Arctic Ocean
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{{Five oceans}}
The '''Arctic Ocean''', located in the [[northern hemisphere]] and mostly in the [[Arctic]] [[North Pole|north polar]] region, is the smallest and shallowest of the world's five major [[ocean]]s.<ref Name=Pidwirny>{{cite web | title=Introduction to the Oceans| work=www.physicalgeography.net| url=http://www.physicalgeography.net/fundamentals/8o.html | author=Michael Pidwirny|date=2006 | accessdate=2006-12-07 }}</ref> The [[International Hydrographic Organization]] (IHO) recognizes it as an ocean, although some [[oceanography|oceanographers]] call it the ''Arctic Mediterranean Sea'' or simply the ''Arctic Sea'', classifying it as one of the [[mediterranean sea (oceanography)|mediterranean seas]] of the [[Atlantic Ocean]]<ref>{{ Citation
| first=Matthias
| last=Tomczak
| first2=J. Stuart
| last2=Godfrey
| title=Regional Oceanography: an Introduction
| edition=2
| year=2003
| publisher=Daya Publishing House
| place=Delhi
| isbn=81-7035-306-8
| url=http://www.es.flinders.edu.au/~mattom/regoc/
}}</ref>. Alternatively, the Arctic Ocean can be seen as the northernmost lobe of the all-encompassing [[World Ocean]].
Almost completely surrounded by [[Eurasia]] and [[North America]], the Arctic Ocean is largely covered by [[sea ice]] throughout the year. The Arctic Ocean's [[temperature]] and [[salinity]] vary [[season]]ally as the [[ice]] cover melts and freezes<ref>[http://psc.apl.washington.edu/HLD/Lomo/OM2001AagaardWoodgate.pdf Some Thoughts on the Freezing and Melting of Sea Ice and Their Effects on the Ocean] K. Aagaard and R. A. Woodgate, Polar Science Center, Applied Physics Laboratory
University of Washington, January 2001. Retrieved 7 [[December 2006]]. </ref>; its salinity is the lowest on average of the five major oceans, due to low [[evaporation]], heavy [[freshwater]] inflow from [[river]]s and [[stream]]s, and limited connection and outflow to surrounding oceanic waters with higher salinities. The [[summer]] shrinking of the ice has been quoted at 50[[%]].<ref Name=Pidwirny/> The [http://nsidc.org/arcticseaicenews/ National Snow and Ice Data Center [[NSIDC]]] use satellite data to provide a daily record of Arctic sea ice cover and the rate of melting compared to an average period and specific past years.
== Geography ==
[[Image:IBCAO betamap.jpg|right|350px|thumb|[[Bathymetric]]/[[topographic]] [[map]] of the Arctic Ocean and the surrounds, ''Image Credit'': NOAA]]
The Arctic Ocean occupies a roughly circular basin and covers an area of about 14,056,000 [[km²]] (5,440,000 [[sq mi]]), almost the size of [[Russia]].<ref name=nyt>{{cite book | first=John W. (ed.) | last=Wright | coauthors=Editors and reporters of ''The New York Times'' | year=2006 | title=The New York Times Almanac | edition=2007 | publisher=Penguin Books | location=New York, New York | isbn=0-14-303820-6|pages=455}}</ref> The coastline length is 45,390 [[kilometer]]s (28,203 [[mile]]s).<ref name=nyt/> Nearly landlocked, it is surrounded by the land masses of Eurasia, North America, [[Greenland]], and several [[island]]s. It includes [[Baffin Bay]], [[Barents Sea]], [[Beaufort Sea]], [[Chukchi Sea]], [[East Siberian Sea]], [[Greenland Sea]], [[Hudson Bay]], [[Hudson Strait]], [[Kara Sea]], [[Laptev Sea]], [[White Sea]] and other tributary bodies of water. It is connected to the Pacific Ocean by the [[Bering Strait]] and to the [[Atlantic Ocean]] through the Greenland Sea<ref Name=Pidwirny/> and [[Labrador Sea]].
According to the [[International Hydrographic Organization]],<ref>[http://ioc.unesco.org/oceanteacher/OceanTeacher2/01_GlobOcToday/03_GeopolOc/s23_1953.pdf ''Limits of Oceans and Seas'']. International Hydrographic Organization Special Publication No. 23, 3rd Edition, 1953 ''(the fourth edition has yet to be ratified)''</ref> the limits of the Arctic Ocean proper are (see [http://www.iho.shom.fr/publicat/free/files/S23_Ed3_Sheet_1_Small.jpg the map]):
* A [[great circle]] line running from [[Cape Morris Jesup]], the northernmost point of Greenland ({{coord|83|38|N|32|40|W|display=inline}}) to the northernmost point of [[Spitsbergen]] ([[south]] of which line lies the Greenland Sea).
* Parallel 80° North to North East Land ([[Nordaustlandet]]).
* The north shore of Nordaustlandet to its easternmost point, [[Cape Leigh Smith]] ({{coord|80|05|N|28|00|E|display=inline}}).
* A line running from Cape Leigh Smith to [[Cape Kohlsaat]], the easternmost point of [[Franz Josef Land]] ({{coord|81|14|N|65|10|E|display=inline}}, south of which line lies the Barents Sea].
* A line running from Cape Kohlsaat to [[Cape Molotov]] ([[Arctic Cape]]), the northernmost point of [[Komsomolets Island]] ({{coord|81|13|N|95|15|E|display=inline}}, south of which line lies the Kara Sea).
* A line running from Arctic Cape to the northernmost point of [[Kotelni Island]] ({{coord|76|10|N|138|50|E|display=inline}}, south of which line lies the Laptev Sea).
* A line running from the northernmost point of Kotelni Island to the northernmost point of [[Wrangel Island]] ({{coord|71|40|N|179|30|W|display=inline}}, south of which line lies the East Siberian Sea).
* A line running from the northernmost point of Wrangel Island to [[Point Barrow]], the northernmost point of [[Alaska]] ({{coord|71|23|N|156|29|W|display=inline}}, south of which line lies the Chuckchi Sea).
* A line running from Point Barrow to [[Land's End, Prince Patrick Island|Cape Land's End]] on [[Prince Patrick Island]], [[Northwest Territories]] ({{coord|76|27|N|121|59|W|display=inline}}, south of which line lies the Beaufort Sea).
* The [[Cardinal direction|northwest]] coast of Prince Patrick Island [[north]] to [[Cape Leopold M'Clintock]], its northernmost point ({{coord|77|33|N|116|23|W|display=inline}}).
* A line running from Cape Leopold M'Clintock to [[Cape Murray]] on [[Brock Island]] ({{coord|77|57|N|115|04|W|display=inline}}).
* The northwest [[coast]] of Brock Island north to its northernmost point ({{coord|78|05|N|114|20|W|display=inline}}).
* A line running from the northernmost point of Brock Island to [[Cape Mackay]] on [[Borden Island]], its westernmost point ({{coord|78|20|N|113|18|W|display=inline}}).
* The northwest coast of Borden Island north to [[Cape Malloch]] ({{coord|78|46|N|110|24|W|display=inline}}, the northernmost point of the Northwest Territories).
* A line running from Cape Malloch to [[Cape Isachsen]] on [[Ellef Ringnes Island]], [[Nunavut]], its northwesternmost point ({{coord|79|20|N|105|24|W|display=inline}}).
* A line running from Cape Isachsen to the northwesternmost point of [[Meighen Island]] ({{coord|80|05|N|100|10|W|display=inline}}).
* A line running from the northwesternmost point of Meighen Island to [[Cape Stallworthy]] on [[Axel Heiberg Island]], its northernmost point ({{coord|81|23|N|93|33|W|display=inline}}).
* A line running from Cape Stallworthy to [[Cape Colgate]] on [[Ellesmere Island]], its westernmost point ({{coord|81|37|N|91|55|W|display=inline}}).
* The north coast of Ellesmere Island north to [[Cape Columbia]], its northernmost point ({{coord|83|05|N|70|21|W|display=inline}}).
* A line running from Cape Columbia to Cape Morris Jesup (south of which line lies the [[Lincoln Sea]]).
[[Image:Arctic.svg|thumb|right|225px|Arctic region]]
An [[underwater ridge]], the [[Lomonosov Ridge]], divides the deep sea [[North Polar Basin]] into two [[oceanic basin]]s: the [[Eurasian Basin]], which is between 4,000 and 4,500 [[meter]]s (13,000 and 15,000 [[ft]]) deep, and the [[Amerasian Basin]] (sometimes called the [[North American Basin|North American]], or [[Hyperborean Basin]]), which is about 4,000 meters (13,000 ft) deep. The [[bathymetry]] of the ocean bottom is marked by [[fault-block ridge]]s, [[abyssal plain|plains of the abyssal zone]], ocean deeps, and basins. The average [[depth]] of the Arctic Ocean is 1,038 meters (3,407 ft).<ref>{{cite web | title=The Mariana Trench - Oceanography| work=www.marianatrench.com | url=http://www.marianatrench.com/mariana_trench-oceanography.htm | date=[[2003-04-04]]| accessdate=2006-12-02 }}</ref> The [[deepest point]] is in the Eurasian Basin, at 5,450 meters (17,881 ft).
The two major basins are further subdivided by ridges into the [[Canada Basin]] (between Alaska/[[Canada]] and the [[Alpha Ridge]]), [[Makarov Basin]] (between the Alpha and Lomonosov Ridges), [[Fram Basin]] (between Lomonosov and [[Nansen-Gakkel Ridge|Nansen-Gakkel]] ridges), and [[Nansen Basin]] ([[Amundsen Basin]]) (between the Nansen-Gakkel Ridge and the [[continental shelf]] that includes the [[Franz Joseph Land]]).
The Arctic Ocean contains a major [[chokepoint]] in the southern Chukchi Sea,<ref Name=CIA>[https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/xq.html Arctic Ocean] CIA World Factbook. 30 [[November 2006]]. Retrieved 7 [[December 2006]]. </ref> which provides northern access to the Pacific Ocean via the Bering Strait between North America and the Russian city of [[Arkhangelsk]]. The Arctic Ocean also provides the shortest marine link between the extremes of eastern and western Russia. There are several [[floating research station]]s in the Arctic, operated by the US and Russia.
The greatest inflow of water comes from the Atlantic by way of the [[Norwegian Current]], which then flows along the Eurasian coast. Water also enters from the Pacific via the Bering Strait. The [[East Greenland Current]] carries the major outflow.
Ice covers most of the ocean surface year-round, causing subfreezing temperatures much of the time. The Arctic is a major source of very cold [[air]] that inevitably moves toward the [[equator]], meeting with warmer air in the middle [[latitude]]s and causing [[rain]] and [[snow]]. [[Marine life]] abounds in open areas, especially the more southerly waters. The ocean's major [[port]]s are the [[cities]] of [[Murmansk]], Arkhangelsk, [[Churchill, Manitoba|Churchill]] and [[Prudhoe Bay]].<ref Name=CIA/>
The Arctic Ocean is encompassed by the [[Arctic shelves]], one of which, the [[Siberian Shelf]], is the largest on [[Earth]].
== History ==
[[Image:Adolf Erik Nordenskiöld målad av Georg von Rosen 1886.jpg|thumb|right|175px|An 1886 [[painting]] of [[Adolf Erik Nordenskiöld]] during his [[exploration]] of the Arctic regions, by [[Georg von Rosen]]]]
{{further|[[Open Polar Sea]]}}
{{further|[[Northwest Passage]]}}
For much of [[European history]], the [[geography]] of the North Polar regions remained largely unexplored and conjectural. [[Pytheas]] of [[Massalia]] recorded an account of a journey northward in [[325 BCE]], to a land he called "[[Eschate Thule]]," where the [[Sun]] only set for three [[hour]]s each [[day]] and the [[water]] was replaced by a congealed substance "on which one can neither [[walk]] nor [[Sailing|sail]]." He was probably describing loose sea ice known today as "[[growler]]s" and "[[bergy bit]]s." His "Thule" may have been [[Iceland]], though Norway is more often suggested.<ref>[http://www.win.tue.nl/~engels/discovery/pytheas.html Pytheas] Andre Engels. Retrieved [[16 December]] [[2006]]. </ref>
Early [[cartographer]]s were unsure whether to draw the region around the North Pole as land (as in [[Johannes Ruysch]]'s [[:Image:Ruysch map.jpg|map of 1507]], or [[Gerardus Mercator]]'s [[:Image:Septentrionalium Gerard Mercator 1595.jpg|map of 1595]]) or water (as with [[Martin Waldseemüller]]'s [[:Image:UniversalisCosmographia.jpg|world map of 1507]]). The fervent desire of [[Europe]]ans for a northern passage to "[[Cathay]]" ([[China]]) caused water to win out, and by 1723 mapmakers such as [[Johann Homann]] featured an extensive "Oceanus Septentrionalis" at the northern edge of their charts. The few expeditions to penetrate much beyond the [[Arctic Circle]] in this era added only small islands, such as [[Nova Zemlya]] (11th century) and Spitsbergen (1596), though since these were often surrounded by [[pack-ice]] their northern limits were not so clear. The makers of [[navigational chart]]s, more conservative than some of the more fanciful cartographers, tended to leave the region blank, with only the bits of known coastline sketched in.
[[Image:Wilkins arctic expedition 1926.jpg|thumb|left|220px|[[George Hubert Wilkins]]' 1926 [[Detroit Arctic Expedition]]]]
This lack of knowledge of what lay north of the shifting barrier of ice gave rise to a number of conjectures. In [[England]] and other European nations, the [[myth]] of an "Open Polar Sea" was long-lived and persistent. [[Sir John Barrow, 1st Baronet|John Barrow]], longtime Second Secretary of the [[United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland|British]] [[Admiralty]], made this belief the cornerstone of his campaign of [[Polar exploration|Arctic exploration]] from 1818 to 1845. In the United States in the 1850s and '60s, the explorers [[Elisha Kent Kane]] and [[Isaac Israel Hayes]] both claimed to have seen the outskirts of this elusive body of water. Even quite late in the century, the eminent authority [[Matthew Fontaine Maury]] included a description of the Open Polar Sea in his [[textbook]] ''The Physical Geography of the Sea'' (1883). Nevertheless, as all the [[explorer]]s who [[trek]]ked closer and closer to the pole reported, the polar [[ice cap]] was ultimately quite thick, and persists year-round.
[[Fridtjof Nansen]] was the first to make a [[nautical]] crossing of the Arctic Ocean, in 1896. The first surface crossing of the ocean was led by [[Wally Herbert]] in 1969, in a [[dog sled]] expedition from Alaska to Svalbard with [[air support]].{{Fact|date=February 2007}}
Since 1937, [[Soviet and Russian manned drifting ice stations]] extensively monitored the Arctic Ocean. [[Scientific settlement]]s were established on the [[drift ice]] and carried thousands of kilometers by [[ice floe]]s.<ref>[http://www.whoi.edu/beaufortgyre/history/history_drifting.html North Pole drifting stations (1930s-1980s)]</ref>
== Climate ==
{| align="right" width="300"
|-
| colspan=2 | ''The images compare late summer and late winter ice cover, averaged between the years 1978 and 2002.''<ref>[http://nsidc.org/sotc/sea_ice.html What sensors on satellites are telling us about sea ice] [[2007-01-31]], The National Snow and Ice Data Center. Retrieved [[2007-04-07]].</ref>
|-
| [[Image:North pole february ice-pack 1978-2002.png|thumb|150px|Extent of Arctic ice-pack, '''Feb''', (1978-2002)]]
| [[Image:North pole september ice-pack 1978-2002.png|thumb|150px|Extent of Arctic ice-pack, '''Sept''', (1978-2002)]]
|}
Under the influence of the present [[ice age]], the ocean is contained in a [[polar climate]] characterized by persistent cold and relatively narrow annual [[temperature range]]s. [[Winter]]s are characterized by continuous [[darkness]], cold and stable weather conditions, and clear skies; summers are characterized by continuous [[daylight]], damp and [[fog]]gy weather, and weak [[cyclone]]s with rain or snow.
The temperature of the surface of the Arctic Ocean is fairly constant, near the freezing point of [[seawater]], slightly below zero degrees [[Celsius]]. In the winter the relatively warm ocean water exerts a moderating influence, even when covered by ice. This is one reason why the Arctic does not experience the extremes of temperature seen on the [[Antarctica|Antarctic continent]].
There is considerable seasonal variation in how much [[pack ice]] of the [[Arctic ice pack]] covers the Arctic Ocean. Much of the ocean is also covered in snow for about 10 [[month]]s of the year. The maximum snow cover is in March or April — about 20 to 50 [[centimeter]]s (8 to 20 [[inch]]es) over the frozen ocean.
Climate has varied significantly in the past; as recently as 55 million years ago, during the [[Paleocene–Eocene Thermal Maximum]] the region reached an average annual temperature of 10-20{{oC}};<ref name=Shellito2003>{{cite journal
| author = Shellito, C.J.
| coauthors = Sloan, L.C.; Huber, M.
| year = 2003
| title = Climate model sensitivity to atmospheric {{CO2}} levels in the Early-Middle Paleogene
| journal = Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology
| volume = 193
| issue = 1
| pages = 113–123
| doi = 10.1016/S0031-0182(02)00718-6
}}</ref> the surface waters of the northernmost<ref>Drill cores were recovered from the [[Lomonosov ridge]], presently at 87°N</ref> Arctic ocean warmed, seasonally at least, enough to support tropical lifeforms<ref>the [[dinoflagellate]]s ''Apectodinium augustum''</ref> requiring surface temperatures of over 22°C.<ref name=Sluijs2006>{{cite journal
| author = Sluijs, A.
| coauthors = Schouten, S.; Pagani, M.; Woltering, M.; Brinkhuis, H.; Damsté, J.S.S.; Dickens, G.R.; Huber, M.; Reichart, G.J.; Stein, R.; Others,
| year = 2006
| title = Subtropical Arctic Ocean temperatures during the Palaeocene/Eocene thermal maximum
| journal = Nature
| volume = 441
| issue = 7093
| pages = 610–613
| doi = 10.1038/nature04668
}}</ref>
== Natural resources ==
''See also [[Territorial claims in the Arctic]]''
[[Petroleum]] and [[natural gas]] [[field]]s, [[placer deposit]]s, [[polymetallic nodules]], [[sand]] and [[gravel]] [[aggregate]]s, [[fish]], [[Seal (mammal)|seals]] and [[whale]]s can all be found in abundance in the region.<ref Name=CIA/>
The political dead zone near the center of the sea is also at the center of a mounting dispute between the United States, Russia, Canada, Norway, and [[Denmark]].<ref>[http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/business/4354036.stm#map The Arctic's New Gold Rush - BBC]</ref> It is considered significant because of its potential to contain as much as or more than a quarter of the world's undiscovered oil and gas resources, the tapping of which could greatly alter the flow of the [[global energy market]].<ref>[http://www.oxfordenergy.org/pdfs/comment_0807-3.pdf The Battle for the Next Energy Frontier: The Russian Polar Expedition and the Future of Arctic Hydrocarbons], by Shamil Midkhatovich Yenikeyeff and Timothy Fenton Krysiek, Oxford Institute for Energy Studies, August 2007</ref>
== Natural hazards ==
Ice islands occasionally break away from northern Ellesmere Island, and icebergs are formed from [[glacier]]s in western Greenland and extreme northeastern Canada. [[Permafrost]] is found on most islands. The ocean is virtually icelocked from October to June, and [[ship]]s are subject to [[superstructure]] [[Icing (nautical)|icing]] from October to May.<ref Name=CIA/> Before the advent of modern [[icebreaker]]s, ships sailing the Arctic Ocean risked being trapped or crushed by sea ice. Interestingly, two "[[ghost ships]]", the ''[[Baychimo]]'' and the ''[[Octavius (ship)|Octavius]]'', drifted through the Arctic Ocean untended for [[decade]]s despite these hazards.
== Animal and plant life==
[[Image:Polar bears near north pole.jpg|thumb|right|[[Polar bears]]]]
Endangered marine species include [[walrus]]es and whales.<ref Name=CIA/> The area has a fragile [[ecosystem]] which is slow to change and slow to recover from disruptions or damage.<ref Name=CIA/>
The Arctic Ocean has relatively little plant life except for [[phytoplankton]]. Phytoplankton are a crucial part of the ocean and there are massive amounts of them in the Arctic. Nutrients from rivers and the [[Ocean current|currents]] of the Atlantic and Pacific oceans provide food for the Arctic phytoplankton.<ref Name=NOAA>[http://oceanexplorer.noaa.gov/explorations/02arctic/background/physical/physical.html Physical Nutrients and Primary Productivity] Professor Terry Whiteledge. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. Retrieved [[7 December]] [[2006]]. </ref> During summer, the Sun is out day and night, thus enabling the phytoplankton to [[Photosynthesis|photosynthesize]] for long periods of time and reproduce quickly. However, the reverse is true in winter where they struggle to get enough light to survive.<ref Name=NOAA/>
== Environmental concerns ==
{| align="right"
|-
| [[Image:NASA seaice 2005 lg.jpg|thumb|right|180px|Record minimum extent of Arctic sea ice, [[September 2005]]]]
| [[Image:SeaIce 2002-05 cmp 1979-2000.png|thumb|180px|Decline of summer Arctic ice from 1979-2000 to 2002-05.<ref>[http://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/Newsroom/NewImages/images.php3?img_id=17047 Continued Sea Ice Decline in 2005] Robert Simmon, [[Earth Observatory]], and Walt Meier, [[NSIDC]]. Retrieved [[7 December]] [[2006]]. </ref>]]
|}
{{main|Arctic shrinkage}}
The [[polar ice packs|polar ice pack]] is thinning, and there is a seasonal hole in [[ozone depletion|ozone layer]] in many years. <ref>[http://www.ec.gc.ca/cleanair-airpur/Linking_Today_into_Tomorrow-WS4D339983-1_En.htm Clean Air Online - Linking Today into Tomorrow<!-- Bot generated title -->]</ref>
Reduction of the area of Arctic sea ice will have an effect on the planet's [[albedo]], thus possibly affecting [[global warming]] within a positive feedback mechanism.<ref Name="R.Black">[http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/science/nature/4315968.stm Earth - melting in the heat?] Richard Black, [[7 October]] [[2005]]. BBC News. Retrieved [[7 December]] [[2006]]. </ref> Many scientists are presently concerned that warming temperatures in the Arctic may cause large amounts of fresh [[meltwater]] to enter the North Atlantic, possibly disrupting global [[thermohaline circulation|ocean current patterns]]. Potentially severe changes in the Earth's [[climate]] might then ensue.<ref Name="R.Black"/>
Other [[environmental concerns]] relate to the [[radioactive contamination]] of the Arctic Ocean from, for example, Russian [[radioactive waste dumpsite]]s in the Kara Sea<ref>[http://bellona.org/english_import_area/international/russia/nuke_industry/siberia/mayak/21636 400 million cubic meters of radioactive waste threaten the Arctic area] Thomas Nilsen, Bellona, [[24 August]] [[2001]]. Retrieved [[7 December]] [[2006]]. </ref> and [[Cold War]] nuclear test sites such as Novaya Zemlya.<ref>[http://www.gso.uri.edu/maritimes/Text_Only/00Summer/text/arctic.html Plutonium in the Russian Arctic, or How We Learned to Love the Bomb] Bradley Moran, John N. Smith. Retrieved 7 December 2006. </ref>
==Major ports and harbors==
[[Image:Arctic Ocean Seaports.png|thumb|250px|Arctic Ocean ports]]
*[[Churchill, Manitoba]], Canada<ref Name=CIA/>
*[[Inuvik]], Canada
*[[Prudhoe Bay, Alaska]], United States<ref Name=CIA/>
*[[Barrow, Alaska]], United States
*[[Pevek]], Russia
*[[Tiksi]], Russia
*[[Dikson (urban-type settlement)|Dikson]], Russia
*[[Dudinka]], Russia
*[[Murmansk]], Russia<ref Name=CIA/>
*[[Arkhangelsk]], Russia
*[[Kirkenes]], [[Norway]]
*[[Vardø]], Norway
*[[Longyearbyen]], Spitsbergen, Norway
==See also==
* [[Arctic Bridge]]
* [[Arctic char|Arctic Char]]
* [[Arctic Tern]]
* [[Extreme points of the Arctic]]
* [[International Arctic Science Committee]]
* [[Nordicity]]
* [[North Pole]]
* [[North Atlantic Current]]
* [[USS O-12 (SS-73)]]
* [[Subarctic]]
* [[Vilhjalmur Stefansson]]
==References==
{{reflist}}
==Further reading==
* Neatby, Leslie H., ''Discovery in Russian and Siberian Waters'' 1973 ISBN 0-8214-0124-6
* Ray, L., and bacon, B., eds., ''The Arctic Ocean'' 1982 ISBN 0-333-31017-9
* Thorén, Ragnar V. A., ''Picture Atlas of the Arctic'' 1969 ISBN 0-8214-0124-6
== External links ==
{{Wiktionary}}
{{wikisource|CIA World Fact Book, 2004/Arctic Ocean}}
* [http://oceanexplorer.noaa.gov/explorations/05arctic/welcome.html The Hidden Ocean Arctic 2005] Daily logs, photos and video from exploration mission.
* [http://www.whoi.edu/imageOfDay.do Oceanography Image of the Day], from the Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution
* [http://www.arctic-council.org Arctic Council]
* [http://www.northernforum.org The Northern Forum]
* [http://vitalgraphics.grida.no/arcticmap Arctic Environmental Atlas] Interactive map
* [http://www.arctic.noaa.gov NOAA Arctic Theme Page]
*{{CIA World Factbook link|xq|Arctic Ocean}}
* [http://nsidc.org/data/nsidc-0060.html Daily Arctic Ocean Rawinsonde Data from Soviet Drifting Ice Stations (1954-1990)] at [[NSIDC]]
* [http://www.unaami.noaa.gov Arctic time series: The Unaami Data collection]
* [http://www.arctic.noaa.gov/gallery_np.html NOAA North Pole Web Cam] Images from Web Cams deployed in spring on an ice floe
* [http://www.arctic.noaa.gov/gallery_np_weatherdata.html NOAA Near-realtime North Pole Weather Data] Data from instruments deployed on an ice floe
* [http://www.wired.com/news/technology/0,1282,63980,00.html ''Search for Arctic Life Heats Up'' by Stephen Leahy]
* [http://www.polarfoundation.org/ International Polar Foundation]
* [http://nsidc.org/arcticseaicenews/ National Snow and Ice Data Center - Daily report of Arctic ice cover based on satellite data]
{{coord|90|N|0|E|type:waterbody_scale:50000000|display=title}}
[[Category:Extreme points of Earth]]
[[Category:Arctic Ocean| ]]
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[[hu:Jeges-tenger]]
[[mk:Северен Леден Океан]]
[[ml:ആര്ട്ടിക് സമുദ്രം]]
[[mr:आर्क्टिक महासागर]]
[[ms:Lautan Artik]]
[[mn:Хойд мөсөн далай]]
[[nah:Ilhuicaātl Ártico]]
[[nl:Noordelijke IJszee]]
[[ja:北極海]]
[[no:Nordishavet]]
[[nn:Nordishavet]]
[[oc:Ocean Artic]]
[[om:Arctic Ocean]]
[[pl:Ocean Arktyczny]]
[[pt:Oceano Ártico]]
[[crh:Arktik okean]]
[[ro:Oceanul Arctic]]
[[qu:Artiku mama qucha]]
[[ru:Северный Ледовитый океан]]
[[simple:Arctic Ocean]]
[[sk:Severný ľadový oceán]]
[[sl:Arktični ocean]]
[[sr:Северни ледени океан]]
[[sh:Arktički ocean]]
[[fi:Pohjoinen jäämeri]]
[[sv:Norra ishavet]]
[[tl:Karagatang Artiko]]
[[ta:ஆர்க்டிக் பெருங்கடல்]]
[[th:มหาสมุทรอาร์กติก]]
[[vi:Bắc Băng Dương]]
[[tg:Уқёнуси яхбастаи шимолӣ]]
[[tr:Kuzey Buz Denizi]]
[[uk:Північний Льодовитий океан]]
[[ur:بحر منجمد شمالی]]
[[wa:Oceyan Artike]]
[[wo:Mbàmbulaan gu Bëj-gànnaar]]
[[zh:北冰洋]]