Argument from poor design
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{{Original research|date=October 2007}}
The '''argument from poor design''' or '''dysteleological argument''' is an [[argument against the existence of God]], specifically against the existence of a [[creator God]] (in the sense of a God that directly created all species of life). It is based on the following premise:
# An [[omnipotence|omnipotent]], [[omniscience|omniscient]], [[omnibenevolence|omnibenevolent]] creator [[God]] would [[creation (theology)|create]] [[organism]]s that have optimal [[design]].
# Organisms have features that are suboptimal.
# Therefore, God either did not create these organisms or is not omnipotent, omniscient and omnibenevolent.
The [[argument]] is structured as a basic [[Modus tollens]]. It is often used{{Fact|date=June 2008}} as a counter argument to the [[Teleological argument|argument from design]]. If "creation" contains many defects, then design isn't a plausible theory for the origin of our existence. The proponents of design question the first premise, maintaining a distinction between "intelligent design" and optimal design.<ref>{{cite book|last=Dembski|first=William|title=Intelligent design: the bridge between science & theology|publisher=InterVarsity Press|date=1999|pages=p. 261|isbn=083082314X}}</ref>
The term ''Incompetent design'' has been coined by [[Donald Wise]] of the [[University of Massachusetts]] to describe aspects of nature that are currently flawed in design. The name stems from the acronym I.D. and is used to counter-balance arguments for [[intelligent design]] by a creator that are used by creationists.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Wise|first=Donald|date=2005-07-22|title="Intelligent" Design versus Evolution|journal=Science|publisher=[[AAAS]]|volume=309|issue=5734|pages=pp. 556–557|accessdate=2008-06-12|doi=10.1126/science.309.5734.556c|pmid=16040688}}</ref>
== Examples ==
Examples of "poor design" cited include:
* In the [[Africa]]n [[locust]], [[nerve]] cells start in the abdomen but connect to the wing. This leads to unnecessary use of materials. [http://www.talkorigins.org/faqs/jury-rigged.html]
[[Image:Ectopic.gif|250px|thumb|right|[[Regnier de Graaf|An artist's]] representation of an [[ectopic pregnancy]]. Critics cite such common biological occurrences as contradictory to the '[[Watchmaker analogy]]'.]]
The human [[reproductive system]] includes the following:
* In the human female, a [[zygote|fertilized egg]] can implant into the [[fallopian tube]], [[cervix]] or [[ovary]] rather than the [[uterus]] causing an [[ectopic pregnancy]]. The existence of a cavity between the ovary and the fallopian tube could indicate a flawed design in the female reproductive system. Prior to modern surgery, ectopic pregnancy invariably caused the deaths of both mother and baby. Even in modern times, in almost all cases, the pregnancy must be aborted to save the life of the mother.
* In the human female, the [[vagina|birth canal]] passes through the [[pelvis]]. The prenatal skull will deform to a surprising extent. However, if the [[baby]]’s head is significantly larger than the pelvic opening, the baby cannot be born naturally. Prior to the development of modern surgery ([[caesarean section]]), such a complication would lead to the death of the mother, the baby or both. Other birthing complications such as [[breech birth]] are worsened by this position of the birth canal.
* In the human male, [[testes]] develop initially within the [[abdomen]]. Later during gestation, they migrate through the abdominal wall into the [[scrotum]]. This causes two weak points in the abdominal wall where [[hernia]]s can later form. Prior to modern surgical techniques, complications from hernias including intestinal blockage, [[gangrene]], etc., usually resulted in death.[http://skepticfiles.org/origins/jury-rig.htm]
Other arguments:
* Barely used nerves and muscles (e.g. [[plantaris muscle]]) that are missing in part of the human population and are routinely harvested as spare parts if needed during operations.
* Intricate reproductive devices in [[orchid]]s, apparently constructed from components commonly having different functions in other flowers.
* The use by [[panda]]s of their enlarged [[sesamoid bone#Panda anatomy|radial sesamoid bones]] in a manner similar to how other creatures use [[thumb]]s.
* The pointless existence of the [[vermiform appendix|appendix]] in [[human]]s, also the corresponding potentially fatal condition of [[appendicitis]]. The appendix, which is highly developed in [[herbivores]], is meant to aid in the bacterial digestion of [[cellulose]]. Since people use fire and heat to cook now the appendix has become useless. (It has also been proposed that the appendix is involved in development of the immune system within the first year after birth, but subsequently has no function. However some people have congenital absence of their appendix without any reports of impaired immune system function.)
* The existence of unnecessary wings in flightless birds, e.g. ostriches.
* The existence of [[apocrine sweat glands]] in the armpits. Unlike the sweat glands in all other parts of the body, the sweat glands in the armpits produce sweat that contains proteins and lipids. This causes yellowish stains on clothing, and also creates an odor when bacteria start to digest the proteins and lipids. No other sweat glands release proteins and lipids through sweat, and as a result, sweat from other parts of the body is virtually odorless.
* The route of the [[recurrent laryngeal nerve]] is such that it travels from the brain to the larynx by looping around the [[aortic arch]]. This same configuration holds true for many animals, in the case of the [[giraffe]] this results in about twenty feet of extra nerve.
* The [[dystrophin]] [[gene]] is the largest ever found in nature — 2.4 million DNA [[base pair]]s; or 0.08 percent of the human [[genome]]. Its only known function is to inhibit [[muscular dystrophy]]; and such a large gene is highly susceptible to harmful mutations.
* The prevalence of [[congenital disease]]s and genetic disorders such as [[Huntington's Disease]].
* The common malformation of the human spinal column, leading to [[scoliosis]], [[sciatica]] and congenital misalignment of the vertebrae ([[vertebral subluxation]])
* [[photosynthesis|Photosynthetic]] plants that reflect green light, even though the sun's peak output is at this wavelength. A more optimal system of photosynthesis would use the entire solar spectrum, thus resulting in black plants.
* The existence of the [[pharynx]], a passage used for both [[ingestion]] and [[respiration (physiology)|respiration]], with the consequent drastic increase in the risk of [[choking]].
* The structure of humans' (as well as all [[mammal]]s') [[eye]]s. The [[retina]] is 'inside out'. The nerves and blood vessels lie on the ''surface'' of the retina instead of behind it as is the case in many [[invertebrate]] species. This arrangement forces a number of complex adaptations and gives mammals a [[blind spot (vision)|blind spot]]. (See [[Evolution of the eye#Other developments|Evolution of the eye]]). Six muscles move the eye when three would suffice. [http://2think.org/eye.shtml]
* Crowded [[teeth]] and poor [[Paranasal sinus|sinus]] drainage, as human faces are significantly flatter than those of other [[primates]] and humans share the same tooth set. This results in a number of problems, most notably with wisdom teeth.
* Almost all animals and plants synthesize their own [[vitamin C]], but humans cannot because the gene for this enzyme is defective ([[L-gulonolactone oxidase|Pseudogene ΨGULO]]). Lack of vitamin C results in [[scurvy]] and eventually death. Defective vitamin synthesis pathways are a hallmark of "higher" animals — of which many are predators — because the prey accumulates vitamins that stems either from the eaten plants or are self-synthesized in the captured individual. Thus, higher animals are mostly unable to return to a purely "vegetarian" lifestyle; while conservation of such pathway genes is of no apparent cost to the animal.
* If [[rodent]]s do not regularly wear down their [[incisor]]s, which self-sharpen by chewing on wood, such upper and bottom teeth curl toward the rodents' skull and drill into their brain.
Other critics argue that if these design failures are the deliberate products of an intelligent designer, then the designer must be either inept or [[sadism and masochism|sadistic]]. Or possibly there was a large number of designers, as in the old joke that "a camel is a horse designed by a committee".
== Overview ==
[[Image:Fitness-landscape-cartoon.png|thumb|right|Natural selection is expected to push fitness to a peak, but that peak often is not the highest.]]
"Poor design" is consistent with the predictions of the [[scientific theory]] of [[evolution]] by means of [[natural selection]]. This predicts that features that were evolved for certain uses, are then reused or co-opted for different uses, or abandoned altogether; and that suboptimal state is due to the inability of the [[heredity|hereditary]] mechanism to eliminate the particular vestiges of the evolutionary process.
In terms of a [[fitness landscape]], natural selection will always push "up the hill", but a species cannot normally get from a lower peak to a higher peak without first going through a valley.
The argument from poor design is one of the arguments that was used by [[Charles Darwin]]; modern proponents have included [[Stephen Jay Gould]] and [[Richard Dawkins]]. They argue that such features can be explained as a consequence of the gradual, cumulative nature of the evolutionary process. [[Theistic Evolutionists]] generally reject the argument from design, but do not necessarily reject the existence of God.
The argument from poor design is a counter-argument against the [[Teleological argument|argument from design]] in which it is asserted that certain biological phenomena are too complex or too efficient to have come about by undirected natural processes rather than by [[design]].
== Criticism ==
The argument from poor design has received a fair share of objections, mostly from proponents of intelligent design. It is noted that the Panda's "thumb" works excellently for what it does — strip leaves. Plantaris muscle is important in [[proprioception]], and in any case, disused muscles atrophy, which the plantaris does not.[http://www.creationontheweb.com/images/pdfs/tj/tjv14n2_plantaris.pdf]
Critics also contend that so-called "Junk" DNA may actually serve a purpose, and increasingly there have been many uses found for it, such as the regulatory function of the ''Makorin1-p1'' "[[pseudogene]]".
==Responses to criticism==
Many arguments against the argument from poor design have been addressed by its proponents. In the case of the Panda's thumb, the argument isn't that it works, the argument is that the ''design'' is poor - as a real digit would be functionally more effective than modified wrist bones.
In addition, the [[Plantaris]] muscle does atrophy. Its motor function is so minimal that its long tendon can readily be harvested for reconstruction elsewhere with little functional deficit. "Often mistaken for a nerve by freshman medical students, the muscle was useful to other primates for grasping with their feet. It has disappeared altogether in 9 percent of the population." <ref>{{cite journal |last=Selim |first=Jocelyn |year=2004 |month=June |title=Useless Body Parts |journal=Discover |volume=25 |issue=6 |url=http://discover.com/issues/jun-04/features/useless-body-parts/ |accessdate=2007-02-18 |format={{dead link|date=June 2008}} – <sup>[http://scholar.google.co.uk/scholar?hl=en&lr=&q=author%3ASelim+intitle%3AUseless+Body+Parts&as_publication=Discover&as_ylo=2004&as_yhi=2004&btnG=Search Scholar search]</sup> }}</ref>
In response to the claim that uses have been found for "Junk" DNA. Proponents note that the fact that some non-coding DNA has a purpose does not establish that all non-coding DNA has a purpose.
The original study that suggested that the ''Makorin1-p1'' served some purpose (Hirotsune et al., 2003 [http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v423/n6935/abs/nature01535.html]) has been shown to be entirely wrong (Grey et al., 2006 [http://www.pnas.org/cgi/content/abstract/0602216103v1]).
They also note that some sections of DNA can be randomized, cut, or added to with no apparent effect on the organism in question. [http://www.talkorigins.org/indexcc/CB/CB130.html]
In regards to the last argument, proponents note that nobody has studied the effects of increased efficiency in plants in such a way to make this determination possible. Some plants have more and less efficient photosynthesis reactions, such as the [[C3 carbon fixation|C3]], [[C4 carbon fixation|C4]] and [[Crassulacean acid metabolism|CAM]] photosynthesis reactions. No such "damaging chemical reactions" occur in the more effective processes.
The original argument rests on the concept of oxidative stress and [[Reactive Oxygen Species|ROS]] - the [[Light-harvesting complex|LHC]] and other components of the photosynthetic array can only absorb a certain amount of energy from sunlight. Absorbing more results in oxidative damage - a well-documented phenomenon in plants. However, this argument does nothing to invalidate the argument from poor design, as it merely shifts the focus of the question to why those specific components of the photosynthetic apparatus were designed to be unable to cope with commonly-encountered levels of solar energy. Natural selection as an explanation fares much better because it posits that photosynthesis originally evolved in an aquatic environment, then later adapted (but imperfectly) to the higher solar energy found in terrestrial environments.
==As an argument regarding God==
The argument from poor design is sometimes interpreted, by the argumenter or the listener, as an [[argument against the existence of God]], or against characteristics commonly attributed to [[God]], such as omnipotence, omniscience, or personality. In a weaker form, it is used as an argument for the incompetence of God. The existence of "poor design" (as well as the perceived prodigious "wastefulness" of the evolutionary process) would seem to imply a "poor" designer, or a "blind" designer, or no designer at all. In Gould's words, "If God had designed a beautiful machine to reflect his wisdom and power, surely he would not have used a collection of parts generally fashioned for other purposes. Orchids are not made by an ideal engineer; they are jury-rigged...."
A counter-argument that has been made against this application of the argument — and that can be used against the argument from poor design itself — points out that the argument from poor design assumes that efficiency and neatness are the only criteria upon which the quality of biological design must be judged. The counter-argument maintains that, in addition to (or instead of) being thought of as an [[engineer]], God is perhaps better thought of as an [[artist]] (possessing the ultimate [[artistic licence|artistic license]]). Moreover, this application of the argument presupposes the accountability of God to the judgement of humanity, an idea most major religions consider to be an enormous conceit that is diametrically opposed to their doctrines. We can know what God is like to a certain extent, but ultimately we cannot know everything about him because he is of necessity on a higher plane to us. However, doctrinal distaste should not rule out the moral issue that a benign God would not include design flaws that lead to pain or unnecessary death, such as the [[appendix]], [[coccyx]], our crowded teeth or a proclivity for [[cancer]] or the birth of babies through the pelvis. See [[Problem of Evil]]. But insufficient human knowledge may make things that actually are useful seem useless. For instance, it was once thought that tonsils were useless{{Fact|date=January 2008}}, but in fact they have minor disease-preventing properties. Evidence of poor design certainly reduces the effectiveness of the argument from design.
The apparently sub-optimal design of organisms has also been used to argue in favour of a god who uses natural selection as a mechanism of his creation.<ref>Francis S. Collins, ''The Language of God'' (New York: Simon & Schuster), 2006. p 191. ISBN-13: 978-1-4165-4274-2</ref>
Arguers from poor design regard all these counter-arguments as a [[false dilemma]] (God designed it, or it's flawed), leading to the unfalsifiability of intelligent design — if it's good design, God did it, if it's bad design, it's a result of the [[Fall (religion)|Fall]] ([[Genesis]] 3:16 has God saying to [[Eve]] "I will increase your trouble in pregnancy"). Arguers against poor design argue in turn: if it's poor design, then God would not have done it, so natural selection must have, but wonderful design shows how wonderful natural selection can be.
== Books ==
*'''''Unintelligent Design''''' (ISBN 1-59102-084-0 – December, [[2003]]) is a book by [[Mark Perakh]] addressing [[Intelligent design]] and several other variations of [[creationism]], which are alternate theories to [[evolution]].
*{{cite book |author=Williams, Robyn |title=Unintelligent Design: Why God Isn't as Smart as She Thinks She Is |publisher=Allen & Unwin |location= |year=1 Feb 2007 |pages= |isbn=1-74114-923-1 |oclc= |doi=}} – [[Robyn Williams]] uses numerous examples from the natural and scientific world, including sinus blockages, hernias, appendix flare-ups and piles, argue against fundamentalist religion, creationism and intelligent design.
==External links==
* [http://www.reallymagazine.com/interview.htm#DW A short interview with prof. Don Wise at ''Really Magazine'' (2006)]
*[http://www.theshrubbery.com/udn/ Unintelligent Design Network] satirical site
==References==
{{reflist}}
* [[b:God for the Third Millennium|God for the Third Millennium]]
* [[Stephen Jay Gould|Gould, Stephen Jay]] (1980). ''[[The Panda's Thumb: More Reflections in Natural History]]''. ISBN 0-393-30023-4
* [[Richard Dawkins|Dawkins, Richard]] (1986). ''[[The Blind Watchmaker]]''. ISBN 0-393-30448-5
* [[Jocelyn Selim|Selim, Jocelyn]] (2004). ''[[Discover (magazine)|Discover]]''. [https://notes.utk.edu/bio/greenberg.nsf/0/0765bb50d404455385256f0000680854?OpenDocument&Click= Useless Body Parts]
* Leonard, P. (1993). "Too much light," New Scientist, 139.
* Witt, Jonathan. [http://www.touchstonemag.com/archives/article.php?id=17-06-025-f "The Gods Must Be Tidy!"], ''Touchstone'', July/August 2004.
* Gurney, Peter W.G. (1999). [http://www.answersingenesis.org/tj/v13/i1/retina.asp "Is our 'inverted' retina really 'bad design'?"] ''Creation Ex Nihilo Technical Journal/TJ'' 13(1):37–44.
* Woodmorappe, J. (1999). [http://www.rae.org/perfect.html "Why Weren't Plants Created 100% Efficient at Photosynthesis? (OR: Why Aren't Plants Black?)"]
* Woodmorappe, J. (2003). [http://www.answersingenesis.org/tj/v17/i2/pseudogene.asp "Pseudogene function: more evidence"] ''Creation Ex Nihilo Technical Journal/TJ'' 17(2):15?18.
* Hirotsune S, Yoshida N, Chen A, Garrett L, Sugiyama F, Takahashi S, Yagami K, Wynshaw-Boris A, Yoshiki A. An expressed pseudogene regulates the messenger-RNA stability of its homologous coding gene. Nature. 2003 423:91-6.
* Gray TA, Wilson A, Fortin PJ, Nicholls RD. The putatively functional Mkrn1-p1 pseudogene is neither expressed nor imprinted, nor does it regulate its source gene in trans. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA. 2006 Aug 1; [Epub ahead of print]
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