Architecture of Norway
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[[Image:Stabbur in Setesdal abt 1890.jpg|right|thumb|upright|Loft in ''Setesdal'', about 1890]]
From its origins about 9,000 years ago to the present, the '''architecture of Norway''' has evolved in response to shifting economic conditions, technological advances, demographic fluctuations and cultural shifts. While outside architectural influences are apparent in much of [[Norway|Norwegian]] architecture, they have often been adapted to meet Norwegian climatic conditions, including: harsh winters, high winds and, in coastal areas, [[salt spray]].
Norway's architectural trends are also seen to parallel political and societal changes in Norway over the centuries. Prior to the [[Viking Age]], wooden structures developed into a sophisticated craft evident in the elegant and effective construction of the Viking [[long ship]]s. Following that, the ascent of Christianity introduced Romanesque architecture in cathedrals and churches, with characteristically slightly pointed [[arch]]es, [[barrel vault]]s, [[cruciform]] [[pier (architecture)|piers]] supporting [[Vault (architecture)|vaults]], and [[groin vault]]s; in large part as a result of religions influence from [[England]].
During the Middle Ages, the geography dictated a [[Economy of Norway|dispersed economy]] and [[Demographics of Norway|population]]. As a result, the traditional [[Norwegian farm culture]] remained strong, and Norway differed from most European countries in never adopting [[feudalism]]. This, combined with the ready availability of wood as a building material, ensured that relatively few examples of the [[Baroque]], [[Renaissance]], and [[Rococo]] architecture styles so often built by the ruling classes elsewhere in Europe, were constructed in Norway.
Instead, these factors resulted in distinctive traditions in Norwegian [[vernacular architecture]], which have been preserved in existing farms in the many Norwegian open-air museums that showcase buildings from the [[Middle Ages]] through to the 19th century; prominent examples include the [[Norsk Folkemuseum]] in [[Oslo]] and [[Maihaugen]] in [[Lillehammer]], as well as extant buildings still in service on farms such as those in the [[Heidal]] valley.
In the 20th century, Norwegian architecture has been characterized by its connection with Norwegian social policy on the one hand, and innovation on the other. Norwegian architects have been recognized for their work, both within Norway—-where architecture has been considered an expression of social policy—-and outside Norway, in several innovative projects.<ref>{{cite web |url= http://www.norway.org.uk/history/royalvisit/news2610/riba.htm |title=The Queen promotes Norwegian architecture at the [[Royal Institute of British Architects]]] |accessdate=2008-03-14 |last= |first= |coauthors= |date= 2005-10-27 |work= |publisher= Royal Norwegian embassy in London}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url= http://www.norway-egypt.org/culture/architecture/alexandria/alexandria.htm |title=Library in Alexandria |accessdate=2008-03-14 |last= |first= |coauthors= |date= |work= |publisher= Royal Norwegian embassy in Cairo}} </ref>
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==History==
Construction in Norway has always been characterized by the need to shelter people, animals, and property from harsh weather, including predictably cold winters and frost, heavy precipitation in certain areas, wind and storms; and to make the most of scarce building resources. Until modern times, transportation infrastructure was also primitive, and builders largely had to rely on locally available materials.
===Pre-historic times===
The earliest traces of human habitation in Norway are dated to about 9000 BCE, in mountainous regions near [[Store Myrvatn]] in contemporary [[Rogaland]], where excavations have found portable dwellings most likely kept by nomadic reindeer hunters.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.ark.museum.no/fagomraader/Forsk-oppgaver06/SBA-1.htm|title=Sveinung Bang-Andersen: The main project: The Myrvatn/Fløyrlivatn Group: Early Mesolithic pioneers in the interior of southwest Norway|publisher=Museum of Archeology in Stavanger|author=Sveinung Bang-Andersen}}</ref> Traces of such tents have also been found other places along the western coast; at Fosenstraumen near [[Radøy]] in [[Hordaland]] archeological evidence indicates that tents in use at about 6500 BCE were of similar design to those still in use by the [[Sami people|Sami]] nomads<ref name="arkhistorie">Brekke, Nordhagen, and Lexau: Norsk arkitekturhistorie. Frå steinalder og bronsealder til det 21. århundret. ISBN 82-521-5748-3</ref>
Over time, such tents became semi-permanent through the introduction of a simple foundation. Traces of these can be found at the [[Vega, Norway|Vega]] archipelago, an area that is now a [[UNESCO]] [[World Heritage Site]].<ref>{{cite web |url= http://www.verdensarvvega.no/english.htm |title= Vega Islands as World Heritage|accessdate= 2008-03-14 |accessmonthday= |accessdaymonth= |accessyear= |author= |last= |first= |authorlink= |coauthors= |date= |year= |month= |format= |work= |publisher= Vega Archipelago Foundation |pages= |language= |doi= |archiveurl= |archivedate= |quote= }}</ref>
The first permanent dwellings were probably built between 3000 and 2000 BCE, with the introduction of agriculture to Norway. Available evidence indicates that wood was the most used building material for these structures. [[Iron Age]] dwellings typically combined shelter for animals and humans in [[long house]]s in order to preserve heat. Remains of structures from the [[Stone Age]] through the [[Nordic Bronze Age|Bronze Age]] and the Iron Age have been excavated at [[Forsand]] in [[Ryfylke]], near [[Stavanger]] and several other locations. Most prehistoric long houses had pairs of roof-bearing posts dividing the interior into three naves, and walls of palisades, wattle and daub or turf. Similar buildings have been excavated all over Northwestern Europe.<ref>{{cite web |url= http://www.fortidslandsbyen.no/ |title= Fortidslandsbyen Landa |accessdate= 2008-03-14 |accessmonthday= |accessdaymonth= |accessyear= |author= |last= |first= |authorlink= |coauthors= |date= |year= |month= |format= |work= |publisher= |pages= |language= |doi= |archiveurl= |archivedate= |quote= }}</ref>
===Viking and medieval eras===
Two distinctive timber building traditions found their confluence in Norwegian architecture. One was the practice of [[log building]] with horizontal logs notched at the corners, a technique thought to have been imported from the peoples to the east of Scandinavia. The other was the [[stave building]] tradition (typically found in [[stave church]]es), possibly based on improvements on the prehistoric long houses that had roof-bearing posts dug into the ground. Although there is scant archaeological evidence of actual buildings from the earliest permanent structures, finds of Viking ships (e.g., the [[Oseberg|Oseberg ship]]) suggest significant mastery of woodworking and engineering. In the [[Lofoten]] archipelago in [[Northern Norway]], a Viking chieftain's holding has been reconstructed at the [[Lofotr]] Viking museum.<ref name="Seip">{{cite web|url=http://odin.dep.no/odin/engelsk/norway/history/032005-990451/index-dok000-b-n-a.html|title=Elisabeth Seip: Architecture in Norway}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.khm.uio.no/utstillinger/oseberg/indexE.html|title=Oseberg find site|publisher=[[University of Oslo]]}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.lofotr.no/engelsk/index.htm|title=Lofotr museum}}</ref>
Not counting the 28 remaining stave churches, at least 250 wooden houses predating the [[Black Death]] in 1350 are preserved more or less intact in Norway. Most of these are log houses, some with added stave-built galleries or porches.<ref name="Seip"/>
As the political power in Norway was consolidated and had to contend with external threats, larger structures were built in accordance with military technology at the time. Fortresses, bridges, and ultimately churches and manors were built with stone and masonry. These structures followed the European styles of their time.
====Stave churches====
{{main|Stave church}}
[[Image:Lom stavkyrkje A.jpeg|thumb|Stave church in [[Lom, Norway|Lom]]]]
Possibly more than 1000 stave churches were built in Norway during the Middle Ages, most of them during the 12th and 13th centuries. Until the beginning of the 19th century, as many as 150 stave churches still existed. Many were destroyed as part of a religious movement that favored simple, puritan lines, and today only 28 remain, though a large number were documented and recorded by measured drawings before they were demolished.
The stave churches owe their longevity to architectural innovations that protected these large, complex wooden structures against water rot, precipitation, wind, and extreme temperatures. Most important was the introduction of massive ''sills'' underneath the ''staves'' (posts) to prevent them from rotting. Over the two centuries of stave church construction, this building type evolved to an advanced art and science. After the [[Reformation]], however, no new stave churches were built. New churches were mainly of stone or horizontal log buildings with notched corners. Most old stave churches disappeared because of redundancy, neglect or deterioration, or because they were too small to accommodate larger congregations, and too impractical according to later standards.
====Romanesque architecture====
[[Image:Bergen mariakirken2 edit.jpg|thumb|upright|left|[[St Mary's Church, Bergen|St Mary's Church]] in Bergen, an example of Romanesque architecture in Norway.]]
The first stone churches in Norway were [[Romanesque architecture|Romanesque]], built under the influence of [[Anglo-Saxon mission]]aries, particularly bishop [[Pope Adrian IV|Nicholas Breakspear]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.katolsk.no/www/about_en.htm|title=Catholic Church of Norway: The History of the Catholic Church in Norway|publisher=Catholic Church of Norway}}</ref> Later churches were influenced by Continental architecture. Examples include the churches at [[Ringsaker]], [[Kviteseid]], and elsewhere. Many of these churches have either been lost or rebuilt in the [[Gothic architecture|Gothic]] style, but numerous examples still exist, notably the [[Trondenes Church|church]] at [[Trondenes]] in [[Troms]].
====Gothic architecture====
Several churches that were originally built as Romanesque structures were modified or extended during the Gothic period. Among these are the cathedral of [[Hamar]], now in ruins, the [[Stavanger Cathedral]], and the renowned [[Nidaros Cathedral]], one of the most important pilgrim destinations in medieval Europe.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.nidarosdomen.no/english/nidaroscathedral/|title=About the Nidaros Cathedral|publisher=Nidaros Cathedral}}</ref>
[[Image:Nidarosdomen vestfront rett.jpg|thumb|right|West face of the Nidaros Cathedral (originally Romanesque church, rebuilt and extended in the gothic style 1183-1248).]]
===Under Danish domination===
{{See also|Denmark-Norway}}
In the late Middle Ages, the Norwegian state was severely weakened. In 1389 Norway entered into a personal union with Denmark and Sweden in the [[Kalmar Union]]. As the kings resided in Denmark, Norway was gradually reduced to a provincial status, and after the [[Reformation]] most of its separate institutions were abolished. The Danish government in [[Copenhagen]] regarded Norway as a backward province to be exploited,[http://www.norway.org/history/upto1814/unionden/unionden.htm] but not worthy of investment in monumental architecture. Hence, ambitious [[Renaissance architecture]] is unusual in Norway compared to other European countries.
Fortresses , such as [[Akershus Fortress|Akershus]] in [[Oslo]], [[Vardøhus Fortress|Vardøhus]] in [[Vardø]], [[Tønsberg Fortress|Tønsberghus]] in [[Tønsberg]], the [[Kongsgården]] in [[Trondheim]] and [[Bergenhus Fortress|Bergenhus]] with the [[Rosenkrantz Tower]] in [[Bergen, Norway|Bergen]] were built in stone in accordance with standards for defensive fortifications of their time. Many of these were modernized and rebuilt through the years.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.statsbygg.no/aapentrom/arkiv/nr3_2005/11.html|title=Rosenkrantztårnet: To tårn for prisen av ett|author=Morten Ryen|work=Åpent rom|year=2005|publisher=[[Statsbygg]]}}</ref><ref>Guthorm Kavli: Norges festninger : fra Fredriksten til Vardøhus, 1987. Oslo, Universitetsforlaget, ISBN 82-00-18430-7</ref>
The [[Hanseatic League]] also built unique commercial buildings at [[Bryggen]] in Bergen, starting in the 16th century. They were log buildings combining native and [[Architecture of Germany|German]] traditions.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.kulturskolesekken.no/institusjonsside.asp?ID=41|title=Overview of Schøtstuene on the Hansa wharf}}</ref>
[[Image:Brygge Norway 2005-08-18.jpg|center|thumb|800px|Panoramic view of [[Bryggen]]. The eleven houses to the right were rebuilt after a fire in 1702. The six houses to the left were rebuilt after a fire in 1955.]]
====Renaissance architecture====
After the [[Black Death]], monumental construction in Norway came to a standstill, except for vernacular building, only to be resumed in the 16th and 17th centuries under Danish administration.<ref name=Seip/> There are few examples of [[Renaissance architecture]] in Norway, the most prominent being the [[Rosenkrantz Tower]] in Bergen, [[Barony Rosendal]] in [[Hardanger]], and the contemporary [[Austråt]] manor near [[Trondheim]], and parts of Akershus Fortress.<ref>Kristel Christensen: ''Baroniet Rosendal'' major thesis at [[Norwegian University of Science and Technology]] </ref><ref>Håkon A. Andersen: ''Austrått'', 1996 ISBN 82-90502-17-6</ref>
[[Christian IV of Denmark|Christian IV]] undertook a number of projects in Norway that were largely based on [[Renaissance architecture]]<ref>Joakim A. Skovgaard: A king's architecture : Christian IV and his buildings, London, 1973 ISBN 0-238-78979-9.</ref> He established mining operations in [[Kongsberg]] and [[Røros]], now a [[World Heritage Site]]. After a devastating fire in 1624, the town of Oslo was moved to a new location and rebuilt as a fortified city with an orthogonal layout surrounded by ramparts, and renamed [[Christiania, Norway|Christiania]]. King Christian also founded the trading city of [[Kristiansand]], naming it after himself.
====Baroque architecture====
[[Image:Halden and Fredriksten abt 1890.jpg|left|thumb|[[Halden|Fredrikshald]]/[[Fredriksten]], a border town built to protect the Dano-Norwegian realm]]
As Norway became a strategic part of the Danish-Norwegian kingdom, Danish kings built fortifications along borders and the seacoast. Over time, many of the fortifications at border areas and ports were modernized in line with Baroque military practice.
Although most residences were built according to local vernacular traditions, some manors (such as Austråt and Rosendal) exhibit the influence of [[Baroque architecture]]. Only the city of Christiania ([[Oslo]]) had a building code that prohibited wooden houses, and a number of large town houses modeled after Continental building types were constructed. Some large churches were constructed with brick walls, notably in Bergen, Christiania, Røros<ref>Sverre Ødegaard: Bergstaden Røros, 1997 ISBN 82-91399-03-4</ref> and Kongsberg.<ref>Gunvor Thingstad Bøen, Hølje Bøen: Kongsberg kirke : bergstadens juvel, 2003, ISBN 82-91399-23-9</ref>
Probably the most famous Baroque structure in Norway is [[Stiftsgården]], a residential building that is one of the largest wooden structure in Northern Europe.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.statsbygg.no/aapentrom/arkiv/nr1_2002/artikler/trondheim1.html|title=Statsbygg article on Stiftsgården}}</ref>
====Rococo architecture====
[[Image:Damsgaardhovedgaard.jpg|thumb|Damsgård manor in Bergen, example of Norwegian rococo architecture]]
[[Rococo]] provided a brief but significant interlude in Norway, appearing primarily in the decorative arts, and mainly in interiors, furniture and luxury articles such as table silver, glass and stoneware. In some country districts folk artists produced the distinctly Norwegian craft of decorative painting, ''[[rosemaling]]'', and related [[wood carving]] style. In polite architecture, a few wooden town houses and manors show rococo influence, notably in Trondheim and Bergen, [[Damsgård]] in Bergen being the most significant.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.bymuseet.no/?vis=82|title=Bergen City Museum site on Damsgård}}</ref>
In towns and central country districts during the 1700s, log walls were increasingly covered by weatherboards, a fashion made possible by [[sawmill]] technology. These buildings were better insulated and better protected against the harsh climate. But the main reason for the rapid adoption of this custom was the more fashionable appearance of boarded walls, which were more suitable than bare log walls as a background to details and ornaments borrowed from classical architecture.
===Nineteenth century===
The [[Napoleonic Wars]] led to the separation of Norway and Denmark. Norway was restored in 1814 as an autonomous kingdom in a [[Union between Sweden and Norway|personal union with Sweden]]. The two states had separate institutions, except for the king and the foreign service. Regained statehood required new public buildings, mainly in the capital of Christiania. During the following century, the country experienced an impressive growth in wealth and population, resulting in a need for new infrastructure and buildings.
====Neo-classicism====
[[Image:Oslo Royal Palace 1890.jpg|thumb|left|Royal palace in Oslo, example of neo-Classical architecture in Norway]]
At the dawn of the 19th century, less than a handful of academically trained architects were active in Norway, most of them military officers having studied civil engineering. The market for architects was limited in a sparsely inhabited country with no capital city, no court and no important government institutions. Architecture was of interest mainly to a limited group of wealthy merchants and landowners. However, toward the close of the previous century, this group saw a remarkable increase in prosperity. Large fortunes were made by a few, who then sought to surround themselves with buildings and gardens appropriate to their social position. Well connected internationally, these people were acquainted with the latest trends in architecture. [[Neoclassical architecture|Neoclassical]] structures were much in demand.
Architect [[Carl Frederik Stanley]] (1769-1805), educated in [[Copenhagen]], spent some years in Norway around the turn of the century. He did minor works for wealthy patrons in and around Oslo, but his major achievement was the renovation of the only seat of higher education in Christiania, the [[Oslo Katedralskole]], completed in 1800. He added a classical [[portico]] to the front of an older structure, and a semi-circular auditorium that was sequestered by Parliament in 1814 as a temporary place to assemble, now preserved at [[Norsk Folkemuseum]] as a national monument.
[[Christian Collett]] (1771-1833), a graduate of the Mining Academy at [[Kongsberg]], designed the splendid [[Ulefoss]] manor, built between 1802 and 1807 by sawmill owner [[Niels Aall]]. This is one of the few brick houses in Norway, boasting a [[Palladian architecture|palladian]] layout, a central [[cupola]], and a classical [[colonnade]]. Collett designed several other manors and town houses.
The same period saw the erection of a large number of splendid neo-classisist houses in and around all towns along the coast, notably in [[Halden]], [[Oslo]], [[Drammen]], [[Arendal]], [[Bergen, Norway|Bergen]] and [[Trondheim]], mainly wooden buildings dressed up as stone architecture. By far the largest private house in Norway is the [[Jarlsberg manor]], renovated 1812-1814 by the Danish architect Løser for count [[Johan Caspar Herman Wedel-Jarlsberg|Herman Wedel-Jarlsberg]].
Christiania, recently promoted to the status of a capital city, had practically no buildings suitable for the many new government institutions. An ambitious building program was initiated, but realised very slowly because of a strained economy. The first major undertaking was the [[Royal Palace, Oslo|Royal Palace]], designed by [[Hans Ditlev Franciscus Linstow]] and built between 1824 and 1848. Linstow also planned [[Karl Johans gate]], the avenue connecting the Palace and the city, with a monumental square halfway to be surrounded by buildings for the University, the Parliament (''[[Storting]]'') and other institutions. But only the University buildings were realised according to this plan.<ref>[http://tux1.aftenposten.no/meninger/kronikker/d147382.htm Det nye Slottet] by Thomas Thiis-Evensen, in [[Aftenposten]], June 24, 2000</ref> [[Christian Heinrich Grosch]], one of the first fully educated architects in Norway, designed the original building for the [[Oslo Stock Exchange]] (1826-1828), the local branch of [[Norges Bank|the Bank of Norway]] (1828), Christiania Theater (1836-1837), and the first campus for the [[University of Oslo]] (1841-1856).<ref>Elisabeth Seip (ed.) ; Jens Christian Eldal, Anne-Lise Seip, Åse Moe Torvanger: ''Chr. H. Grosch : arkitekten som ga form til det nye Norge'' ISBN 82-92238-01-8</ref> For the University buildings, he sought the assistance of the renowned German architect [[Karl Friedrich Schinkel]].<ref name="Aslaksby">Aslaksby, Truls and Ulf Hamran: ''Arkitektene Christian Heinrich Grosch og Karl Friedrich Schinkel og byggingen av Det kongelige Frederiks Universitet i Christiania'' 1986, ISBN 82-90359-32-2</ref>
The German architectural influence persisted in Norway, and many wooden buildings followed the principles of Neoclassicism.
====Romanticism and historicism====
[[Image:Trefoldighetskirken in Oslo.jpg|thumb|left|Trefoldighetskirken in Oslo]]
[[Norwegian romantic nationalism]] also had an influence on Norwegian architecture from around 1840. Following the German lead, many classicist architects designed red-brick buildings in a revival of medieval styles. Romanesque and Gothic examples were considered eminently suitable for churches, public institutions and factories. Linstow was the first Norwegian architect to be inspired by the Middle Ages in his proposal of 1837 for a square to be surrounded by public building, bisected by an avenue between Christiania and the new Royal Palace. On the north side, planned buildings for the University were to be "composed in some Medieval or Florentine style", with exposed brick-work.<ref name="Aslaksby">b</ref> His classicist colleague Grosch was the first to convert to historicism and realize a number of red-brick buildings, after his 1838 visit to [[Berlin]], where he met the famous architect [[Karl Friedrich Schinkel]]. The first major historicist work by Grosch was the neo-romanesque ''Bazaars'' and the adjacent firestation near the [[Oslo Cathedral]], begun in 1840 and extended in several stages until 1859. Other architects followed, notably [[Heinrich Ernst Schirmer]] with the ''Botsfengselet'' (penitentiary) (1844-1851), the [[Gaustad Mental Hospital]] (1844-1855) and the [[Railway Station]] (1854) (with ''von Hanno''). Also in Oslo, the German architect [[Alexis de Chateauneuf]] designed [[Trefoldighetskirken]], the first neo-gothic church, completed by ''von Hanno'' in 1858.
Most urban apartment buildings and villas continued to be built in the classical tradition, with plastered brick walls. The repertoire of historic styles was expanded in [[Homansbyen]], Oslo's first residential development of detached villas, planned by [[Georg Andreas Bull]]. He designed most of the early villas built from 1858 until 1862 in a variety of styles, ranging from medieval to classicist and exotic.
[[Image:Dalen hotell in Tokke.jpg|thumb|Dalen Hotel, a good example of the so-called "dragon style"]]
From around 1840, architects started to design wooden buildings in a new style, the so-called [[Swiss chalet style]]<!--(''sveitserstil'')-->.<ref name=Eldal>Jens Christian Eldal: ''Historisme i tre: "sveitserstil", byggeskikks-romantikk og nasjonal egenart i europeisk og norsk trearkitektur på 1800-tallet'' 1998. Scandinavian University Press. ISBN 82-00-12982-9</ref> The style and its name originated in Germany, where Swiss popular culture was much admired by the romanticists. Elements such as projecting roofs, verandas and emphasis on gables were inspired from Alpine vernacular buildings. But the style may more correctly be termed ''historicism in wood'', a term introduced by Jens Christian Eldal. A number of residential, institutional, and commercial buildings were built in this style, characterized by ornate, projecting details. Railway stations and churches, designed by trained architects, were distributed all in rural districts and helped to make this style popular and to keep it alive in the vernacular tradition long after it went out of fashion among architects.
The Swiss chalet style evolved into a Scandinavian variation, known in Norway as the "dragon style”, which combined motifs from Viking and medieval art with vernacular elements from the more recent past. The most renowned practitioner of this style was the architect [[Holm Munthe]], who designed a number of tourist resorts, exhibition pavilions and churches in the 1880s and 1890s. These caught the eye of the German emperor [[Wilhelm II]], who visited Norway annually. He commissioned Munthe to design his "Matrosenstation" near [[Potsdam]] and a hunting lodge with at "stave church" in [[Rominten]] in [[East Prussia]]. These last buildings were destroyed during World War II.
Architects abandoned both the "Swiss" and the "dragon" styles shortly after 1900, but elements of the "Swiss style" survived in vernacular buildings for some decades. In the recent past, producers of pre-fabricated family homes have increasingly reintroduced motifs from the "Swiss" style in their repertoire.
===Vernacular Architecture===
{{main|Vernacular architecture in Norway}}
[[Image:Homelen in Nordfjord Norway abt 1890.jpg|thumb|A coastal farm in Nordfjord about 1890]]
Until the twentieth century, most Norwegians lived and worked in buildings that were designed and built according to [[Vernacular architecture|vernacular]] building traditions, what in Norwegian is known as ''byggeskikk''. These practices varied somewhat by region and climatic conditions and evolved over time, but were largely based on use of wood and other locally available resources.<ref>Peter M. Anker: Norsk folkekunst : kunsthåndverk og byggeskikk i det gamle bondesamfunnet . 2004. Oslo. Cappelen. ISBN 82-02-23839-0</ref>
Since the Middle Ages, most dwellings were log houses with notched corners, carefully crafted to ensure protection against the elements. Centrally placed open-hearth fires with smoke vents in the roofs gave way to stone stoves and chimneys in early modern times. Specialized buildings became commonplace, organized around farmyards or ''gårdstun''. The introduction of exterior boarding (weatherboarding) in the 18th century improved housing standards considerably and gave rise to larger houses.
Building practices along the coast also included boathouses, fishing cottages, piers, etc. Here, houses for livestock and people were typically built up from the actual shoreline. A typical medium-sized farm in the inland of Norway would include a dwelling house (''våningshus''), hay barn (''låve''), livestock barn (''fjøs''), one or more food storage houses (''stabbur''), a stable, and occasionally separate houses for poultry, pigs, etc. Houses that had separate heat sources, e.g., washing houses (''eldhus'') and [[Forge|smithies]] were usually kept separate from the other houses to prevent fires. Outhouses were typically separate, small structures. If the farm housed craftsmen, there would also be separate houses for carpentry, wheel making, shoemaking, etc.
In [[Østlandet|Eastern inland Norway]] and [[Trøndelag]], the houses around a tun were typically organized in a square (''firkanttun''); in [[Gudbrandsdal]], there was a distinction between ''inntun'' (inner tun) and ''uttun'' (outer tun). The configuration of houses also depended on whether the farm was situated on a hill or in flatter terrain.
Depending upon the size and economic well-being of the farm, there might also be a feast hall (''oppstue''), a house for the retired farmers (''føderådstue''), farm hands' dormitory (drengstue), carriage house (''vognskjul''), and even distillery (''brenneskur''). Smaller, poorer farms might combine barns and dwelling houses, have simpler storage areas, and use the facilities of other farms for activities they could not afford to build houses for.
Building traditions varied by region and type of structure. Food storage houses - stabbur - were usually built on stilts in ways that made it difficult for mice and rats, but not cats, to get in. Exterior cladding varied by region, often to take into account local climate conditions. Roofs were often covered with [[birch]] bark and [[sod]].
Many places in Norway farms also maintained mountain farms (''[[seter]]''), where cows, goats, and sheep would put out to pasture during the summer months. These would typically include a small dwelling house and a dairy for making and storing cheese, sour cream, etc.
Modern Norwegian farms often maintain many building traditions but no longer need the many and varied buildings of the past. However, many of the traditions have been carried on in more recently built vacation cabins in the mountains and along the coast.
===Twentieth century architecture===
The German influence brought into Norway by [[Nordic Classicism|neo-classicism]] abated when Norway [[Dissolution of the union between Norway and Sweden in 1905|gained full independence]] in 1905. A new generation of Norwegian architects educated in Sweden took the lead in developing a distinctly national architecture, endeavouring to break the German historicist tradition. However, German modernism and town planning continued to influence early 20th century architecture. As the [[Norwegian Institute of Technology]] was founded in 1910 and began to teach architecture in [[Trondheim]], there also emerged a distinctly [[List of Norwegian architects|Norwegian collegium of architects]] that has contributed to a Norwegian regional architecture, discussed by the art historian [[Sigfried Giedeon]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.meamnet.polimi.it/archive/037/037 m1.html|title=MEAM Net article on Christian Norberg-Schulz}}</ref>
====Art nouveau architecture====
[[Image:Jugendstilsenteret.jpg|thumb|right|upright|Jugendstilsenteret - The Jugendstil Centre in Ålesund]]
The ''[[Jugendstil]]'', a variant of [[Art Nouveau]], had a certain influence on much of the new construction in Norway around the turn of the century. The city of [[Ålesund]], after [[Ålesund Fire|burning]] to the ground in 1904, was rebuilt almost entirely in this style and continues to be a prominent example, along with [[Riga]] and [[Brussels]].<ref>Harald Grytten et al: ''Fugl Føniks: Ålesund opp av asken'' 2004. ISBN 82-91024-08-1</ref> [[Trondheim]] also has numerous art nouveau buildings. In the capital Oslo, few art nouveau buildings were erected, due to a local economic crisis and a stagnant building trade during the first decade of the century. However, some public buildings were constructed in this style, such as the [[Historisk Museum|Historical Museum]] and the [[Regjeringsbygningen|Government office building]]. In Bergen, the main theatre [[Den Nationale Scene]] is a monumental example.
====Mass residential architecture====
Changing demographics and a growing social awareness led to increased political and architectural interest in providing cost-effective, sanitary, and comfortable residential space to the growing urban population in general and the working class in particular. This was known as ''boligsaken'' ("the housing cause") in Norwegian popular culture and continues to play a role to this day.<ref name=nasjonsbygging>Ulf Grønvold: Hundre års nasjonsbygging: arkitektur og samfunn 1905 - 2005. Pax forlag. 2005. ISBN 82-530-2758-3</ref>
Architecture became a tool for and manifestation of social policy, with architects and politicians determining just what features were adequate for the intended residents of housing projects. As late as in 1922, there were many who felt that working class families had no need for their own bath; apartments and small houses only included a small kitchen and one or two rooms.
Over time, cooperative organizations were formed to finance and build large-scale residential complexes. The largest-- [[Oslo Bolig og Sparelag]], known as ''OBOS''-- built its first complex [[Etterstad]] in Oslo, but there were similar initiatives throughout the country. These co-ops set standards for housing, hired architects to design solutions, and contracted to have them built. Entire sections, known as ''drabantbyer'' - or "satellite cities" - were built in the outskirts of major cities. The first of these - [[Lambertseter]] - introduced an entirely new phenomenon in the eastern areas of Oslo such as in [[Groruddalen]], but similar areas also emerged in Bergen, Trondheim, and other cities. The apex of this trend was reached in 1966 with the massive buildings in [[Ammerudlia]].<ref name=OBOS>{{cite web|url=http://www.obos.no/default.aspx?did=283241|title=OBOS: Historikk og arkitektur}}</ref>
This era--which had spent most of its force by the mid-1970s--led to an increased awareness of the physical and emotional needs of city dwellers. Some of the issues under debate were.<ref name=nasjonsbygging>b</ref>
* '''Kitchen''' - traditional Norwegian homes combined the family room and kitchen, but in early apartment buildings, small, so-called "laboratory kitchens" were popular. Over time, eat-in-kitchens took their place.
* '''Natural light'''--large apartment buildings were oriented to provide sunlight to the residents, ideally orienting the kitchen toward the east to get the morning light and the living room to the west for evening light.
* '''Privacy'''--providing separate sleeping quarters for parents and children, and among children led to larger apartments over time. Similarly, most buildings had a limited number of apartments adjoining each staircase.
* '''Alienation''' - monolithic, homogenous apartment complexes reinforced what some characterized as "social democracy's hell."
The perceived shortcomings of the mass housing movement led to efforts to create cost-effective housing solutions that were more varied, more integrated with natural surroundings, and above all more customized to families' needs. In 1973, the [[Stortinget|Norwegian parliament]] recommended a shift toward small residential houses rather than large apartment buildings. The [[Norwegian State Housing Bank]] (''Husbanken'') provided citizens with the ability to fund construction of their homes, and an entire construction industry formed to build these needs.
Over time, archaic and otherwise unnecessary restrictions were relaxed, improving opportunities for more Norwegians to build housing to suit their individual needs and preferences. Norwegians often undertake home improvement projects on their own, and many have built most of their own homes.
====Functionalism====
[[Image:GriegLouEide02.JPG|thumb|Villa Eide in Bergen, example of "funkis" architecture]]
In the late 1920s, [[Modern architecture|Modernism]] (or the [[International style (architecture)|International style]]) was taken up by Scandinavian architects. In Scandinavia this architectural trend was called [[Functionalism (architecture)|Functionalism]] (or colloquially in Sweden and Norway "funkis"). Modernism found many adherents among young architects, especially in Norway. Its definite breakthrough was the [[Stockholm International Exhibition (1930)|Stockholm Exhibition]] in 1930, after which the majority of architects all over Scandinavia converted to the modern movement. Nowhere else did Modernism become so firmly established as the mainstream trend in architecture. It maintained its dominant position until about 1940.
A number of landmark structures, particularly in Oslo, were built in the functionalist style, the first one being the ''Skansen'' restaurant (1925-1927) by [[Lars Backer]], demolished in 1970. Backer also designed the restaurant at ''Ekeberg'', opened in 1929. The art gallery [[Kunstnernes Hus]] by [[Gudolf Blakstad]] and [[Herman Munthe-Kaas]] (1930) still shows influence from the preceding classicist trend of the 1920s. [[Hvalstrand]] bath (1934)<ref>Bernt Bucher-Johannessen, Eira Kjernlie and Peter Lawrance: ''Hvalstrand bad : maten, arkitekturen, historien''. Schibsted, ISBN 82-516-1965-3</ref> is one of several public seaside bath facilities in Norway, by [[André Peters]]. A year before, [[Ingierstrand Bad]] was designed by [[Ole Lind Schistad]] and [[Eivind Moestue]]. Other great names of Norwegian functionalist architecture are [[Ove Bang]], [[Fridtjof Reppen]], [[Nicolai Beer]] and [[Per Grieg]].
====Reconstruction architecture====
Following the [[scorched earth]] tactics of retreating [[Wehrmacht]] troops, large areas in [[Northern Norway]] needed to be rebuilt. In 1945, there was an overwhelming need for housing. An architectural competition produced several designs for simple, cost-effective, and rapidly assembled housing. The resulting houses were Spartan and broke with building standards, but met an immediate need for shelter.<ref>Ingebjørg Hage: ''Som fugl føniks av asken? : gjenreisingshus i Nord-Troms og Finnmark''. Gyldendal. Oslo. 1999. ISBN 82-417-1045-3 </ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://biblioteknett.no/alias/HJEMMESIDE/gjenreisningsmuseet/gjenr_ford3.htm|title=Kulturnett article on Reconstruction architecture}}</ref>
The [[Museum of Reconstruction]] in [[Hammerfest]] is dedicated to the reconstruction.
====Government-sponsored architecture====
[[Image:Oslo Nationaltheatret.JPG|thumb|left|National Theatre in Oslo.]]
As Norway gained full independence in 1905, the national government determined to establish institutions consistent with the newly formed state's ambitions as a modern society. The first prime minister made it a priority to modernize the Royal Palace in Oslo, building among other things, some of the country's first water toilets, providing hot and cold water, and granting the Royal Family's wish of providing a common apartment for the king, queen, and their son.
In the early years, such public works were limited to structures needed for the national government's own administrative needs, but an increasing number of large-scale projects were conceived, designed, and completed since 1905 to meet various needs, such as:
* '''Public health and welfare''', including:
** ''Hospital complexes and polyclinical facilities'', e.g., [[Rikshospitalet]], [[Haukeland University Hospital]], [[Gaustad Mental Hospital]],<ref>John Arne Balto, (ed.): ''Norsk sykehusarkitektur'', special edition of annual journal of [[Fortidsminneforeningen]], 2000.</ref> etc.
** ''Orphanages'', later vacated in favor of other solutions that in turn required their own architecture.
** ''[[Sanatorium|Sanatoria]]'', also vacated as the public health problem of [[tuberculosis]] was solved<ref>Dag Skogheim: ''Frisk luft og diett: norske tuberkulosesanatorier'', article in annual journal for [[Fortidsminneforeningen]], 2000.</ref>
** ''Temporary and provisional housing'' for the indigent, asylum seekers, and homeless.
* '''Sports and recreation facilities'''. Social policy in Norway both at the national and local level has emphasized the connection between athletics at the mass and elite levels, and athletic centers have typically been built both to accommodate spectators, participants, and training. As an example, the [[Holmenkollen ski jump]] has been rebuilt several times, the [[Bislett stadion|stadium at Bislett]] was rebuilt in 2004-2005, and virtually every [[municipalities of Norway|municipality]] has built year-round facilities.<ref>Johan-Ditlef Martens: ''Idrettsanlegg og estetikk'', 2001. Oslo. ISBN 82-05-28524-1</ref>
* '''Centers for cultural expression'''. Some of the most ambitious and controversial structures have been those dedicated to performing arts, art museums, and any combination of such activities. Since many of these have been built in cities with an architectural legacy, their designs have sought--more or less successfully--to complement the urban landscape by giving it a modern element. Examples include the [[Henie-Onstad Art Centre]] (by [[Jon Eikvar]] and [[Sven Erik Engebretsen]]), [[Chateau Neuf]] by Lund & Slaatto, the "barn" at [[Hedmark museum|Hedmarkmuseet]] by [[Sverre Fehn]], and the [[Grieg Hall]] (by [[Knud Munk]]).
* '''Churches'''. The Norwegian State Church, holding the legacy of nearly one thousand years of Norwegian church architecture, commissioned new churches that covered a wide range of architectural styles, including entirely new designs (e.g. the [[Arctic Cathedral]] by [[Jan Inge Hovig]]) to new casts of traditional designs (e.g., [[Veldre church]], by [[Roar Jacobsen]] and [[Ulf Zettersten]].)<ref>Arne E. Sæther: ''Kirken som bygg og bilde : rom og liturgi ved et tusenårsskifte : en bok om kirkebygging før, nå og i fremtiden''. Asker, 2001 ISBN 82-992135-1-7</ref><ref>Reidun Mellem: ''Tromsdalskjerka fyller førti''. 2005. ISBN 82-992267-1-6</ref>
* '''Transportation infrastructure''', including bridges, tunnels, and most notably transit centers for rail, sea, and air transportation. [[Oslo Airport, Gardermoen|Oslo airport]] (by the [[Aviaplan]] consortium at Gardermoen was Norway's largest construction project everl.<ref>Trond Bergh, Helge Ryggvik, Jon Gulowsen: ''Jernbanen i Norge 1854-2004'', 2004. ISBN 82-419-0333-2 </ref><ref>Lars Elnan: ''Luftslottet: materiell og arkitektur ved Oslo Lufthavn - Gardermoen'', major thesis in sociology at the [[University of Oslo]] </ref>
The architectural designs of these projects have reflected not only the style currents of their time, but the societal debate over the purpose they were intended to serve. Nationalistic ambitions early on gave way to austere designs based on functionalism, and then to designs that emphasized human and ecological needs. To a great extent, Norwegian architects have found the opportunity to develop their signature styles through these projects, and thereby also a Norwegian architectural dialect.
Many of the projects have been controversial, and the resulting creative tension has probably served to advance the state of architectural arts in Norway. National and local governments and governmental institutions will continue to be among the largest customers of architects in coming years.
==Contemporary themes==
[[Image:Molde im Februar 2005.jpg|thumb|left|Hotel in Molde]]
A number of trends influence contemporary architecture in Norway, among them:<ref name=arkhistorie>b</ref>
* '''Growing public and private affluence'''. Buildings have a wider range of purpose, and are expected to meet increasingly complex demands. For example, the [[New National Opera House (Oslo)|new opera building]] (designed by [[Snøhetta (company)|Snøhetta]]) in Oslo reflects an ambition not just to build a vibrant cultural center, but also to create a new architectural icon in the [[Oslofjord]].
* '''Aesthetics as a factor of well-being'''. From the early austere principle that form should strictly follow function, there is a growing sensibility that aesthetics affect the physical and emotional health of those who use a building or structure. Norwegian laws concerning occupational health have for several decades emphasized access to daylight and fresh air, and it may also be that harsh climatic conditions create an added imperative for uplifting aesthetics.
* '''Environmental concerns'''. In addition to concerns about air and water pollution, Norwegian architectural design has also emphasized integration with the [[natural landscape]]. More recently, architects have also worked with engineers to make the most out of scarce resources, e.g., energy, water, etc.
* '''Demographic diversity'''. [[Demographics of Norway|Norwegian demographics]] have undergone significant changes the last few decades, resulting in a richer cultural dynamic but also conflict. Some of the most interesting new religious buildings in Norway in later years have been [[mosque]]s and Catholic churches.
* '''Norwegian building traditions'''. While it may be too much to speak of a renaissance in traditional Norwegian architecture, more and more urban planning is affected by the need to preserve or restore these traditions. Examples include plans to renew the center of [[Oppdal]] and recent work at the Oslo neighborhood of [[Grünerløkka]].
A number of architectural prizes are awarded in Norway, including ''Houens fonds diplom'', ''Treprisen'', ''Statens byggeskikkpris'', ''Sundts premie'', ''Betongelementprisen'', ''Betongtavlen'', ''Glassprisen'', ''Murverksprisen'', ''Stenprisen'', and ''Stålkonstruksjonsprisen''.
{{-}}
==References and notes==
===Books===
* {{cite book |last= Gunnarsjaa |first= Arne |authorlink= |coauthors= |editor= |others= |title= Norges arkitekturhistorie |origdate= |origyear= 2006 |origmonth= |url= |format= |accessdate= |accessyear= |accessmonth= |edition= |series= |volume= |date= |year= |month= |publisher= Abstrakt |location= Oslo |language= Norwegian bokmål|isbn= 9788279351276 |oclc= |doi= |id= |pages= |chapter= |chapterurl= |quote= }}
* {{no icon}} {{cite book |last=Grønvold |first=Ulf |title= Hundre års nasjonsbygging - arkitektur og samfunn, 1905-2005 |year= 2005|publisher= Pax forlag |location= Oslo |id= ISBN 82-530-2758-3}}
* {{no icon}} {{cite book |last=Brekke |first=Nils Georg | coauthors= Per Jonas Nordhagen, Siri Skjold Lexau |title= Norsk arkitekturhistorie - frå steinalder og bronsealder til 21. hundreåret |year= 2003 |publisher= Det Norske Samlaget|location= Oslo |language= [[Nynorsk]] |id= ISBN 82-521-5748-3}}
* {{no icon}} {{cite book |last=Brochmann |first=Odd | title= Bygget i Norge. En arkitekturhistorisk beretning |year= 1979 |publisher= Gyldendal |location= Oslo |language= [[Bokmål]] |id= ISBN 82-05-12328-4}}
* Bjørn Myhre, Bjarne Stoklund, Per Gjærder: ''Vestnordisk byggeskikk gjennom 2000 år. Tradisjon og forandring fra romertiden til 19. århundre''. AmS skrifter nummer 7, Stavanger
* Eilert Sundt: ''Om bygningsskikken på landet i Norge''. 1862.
* Christian Norberg-Schulz: ''Modern Norwegian Architecture''. 1986. Oslo. Scandinavian University Press. ISBN 82-00-07696-2
* Christian Norberg-Schulz: ''Stedskunst''. 1995. Oslo. Gyldendal. ISBN 82-05-23502-3
* Ole Daniel Bruun: ''Arkitektur i Oslo''. 1999. Oslo. Kunnskapsforlaget. ISBN 9788257309480
===Notes===
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<references/>
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==External links==
* [http://www.arkitektur.no/ Norwegian association of architects]
* [http://www.jugendstilsenteret.no/ Norwegian centre of Art Nouveau - Jugendstil senteret]
* [http://www.museumsnett.no/arkitekturmuseet/newpages/side2.html Norwegian architecture museum]
* [http://www.docomomo.no/ DOCOMOMO Norway]
* [http://www.arkitektnytt.no/ Arkitektnytt]
* ''[http://www.statsbygg.no/aapentrom/ Åpent Rom]'', the magazine of [[Statsbygg]].
* ''[http://www.arkitektur.no/page/Byggekunst/Meny_Publikasjoner/8942/8206 Byggekunst]'' architecture journal
* [http://miljolare.no/fagstoff/by/stilhistorie.php Miljølære.no introduction to Norwegian architecture]
* [http://www.byen.org/ Norwegian Foundation for Urban Renewal]
* [http://www.allgronn.org/alleng.html AllGreen Network]
* [http://www.stavechurch.org/ Site on Stave Churches, by Jorgen H. Jensenius]
* [http://www.norway.culturalprofiles.net Norway Cultural Profile] - national cultural portal for Norway in English
{{Architecture of Europe}}
[[Category:Norwegian architecture|Norwegian architecture]]
[[Category:Architecture by country|Norway]]