Arctic Ocean 712 225858691 2008-07-15T18:58:51Z Bazonka 561069 Ridiculous coordinates removed {{Five oceans}} The '''Arctic Ocean''', located in the [[northern hemisphere]] and mostly in the [[Arctic]] [[North Pole|north polar]] region, is the smallest and shallowest of the world's five major [[ocean]]s.<ref Name=Pidwirny>{{cite web | title=Introduction to the Oceans| work=www.physicalgeography.net| url=http://www.physicalgeography.net/fundamentals/8o.html | author=Michael Pidwirny|date=2006 | accessdate=2006-12-07 }}</ref> The [[International Hydrographic Organization]] (IHO) recognizes it as an ocean, although some [[oceanography|oceanographers]] call it the ''Arctic Mediterranean Sea'' or simply the ''Arctic Sea'', classifying it as one of the [[mediterranean sea (oceanography)|mediterranean seas]] of the [[Atlantic Ocean]]<ref>{{ Citation | first=Matthias | last=Tomczak | first2=J. Stuart | last2=Godfrey | title=Regional Oceanography: an Introduction | edition=2 | year=2003 | publisher=Daya Publishing House | place=Delhi | isbn=81-7035-306-8 | url=http://www.es.flinders.edu.au/~mattom/regoc/ }}</ref>. Alternatively, the Arctic Ocean can be seen as the northernmost lobe of the all-encompassing [[World Ocean]]. Almost completely surrounded by [[Eurasia]] and [[North America]], the Arctic Ocean is largely covered by [[sea ice]] throughout the year. The Arctic Ocean's [[temperature]] and [[salinity]] vary [[season]]ally as the [[ice]] cover melts and freezes<ref>[http://psc.apl.washington.edu/HLD/Lomo/OM2001AagaardWoodgate.pdf Some Thoughts on the Freezing and Melting of Sea Ice and Their Effects on the Ocean] K. Aagaard and R. A. Woodgate, Polar Science Center, Applied Physics Laboratory University of Washington, January 2001. Retrieved 7 [[December 2006]]. </ref>; its salinity is the lowest on average of the five major oceans, due to low [[evaporation]], heavy [[freshwater]] inflow from [[river]]s and [[stream]]s, and limited connection and outflow to surrounding oceanic waters with higher salinities. The [[summer]] shrinking of the ice has been quoted at 50[[%]].<ref Name=Pidwirny/> The [http://nsidc.org/arcticseaicenews/ National Snow and Ice Data Center [[NSIDC]]] use satellite data to provide a daily record of Arctic sea ice cover and the rate of melting compared to an average period and specific past years. == Geography == [[Image:IBCAO betamap.jpg|right|350px|thumb|[[Bathymetric]]/[[topographic]] [[map]] of the Arctic Ocean and the surrounds, ''Image Credit'': NOAA]] The Arctic Ocean occupies a roughly circular basin and covers an area of about 14,056,000&nbsp;[[km²]] (5,440,000 [[sq mi]]), almost the size of [[Russia]].<ref name=nyt>{{cite book | first=John W. (ed.) | last=Wright | coauthors=Editors and reporters of ''The New York Times'' | year=2006 | title=The New York Times Almanac | edition=2007 | publisher=Penguin Books | location=New York, New York | isbn=0-14-303820-6|pages=455}}</ref> The coastline length is 45,390 [[kilometer]]s (28,203 [[mile]]s).<ref name=nyt/> Nearly landlocked, it is surrounded by the land masses of Eurasia, North America, [[Greenland]], and several [[island]]s. It includes [[Baffin Bay]], [[Barents Sea]], [[Beaufort Sea]], [[Chukchi Sea]], [[East Siberian Sea]], [[Greenland Sea]], [[Hudson Bay]], [[Hudson Strait]], [[Kara Sea]], [[Laptev Sea]], [[White Sea]] and other tributary bodies of water. It is connected to the Pacific Ocean by the [[Bering Strait]] and to the [[Atlantic Ocean]] through the Greenland Sea<ref Name=Pidwirny/> and [[Labrador Sea]]. According to the [[International Hydrographic Organization]],<ref>[http://ioc.unesco.org/oceanteacher/OceanTeacher2/01_GlobOcToday/03_GeopolOc/s23_1953.pdf ''Limits of Oceans and Seas'']. International Hydrographic Organization Special Publication No. 23, 3rd Edition, 1953 ''(the fourth edition has yet to be ratified)''</ref> the limits of the Arctic Ocean proper are (see [http://www.iho.shom.fr/publicat/free/files/S23_Ed3_Sheet_1_Small.jpg the map]): * A [[great circle]] line running from [[Cape Morris Jesup]], the northernmost point of Greenland ({{coord|83|38|N|32|40|W|display=inline}}) to the northernmost point of [[Spitsbergen]] ([[south]] of which line lies the Greenland Sea). * Parallel 80° North to North East Land ([[Nordaustlandet]]). * The north shore of Nordaustlandet to its easternmost point, [[Cape Leigh Smith]] ({{coord|80|05|N|28|00|E|display=inline}}). * A line running from Cape Leigh Smith to [[Cape Kohlsaat]], the easternmost point of [[Franz Josef Land]] ({{coord|81|14|N|65|10|E|display=inline}}, south of which line lies the Barents Sea]. * A line running from Cape Kohlsaat to [[Cape Molotov]] ([[Arctic Cape]]), the northernmost point of [[Komsomolets Island]] ({{coord|81|13|N|95|15|E|display=inline}}, south of which line lies the Kara Sea). * A line running from Arctic Cape to the northernmost point of [[Kotelni Island]] ({{coord|76|10|N|138|50|E|display=inline}}, south of which line lies the Laptev Sea). * A line running from the northernmost point of Kotelni Island to the northernmost point of [[Wrangel Island]] ({{coord|71|40|N|179|30|W|display=inline}}, south of which line lies the East Siberian Sea). * A line running from the northernmost point of Wrangel Island to [[Point Barrow]], the northernmost point of [[Alaska]] ({{coord|71|23|N|156|29|W|display=inline}}, south of which line lies the Chuckchi Sea). * A line running from Point Barrow to [[Land's End, Prince Patrick Island|Cape Land's End]] on [[Prince Patrick Island]], [[Northwest Territories]] ({{coord|76|27|N|121|59|W|display=inline}}, south of which line lies the Beaufort Sea). * The [[Cardinal direction|northwest]] coast of Prince Patrick Island [[north]] to [[Cape Leopold M'Clintock]], its northernmost point ({{coord|77|33|N|116|23|W|display=inline}}). * A line running from Cape Leopold M'Clintock to [[Cape Murray]] on [[Brock Island]] ({{coord|77|57|N|115|04|W|display=inline}}). * The northwest [[coast]] of Brock Island north to its northernmost point ({{coord|78|05|N|114|20|W|display=inline}}). * A line running from the northernmost point of Brock Island to [[Cape Mackay]] on [[Borden Island]], its westernmost point ({{coord|78|20|N|113|18|W|display=inline}}). * The northwest coast of Borden Island north to [[Cape Malloch]] ({{coord|78|46|N|110|24|W|display=inline}}, the northernmost point of the Northwest Territories). * A line running from Cape Malloch to [[Cape Isachsen]] on [[Ellef Ringnes Island]], [[Nunavut]], its northwesternmost point ({{coord|79|20|N|105|24|W|display=inline}}). * A line running from Cape Isachsen to the northwesternmost point of [[Meighen Island]] ({{coord|80|05|N|100|10|W|display=inline}}). * A line running from the northwesternmost point of Meighen Island to [[Cape Stallworthy]] on [[Axel Heiberg Island]], its northernmost point ({{coord|81|23|N|93|33|W|display=inline}}). * A line running from Cape Stallworthy to [[Cape Colgate]] on [[Ellesmere Island]], its westernmost point ({{coord|81|37|N|91|55|W|display=inline}}). * The north coast of Ellesmere Island north to [[Cape Columbia]], its northernmost point ({{coord|83|05|N|70|21|W|display=inline}}). * A line running from Cape Columbia to Cape Morris Jesup (south of which line lies the [[Lincoln Sea]]). [[Image:Arctic.svg|thumb|right|225px|Arctic region]] An [[underwater ridge]], the [[Lomonosov Ridge]], divides the deep sea [[North Polar Basin]] into two [[oceanic basin]]s: the [[Eurasian Basin]], which is between 4,000 and 4,500&nbsp;[[meter]]s (13,000 and 15,000 [[ft]]) deep, and the [[Amerasian Basin]] (sometimes called the [[North American Basin|North American]], or [[Hyperborean Basin]]), which is about 4,000&nbsp;meters (13,000 ft) deep. The [[bathymetry]] of the ocean bottom is marked by [[fault-block ridge]]s, [[abyssal plain|plains of the abyssal zone]], ocean deeps, and basins. The average [[depth]] of the Arctic Ocean is 1,038&nbsp;meters (3,407 ft).<ref>{{cite web | title=The Mariana Trench - Oceanography| work=www.marianatrench.com | url=http://www.marianatrench.com/mariana_trench-oceanography.htm | date=[[2003-04-04]]| accessdate=2006-12-02 }}</ref> The [[deepest point]] is in the Eurasian Basin, at 5,450&nbsp;meters (17,881 ft). The two major basins are further subdivided by ridges into the [[Canada Basin]] (between Alaska/[[Canada]] and the [[Alpha Ridge]]), [[Makarov Basin]] (between the Alpha and Lomonosov Ridges), [[Fram Basin]] (between Lomonosov and [[Nansen-Gakkel Ridge|Nansen-Gakkel]] ridges), and [[Nansen Basin]] ([[Amundsen Basin]]) (between the Nansen-Gakkel Ridge and the [[continental shelf]] that includes the [[Franz Joseph Land]]). The Arctic Ocean contains a major [[chokepoint]] in the southern Chukchi Sea,<ref Name=CIA>[https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/xq.html Arctic Ocean] CIA World Factbook. 30 [[November 2006]]. Retrieved 7 [[December 2006]]. </ref> which provides northern access to the Pacific Ocean via the Bering Strait between North America and the Russian city of [[Arkhangelsk]]. The Arctic Ocean also provides the shortest marine link between the extremes of eastern and western Russia. There are several [[floating research station]]s in the Arctic, operated by the US and Russia. The greatest inflow of water comes from the Atlantic by way of the [[Norwegian Current]], which then flows along the Eurasian coast. Water also enters from the Pacific via the Bering Strait. The [[East Greenland Current]] carries the major outflow. Ice covers most of the ocean surface year-round, causing subfreezing temperatures much of the time. The Arctic is a major source of very cold [[air]] that inevitably moves toward the [[equator]], meeting with warmer air in the middle [[latitude]]s and causing [[rain]] and [[snow]]. [[Marine life]] abounds in open areas, especially the more southerly waters. The ocean's major [[port]]s are the [[cities]] of [[Murmansk]], Arkhangelsk, [[Churchill, Manitoba|Churchill]] and [[Prudhoe Bay]].<ref Name=CIA/> The Arctic Ocean is encompassed by the [[Arctic shelves]], one of which, the [[Siberian Shelf]], is the largest on [[Earth]]. == History == [[Image:Adolf Erik Nordenskiöld målad av Georg von Rosen 1886.jpg|thumb|right|175px|An 1886 [[painting]] of [[Adolf Erik Nordenskiöld]] during his [[exploration]] of the Arctic regions, by [[Georg von Rosen]]]] {{further|[[Open Polar Sea]]}} {{further|[[Northwest Passage]]}} For much of [[European history]], the [[geography]] of the North Polar regions remained largely unexplored and conjectural. [[Pytheas]] of [[Massalia]] recorded an account of a journey northward in [[325 BCE]], to a land he called "[[Eschate Thule]]," where the [[Sun]] only set for three [[hour]]s each [[day]] and the [[water]] was replaced by a congealed substance "on which one can neither [[walk]] nor [[Sailing|sail]]." He was probably describing loose sea ice known today as "[[growler]]s" and "[[bergy bit]]s." His "Thule" may have been [[Iceland]], though Norway is more often suggested.<ref>[http://www.win.tue.nl/~engels/discovery/pytheas.html Pytheas] Andre Engels. Retrieved [[16 December]] [[2006]]. </ref> Early [[cartographer]]s were unsure whether to draw the region around the North Pole as land (as in [[Johannes Ruysch]]'s [[:Image:Ruysch map.jpg|map of 1507]], or [[Gerardus Mercator]]'s [[:Image:Septentrionalium Gerard Mercator 1595.jpg|map of 1595]]) or water (as with [[Martin Waldseemüller]]'s [[:Image:UniversalisCosmographia.jpg|world map of 1507]]). The fervent desire of [[Europe]]ans for a northern passage to "[[Cathay]]" ([[China]]) caused water to win out, and by 1723 mapmakers such as [[Johann Homann]] featured an extensive "Oceanus Septentrionalis" at the northern edge of their charts. The few expeditions to penetrate much beyond the [[Arctic Circle]] in this era added only small islands, such as [[Nova Zemlya]] (11th century) and Spitsbergen (1596), though since these were often surrounded by [[pack-ice]] their northern limits were not so clear. The makers of [[navigational chart]]s, more conservative than some of the more fanciful cartographers, tended to leave the region blank, with only the bits of known coastline sketched in. [[Image:Wilkins arctic expedition 1926.jpg|thumb|left|220px|[[George Hubert Wilkins]]' 1926 [[Detroit Arctic Expedition]]]] This lack of knowledge of what lay north of the shifting barrier of ice gave rise to a number of conjectures. In [[England]] and other European nations, the [[myth]] of an "Open Polar Sea" was long-lived and persistent. [[Sir John Barrow, 1st Baronet|John Barrow]], longtime Second Secretary of the [[United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland|British]] [[Admiralty]], made this belief the cornerstone of his campaign of [[Polar exploration|Arctic exploration]] from 1818 to 1845. In the United States in the 1850s and '60s, the explorers [[Elisha Kent Kane]] and [[Isaac Israel Hayes]] both claimed to have seen the outskirts of this elusive body of water. Even quite late in the century, the eminent authority [[Matthew Fontaine Maury]] included a description of the Open Polar Sea in his [[textbook]] ''The Physical Geography of the Sea'' (1883). Nevertheless, as all the [[explorer]]s who [[trek]]ked closer and closer to the pole reported, the polar [[ice cap]] was ultimately quite thick, and persists year-round. [[Fridtjof Nansen]] was the first to make a [[nautical]] crossing of the Arctic Ocean, in 1896. The first surface crossing of the ocean was led by [[Wally Herbert]] in 1969, in a [[dog sled]] expedition from Alaska to Svalbard with [[air support]].{{Fact|date=February 2007}} Since 1937, [[Soviet and Russian manned drifting ice stations]] extensively monitored the Arctic Ocean. [[Scientific settlement]]s were established on the [[drift ice]] and carried thousands of kilometers by [[ice floe]]s.<ref>[http://www.whoi.edu/beaufortgyre/history/history_drifting.html North Pole drifting stations (1930s-1980s)]</ref> == Climate == {| align="right" width="300" |- | colspan=2 | ''The images compare late summer and late winter ice cover, averaged between the years 1978 and 2002.''<ref>[http://nsidc.org/sotc/sea_ice.html What sensors on satellites are telling us about sea ice] [[2007-01-31]], The National Snow and Ice Data Center. Retrieved [[2007-04-07]].</ref> |- | [[Image:North pole february ice-pack 1978-2002.png|thumb|150px|Extent of Arctic ice-pack, '''Feb''', (1978-2002)]] | [[Image:North pole september ice-pack 1978-2002.png|thumb|150px|Extent of Arctic ice-pack, '''Sept''', (1978-2002)]] |} Under the influence of the present [[ice age]], the ocean is contained in a [[polar climate]] characterized by persistent cold and relatively narrow annual [[temperature range]]s. [[Winter]]s are characterized by continuous [[darkness]], cold and stable weather conditions, and clear skies; summers are characterized by continuous [[daylight]], damp and [[fog]]gy weather, and weak [[cyclone]]s with rain or snow. The temperature of the surface of the Arctic Ocean is fairly constant, near the freezing point of [[seawater]], slightly below zero degrees [[Celsius]]. In the winter the relatively warm ocean water exerts a moderating influence, even when covered by ice. This is one reason why the Arctic does not experience the extremes of temperature seen on the [[Antarctica|Antarctic continent]]. There is considerable seasonal variation in how much [[pack ice]] of the [[Arctic ice pack]] covers the Arctic Ocean. Much of the ocean is also covered in snow for about 10 [[month]]s of the year. The maximum snow cover is in March or April — about 20 to 50 [[centimeter]]s (8 to 20 [[inch]]es) over the frozen ocean. Climate has varied significantly in the past; as recently as 55 million years ago, during the [[Paleocene–Eocene Thermal Maximum]] the region reached an average annual temperature of 10-20{{oC}};<ref name=Shellito2003>{{cite journal | author = Shellito, C.J. | coauthors = Sloan, L.C.; Huber, M. | year = 2003 | title = Climate model sensitivity to atmospheric {{CO2}} levels in the Early-Middle Paleogene | journal = Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology | volume = 193 | issue = 1 | pages = 113–123 | doi = 10.1016/S0031-0182(02)00718-6 }}</ref> the surface waters of the northernmost<ref>Drill cores were recovered from the [[Lomonosov ridge]], presently at 87°N</ref> Arctic ocean warmed, seasonally at least, enough to support tropical lifeforms<ref>the [[dinoflagellate]]s ''Apectodinium augustum''</ref> requiring surface temperatures of over 22°C.<ref name=Sluijs2006>{{cite journal | author = Sluijs, A. | coauthors = Schouten, S.; Pagani, M.; Woltering, M.; Brinkhuis, H.; Damsté, J.S.S.; Dickens, G.R.; Huber, M.; Reichart, G.J.; Stein, R.; Others, | year = 2006 | title = Subtropical Arctic Ocean temperatures during the Palaeocene/Eocene thermal maximum | journal = Nature | volume = 441 | issue = 7093 | pages = 610–613 | doi = 10.1038/nature04668 }}</ref> == Natural resources == ''See also [[Territorial claims in the Arctic]]'' [[Petroleum]] and [[natural gas]] [[field]]s, [[placer deposit]]s, [[polymetallic nodules]], [[sand]] and [[gravel]] [[aggregate]]s, [[fish]], [[Seal (mammal)|seals]] and [[whale]]s can all be found in abundance in the region.<ref Name=CIA/> The political dead zone near the center of the sea is also at the center of a mounting dispute between the United States, Russia, Canada, Norway, and [[Denmark]].<ref>[http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/business/4354036.stm#map The Arctic's New Gold Rush - BBC]</ref> It is considered significant because of its potential to contain as much as or more than a quarter of the world's undiscovered oil and gas resources, the tapping of which could greatly alter the flow of the [[global energy market]].<ref>[http://www.oxfordenergy.org/pdfs/comment_0807-3.pdf The Battle for the Next Energy Frontier: The Russian Polar Expedition and the Future of Arctic Hydrocarbons], by Shamil Midkhatovich Yenikeyeff and Timothy Fenton Krysiek, Oxford Institute for Energy Studies, August 2007</ref> == Natural hazards == Ice islands occasionally break away from northern Ellesmere Island, and icebergs are formed from [[glacier]]s in western Greenland and extreme northeastern Canada. [[Permafrost]] is found on most islands. The ocean is virtually icelocked from October to June, and [[ship]]s are subject to [[superstructure]] [[Icing (nautical)|icing]] from October to May.<ref Name=CIA/> Before the advent of modern [[icebreaker]]s, ships sailing the Arctic Ocean risked being trapped or crushed by sea ice. Interestingly, two "[[ghost ships]]", the ''[[Baychimo]]'' and the ''[[Octavius (ship)|Octavius]]'', drifted through the Arctic Ocean untended for [[decade]]s despite these hazards. == Animal and plant life== [[Image:Polar bears near north pole.jpg|thumb|right|[[Polar bears]]]] Endangered marine species include [[walrus]]es and whales.<ref Name=CIA/> The area has a fragile [[ecosystem]] which is slow to change and slow to recover from disruptions or damage.<ref Name=CIA/> The Arctic Ocean has relatively little plant life except for [[phytoplankton]]. Phytoplankton are a crucial part of the ocean and there are massive amounts of them in the Arctic. Nutrients from rivers and the [[Ocean current|currents]] of the Atlantic and Pacific oceans provide food for the Arctic phytoplankton.<ref Name=NOAA>[http://oceanexplorer.noaa.gov/explorations/02arctic/background/physical/physical.html Physical Nutrients and Primary Productivity] Professor Terry Whiteledge. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. Retrieved [[7 December]] [[2006]]. </ref> During summer, the Sun is out day and night, thus enabling the phytoplankton to [[Photosynthesis|photosynthesize]] for long periods of time and reproduce quickly. However, the reverse is true in winter where they struggle to get enough light to survive.<ref Name=NOAA/> == Environmental concerns == {| align="right" |- | [[Image:NASA seaice 2005 lg.jpg|thumb|right|180px|Record minimum extent of Arctic sea ice, [[September 2005]]]] | [[Image:SeaIce 2002-05 cmp 1979-2000.png|thumb|180px|Decline of summer Arctic ice from 1979-2000 to 2002-05.<ref>[http://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/Newsroom/NewImages/images.php3?img_id=17047 Continued Sea Ice Decline in 2005] Robert Simmon, [[Earth Observatory]], and Walt Meier, [[NSIDC]]. Retrieved [[7 December]] [[2006]]. </ref>]] |} {{main|Arctic shrinkage}} The [[polar ice packs|polar ice pack]] is thinning, and there is a seasonal hole in [[ozone depletion|ozone layer]] in many years. <ref>[http://www.ec.gc.ca/cleanair-airpur/Linking_Today_into_Tomorrow-WS4D339983-1_En.htm Clean Air Online - Linking Today into Tomorrow<!-- Bot generated title -->]</ref> Reduction of the area of Arctic sea ice will have an effect on the planet's [[albedo]], thus possibly affecting [[global warming]] within a positive feedback mechanism.<ref Name="R.Black">[http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/science/nature/4315968.stm Earth - melting in the heat?] Richard Black, [[7 October]] [[2005]]. BBC News. Retrieved [[7 December]] [[2006]]. </ref> Many scientists are presently concerned that warming temperatures in the Arctic may cause large amounts of fresh [[meltwater]] to enter the North Atlantic, possibly disrupting global [[thermohaline circulation|ocean current patterns]]. Potentially severe changes in the Earth's [[climate]] might then ensue.<ref Name="R.Black"/> Other [[environmental concerns]] relate to the [[radioactive contamination]] of the Arctic Ocean from, for example, Russian [[radioactive waste dumpsite]]s in the Kara Sea<ref>[http://bellona.org/english_import_area/international/russia/nuke_industry/siberia/mayak/21636 400 million cubic meters of radioactive waste threaten the Arctic area] Thomas Nilsen, Bellona, [[24 August]] [[2001]]. Retrieved [[7 December]] [[2006]]. </ref> and [[Cold War]] nuclear test sites such as Novaya Zemlya.<ref>[http://www.gso.uri.edu/maritimes/Text_Only/00Summer/text/arctic.html Plutonium in the Russian Arctic, or How We Learned to Love the Bomb] Bradley Moran, John N. Smith. Retrieved 7 December 2006. </ref> ==Major ports and harbors== [[Image:Arctic Ocean Seaports.png|thumb|250px|Arctic Ocean ports]] *[[Churchill, Manitoba]], Canada<ref Name=CIA/> *[[Inuvik]], Canada *[[Prudhoe Bay, Alaska]], United States<ref Name=CIA/> *[[Barrow, Alaska]], United States *[[Pevek]], Russia *[[Tiksi]], Russia *[[Dikson (urban-type settlement)|Dikson]], Russia *[[Dudinka]], Russia *[[Murmansk]], Russia<ref Name=CIA/> *[[Arkhangelsk]], Russia *[[Kirkenes]], [[Norway]] *[[Vardø]], Norway *[[Longyearbyen]], Spitsbergen, Norway ==See also== * [[Arctic Bridge]] * [[Arctic char|Arctic Char]] * [[Arctic Tern]] * [[Extreme points of the Arctic]] * [[International Arctic Science Committee]] * [[Nordicity]] * [[North Pole]] * [[North Atlantic Current]] * [[USS O-12 (SS-73)]] * [[Subarctic]] * [[Vilhjalmur Stefansson]] ==References== {{reflist}} ==Further reading== * Neatby, Leslie H., ''Discovery in Russian and Siberian Waters'' 1973 ISBN 0-8214-0124-6 * Ray, L., and bacon, B., eds., ''The Arctic Ocean'' 1982 ISBN 0-333-31017-9 * Thorén, Ragnar V. A., ''Picture Atlas of the Arctic'' 1969 ISBN 0-8214-0124-6 == External links == {{Wiktionary}} {{wikisource|CIA World Fact Book, 2004/Arctic Ocean}} * [http://oceanexplorer.noaa.gov/explorations/05arctic/welcome.html The Hidden Ocean Arctic 2005] Daily logs, photos and video from exploration mission. * [http://www.whoi.edu/imageOfDay.do Oceanography Image of the Day], from the Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution * [http://www.arctic-council.org Arctic Council] * [http://www.northernforum.org The Northern Forum] * [http://vitalgraphics.grida.no/arcticmap Arctic Environmental Atlas] Interactive map * [http://www.arctic.noaa.gov NOAA Arctic Theme Page] *{{CIA World Factbook link|xq|Arctic Ocean}} * [http://nsidc.org/data/nsidc-0060.html Daily Arctic Ocean Rawinsonde Data from Soviet Drifting Ice Stations (1954-1990)] at [[NSIDC]] * [http://www.unaami.noaa.gov Arctic time series: The Unaami Data collection] * [http://www.arctic.noaa.gov/gallery_np.html NOAA North Pole Web Cam] Images from Web Cams deployed in spring on an ice floe * [http://www.arctic.noaa.gov/gallery_np_weatherdata.html NOAA Near-realtime North Pole Weather Data] Data from instruments deployed on an ice floe * [http://www.wired.com/news/technology/0,1282,63980,00.html ''Search for Arctic Life Heats Up'' by Stephen Leahy] * [http://www.polarfoundation.org/ International Polar Foundation] * [http://nsidc.org/arcticseaicenews/ National Snow and Ice Data Center - Daily report of Arctic ice cover based on satellite data] {{coord|90|N|0|E|type:waterbody_scale:50000000|display=title}} [[Category:Extreme points of Earth]] [[Category:Arctic Ocean| ]] {{Link FA|af}} [[zh-yue:北冰洋]] [[af:Arktiese Oseaan]] [[ang:Īshæf]] [[ar:المحيط المتجمد الشمالي]] [[an:Ozián Artico]] [[frp:Ocèan artico]] [[ast:Océanu Glacial Árticu]] [[az:Şimal Buzlu okeanı]] [[bn:উত্তর মহাসাগর]] [[zh-min-nan:Pak-ke̍k-iûⁿ]] [[be:Паўночны Ледавіты акіян]] [[be-x-old:Арктычны акіян]] [[bcl:Kadagatan Arktiko]] [[bs:Arktički okean]] [[br:Meurvor skornek Arktika]] [[bg:Северен ледовит океан]] [[ca:Oceà Àrtic]] [[cv:Çурçĕр Пăрлă океан]] [[ceb:Kadagatang Artiko]] [[cs:Severní ledový oceán]] [[cy:Cefnfor yr Arctig]] [[da:Ishavet]] [[de:Arktischer Ozean]] [[et:Põhja-Jäämeri]] [[el:Αρκτικός Ωκεανός]] [[es:Océano Ártico]] [[eo:Arkta Oceano]] [[ext:Océanu Glacial Árticu]] [[eu:Ozeano Artikoa]] [[fa:اقیانوس منجمد شمالی]] [[fr:Océan Arctique]] [[ga:An tAigéan Artach]] [[gd:Cuan Argtach]] [[gl:Océano Ártico]] [[ko:북극해]] [[hi:उत्तरध्रुवीय महासागर]] [[hr:Arktički ocean]] [[io:Arktika Oceano]] [[ig:Arctic Ocean]] [[id:Samudra Arktik]] [[ia:Oceano Arctic]] [[is:Norður-Íshaf]] [[it:Mare Glaciale Artico]] [[he:אוקיינוס הקרח הצפוני]] [[jv:Samudra Arktik]] [[pam:Arctic Ocean]] [[kn:ಆರ್ಕ್ಟಿಕ್ ಮಹಾಸಾಗರ]] [[ka:ჩრდილოეთის ყინულოვანი ოკეანე]] [[kk:Мұзды мұхит]] [[sw:Bahari ya Aktiki]] [[ht:Aktik]] [[ku:Okyanûsa Arktîk]] [[la:Oceanus Arcticus]] [[lv:Ziemeļu Ledus okeāns]] [[lt:Arkties vandenynas]] [[hu:Jeges-tenger]] [[mk:Северен Леден Океан]] [[ml:ആര്‍ട്ടിക് സമുദ്രം]] [[mr:आर्क्टिक महासागर]] [[ms:Lautan Artik]] [[mn:Хойд мөсөн далай]] [[nah:Ilhuicaātl Ártico]] [[nl:Noordelijke IJszee]] [[ja:北極海]] [[no:Nordishavet]] [[nn:Nordishavet]] [[oc:Ocean Artic]] [[om:Arctic Ocean]] [[pl:Ocean Arktyczny]] [[pt:Oceano Ártico]] [[crh:Arktik okean]] [[ro:Oceanul Arctic]] [[qu:Artiku mama qucha]] [[ru:Северный Ледовитый океан]] [[simple:Arctic Ocean]] [[sk:Severný ľadový oceán]] [[sl:Arktični ocean]] [[sr:Северни ледени океан]] [[sh:Arktički ocean]] [[fi:Pohjoinen jäämeri]] [[sv:Norra ishavet]] [[tl:Karagatang Artiko]] [[ta:ஆர்க்டிக் பெருங்கடல்]] [[th:มหาสมุทรอาร์กติก]] [[vi:Bắc Băng Dương]] [[tg:Уқёнуси яхбастаи шимолӣ]] [[tr:Kuzey Buz Denizi]] [[uk:Північний Льодовитий океан]] [[ur:بحر منجمد شمالی]] [[wa:Oceyan Artike]] [[wo:Mbàmbulaan gu Bëj-gànnaar]] [[zh:北冰洋]]