Green building]] *[[Habitat for Humanity International]] *[[History of Architecture]] *[[Interior Design]] * [[Invention]], e.g., scroll for Invention in Visual Art *[[Landscape Architecture]] *[[Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design]] (LEED) *[[List of architecture magazines]] *[[List of buildings and structures]] *[[List of notable architects]] *[[Lighting]] *[[Mathematics and architecture]] *[[Low-energy house]] *[[Passive house]] *[[Passive solar]] *[[Passive solar building design]] *[[Passive cooling]] *[[Real-estate developer|Real Estate (Property) Development]] *[[Religious architecture]] *[[Sick building syndrome]] *[[Structural Engineering]] *[[Surveying]] *[[Sustainable design]] *[[Urban Planning]] *[[Urban design]] *[[Vernacular architecture]] </div> <gallery> </gallery> ==Notes== <div class="references-small"> '''a.''' {{Note_label|A|a|none}} A design architect is one who is responsible for the design<br> '''b.''' {{Note_label|B|b|none}} A project architect is on who is responsible for ensuring the design is built correctly and who administers building contracts - in non-specialist architectural practices the project architect is also the design architect and the term refers to the differing roles the architect plays at differing stages of the process. </div> ==References== {{reflist}} ==External links== *[http://www.architecture.com Architecture.com], published by [[Royal Institute of British Architects]] *[http://www.worldarab.net Arab architecture] *[http://www.human-assisted.info/ Human-Assisted Design (HAD)] *[http://www.vitateka.com Decorations in architecture database] [[nan:Kiàn-tio̍k]] [[Category:Architecture| ]] [[Category:Architectural design]] [[Category:Greek loanwords]] [[af:Argitektuur]] [[ar:عمارة]] [[an:Arquiteutura]] [[ast:Arquiteutura]] [[bn:স্থাপত্য]] [[zh-min-nan:Kiàn-tio̍k]] [[bar:Architektur]] [[bs:Arhitektura]] [[br:Arkitektouriezh]] [[bg:Архитектура]] [[ca:Arquitectura]] [[cv:Архитектура]] [[ceb:Arkitektura]] [[cs:Architektura]] [[co:Architittura]] [[cy:Pensaernïaeth]] [[da:Arkitektur]] [[de:Architektur]] [[et:Arhitektuur]] [[el:Αρχιτεκτονική]] [[es:Arquitectura]] [[eo:Arkitekturo]] [[eu:Arkitektura]] [[fa:معماری]] [[fr:Architecture]] [[fy:Boukeunst]] [[fur:Architeture]] [[ga:Ailtireacht]] [[gl:Arquitectura]] [[ko:건축학]] [[hi:वास्तुशास्त्र]] [[hr:Arhitektura]] [[io:Arkitekturo]] [[id:Arsitektur]] [[ia:Architectura]] [[iu:ᐃᒡᓗᕐᔪᐊᑦ ᐋᖅᑭᒃᓯᒪᓂᖏᑦ/iglurjuat aaqqiksimaningit]] [[os:Архитектурæ]] [[is:Byggingarlist]] [[it:Architettura]] [[he:אדריכלות]] [[jv:Arsitektur]] [[ka:არქიტექტურა]] [[csb:Architektura]] [[ky:Архитектура]] [[sw:Ujenzi]] [[ht:Achitekti]] [[lad:Arkitektura]] [[la:Architectura]] [[lv:Arhitektūra]] [[lb:Architektur]] [[lt:Architektūra]] [[li:Architectuur]] [[lmo:Architetüra]] [[hu:Építészet]] [[mk:Архитектура]] [[ms:Seni bina]] [[nah:Calmanayōtl]] [[nl:Architectuur]] [[nds-nl:Architektuur]] [[ja:建築]] [[nap:Architettura]] [[no:Arkitektur]] [[nn:Arkitektur]] [[nrm:Architectuthe]] [[nov:Arkitekture]] [[oc:Arquitectura]] [[pl:Architektura]] [[pt:Arquitectura]] [[ro:Arhitectură]] [[qu:Sumaq wasichay kamay]] [[ru:Архитектура]] [[sa:वास्तुशास्त्रम्]] [[sc:Architetura]] [[sco:Architectur]] [[stq:Baukunst]] [[sq:Arkitektura]] [[scn:Architittura]] [[simple:Architecture]] [[sk:Architektúra]] [[sl:Arhitektura]] [[sr:Архитектура]] [[sh:Arhitektura]] [[su:Arsitéktur]] [[fi:Arkkitehtuuri]] [[sv:Arkitektur]] [[tl:Arkitektura]] [[ta:கட்டிடக்கலை]] [[th:สถาปัตยกรรม]] [[vi:Kiến trúc]] [[tg:Меъморӣ]] [[tr:Mimarlık]] [[uk:Архітектура]] [[vec:Architetura]] [[fiu-vro:Ehitüskunst]] [[war:Arkitektura]] [[yi:ארכיטעקטור]] [[yo:Architecture]] [[zea:Architectuur]] [[bat-smg:Arkėtektūra]] [[zh:建筑学]]