Assam
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2008-07-12T02:58:27Z
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{{Infobox Indian Jurisdiction |
type=state |
state_name=Assam |
native_name=Assam |
capital=[[Dispur]] |
latd = 26.15|longd=91.77|
largest_city=[[Guwahati]]|
abbreviation=IN-AS |
official_languages=[[Assamese language|Assamese]], [[Bodo language|Bodo]], [[Bengali language|Bengali]] ([[Barak Valley]])|
legislature_type=Unicameral |
legislature_strength=126 |
leader_title_1=[[Governors of Assam|Governor]] |
leader_name_1=[[Ajai Singh]] |
leader_title_2=[[Chief Ministers of Assam|Chief Minister]] |
leader_name_2=[[Tarun Gogoi]] |
established_date=[[1947-08-15]] |
area_total=78438 |
area_rank=16th |
area_magnitude=10 |
population_year=2001 |
population_total=26655528 |
population_rank=14th |
population_density=340 |
districts=27 |
website=assam.gov.in |
inset_map_marker=yes |
seal=Assam logo.png |
footnotes = † Assam had a legislature since 1937|
}}
<!-- {{Disputeabout|the section: '''Origin of name'''}} -->
'''Assam''' {{audio|Assam.ogg|pronunciation}}) ([[Assamese language|Assamese]]: অসম ''Ôxôm'' [ɔxɔm]) is a [[North-East India|northeastern]] state of [[India]] with its capital at [[Dispur]], a suburb of the city [[Guwahati]]. Located south of the eastern [[Himalayas]], Assam comprises the [[Brahmaputra]] and the [[Barak River|Barak]] river valleys and the [[Karbi Anglong District|Karbi Anglong]] and the [[North Cachar]] Hills. With an area of {{convert|78438|km2|sqmi|0}} Assam currently is almost equivalent to the size of [[Ireland]] or [[Austria]]. Assam is surrounded by the rest of the ''[[Seven Sister States]]'': [[Arunachal Pradesh]], [[Nagaland]], [[Manipur]], [[Mizoram]], [[Tripura]] and [[Meghalaya]]. These states are connected to the rest of India via a narrow strip in [[West Bengal]] called the [[Siliguri Corridor]] or "Chicken's Neck".<ref>Dixit 2002</ref> Assam also shares international borders with [[Bhutan]] and [[Bangladesh]]; and cultures, peoples and climate with [[South-East Asia]]—important elements in India’s “Look East” Policy. Assam became a part of India after the British occupied the region following the [[Treaty of Yandaboo]] of 1826.
Assam is known for [[Assam tea]], [[petroleum]] resources, [[Assam silk]] and for its rich [[Biodiversity of Assam|biodiversity]]. It has successfully conserved the one-horned [[Indian Rhinoceros|Indian rhinoceros]] from near extinction, [[tiger]], numerous species of birds and provides one of the last wild habitats for the [[Asian elephant]]. It is increasingly becoming a popular destination for wild-life tourism and notably [[Kaziranga]] and Manas are both [[World Heritage Sites]].<ref>World Heritage Centre 2007</ref> Assam was also known for its [[Sal]] tree [[forest]]s and forest products, much depleted now. A land of high rainfall, Assam is endowed with lush greenery and the mighty river [[Brahmaputra]], whose tributaries and [[oxbow lake]]s provide the region with a unique hydro-[[geomorphic]] and aesthetic environment.
[[Image:Assam Valley.JPG|thumb|right|400px|Assam and its Environs: As per the [[Plate tectonics|plate techtonics]], Assam is in the eastern-most projection of the [[Indian Plate]], where the plate is thrusting underneath the [[Eurasian Plate]] creating a [[subduction zone]] and the [[Himalayas]].<ref>Wandrey 2004 p3–8</ref> Therefore, Assam possesses a unique [[geomorphology|geomorphic]] environment, with plains, dissected hills of the South Indian Plateau system and with the Himalayas all around its north, north-east and east.
]]
[[Image:Csinensis.jpg|thumb|right|180px|Tea leaves; Assam produces a significant portion of World's tea. Today, 'tea' has become almost a brand identity for the name Assam]]
==Etymology==
{{main|Etymology of Assam}}
Assam was known as Pragjyotisha in the [[Mahabharata]]; and [[Kamarupa Kingdom|Kamarupa]] in the [[1st millennium]]. Assam gets it name from the [[Ahom kingdom]] (1228-1826), then known as ''Kingdom of Assam''.<ref>Sarma, Satyendra Nath (1976) ''Assamese Literature'', Harrassowitz, Wiesbaden, p2.
“While the Shan invaders called themselves [[Tai]], they came to be referred to as ''Āsām'', ''Āsam'' and sometimes as ''Acam'' by the indigenous people of the country. The modern Assamese word ''Āhom'' by which the Tai people are known is derived from ''Āsām'' or ''Āsam''. The epithet applied to the Shan conquerors was subsequently transferred to the country over which they ruled and thus the name Kāmarūpa was replaced by Āsām, which ultimately took the Sanskritized form ''Asama'', meaning ‘unequalled, peerless or uneven’”</ref> The British province after 1838 and the Indian state after 1947 came to be known as ''Assam''.
On [[February 27]], [[2006]] the [[Government of Assam]] started a process to change the name of the state to ''Asom'',<ref>Times News Network, February 28, 2006</ref> a controversial move that has been opposed by the people and political organizations.<ref>Editorial, The Assam Tribune, January 6, 2007.</ref>
==Physical geography==
{{main|Physical Geography of Assam}}
{{seealso|Biodiversity of Assam}}
[[Image:Arecanut trees Assam.JPG|thumb|right|180px|Areca Nut Tree or Tamul Goss; the nut is an important element of cultural symbolism]]
[[Image:Golden Langur.jpg|thumb|right|180px|A Golden Langur; endangered and are found in Chakrasila Sanctuary in Goalpara district]]
[[Image:white-winged.wood.duck.arp.jpg|thumb|right|180px|A White-winged Wood Duck or ''Deohanh'', endangered. Mostly found in the Upper Assam Tropical Forests.]]
Geomorphic studies conclude that the [[Brahmaputra]], the life-line of Assam is a paleo-river; older than the Himalayas. The river with steep [[Canyon|gorges]] and rapids in [[Arunachal Pradesh]] entering Assam, becomes a [[braided river]] (at times 16 km wide) and with tributaries, creates a flood plain (Brahmaputra Valley: 80-100km wide, 1000 km long).<ref name="RLSinghIndia">Singh (ed.) 1993.</ref> The hills of [[Karbi Anglong]], [[North Cachar]] and those in and close to Guwahati (also Khasi-Garo Hills) now eroded and dissected are originally parts of the South Indian Plateau system.<ref name="RLSinghIndia">Singh (ed.) 1993</ref> In the south, the [[Barak river|Barak]] originating in the [[Barail Range]] (Assam-Nagaland border), flows through the Cachar district with a 40-50km wide valley and confluences with the Brahmaputra in Bangladesh.
Assam is endowed with [[petroleum]], [[natural gas]], [[coal]], [[limestone]] and other minor minerals such as [[Quartzite|magnetic quartzite]], [[kaolin]], [[sillimanite]]s, [[clay]] and [[feldspar]].<ref name="NEDFiNICminerals">NEDFi & NIC-Assam 2002</ref> A small quantity of iron ore is available in western districts.<ref name="NEDFiNICminerals">NEDFi & NIC-Assam 2002</ref> Discovered in 1889, all the major petroleum-gas reserves are in Upper parts. A recent USGS estimate shows {{convert|399|Moilbbl|m3}} of oil, {{convert|1178|Gcuft|m3}} of gas and {{convert|67|Moilbbl|m3}} of natural gas liquids in Assam Geologic Province. <ref>Wandrey 2004 p17</ref>
With the “Tropical Monsoon Rainforest Climate”, Assam is temperate (Summer max. at 35-38 and winter min. at 6-8 [[degrees Celsius]]) and experiences heavy rainfall and high humidity.<ref name="RLSinghIndia">Singh (ed.) 1993</ref> <ref> Purdue University 2004</ref> The climate is characterised by heavy monsoon downpours reducing summer temperature and foggy nights and mornings in winter . [[Thunderstorm]]s known as ''Bordoicila'' are frequent during the afternoons. Spring (Mar-Apr) and Autumn (Sept-Oct) are usually pleasant with moderate rainfall and temperature.
Assam is one of the richest [[biodiversity]] zones in the world and consists of tropical [[rainforest]]s,<ref> Borthakur 2002</ref>, deciduous forests, riverine [[grasslands]]<ref>Birdlife International, UK [http://www.birdlife.org/action/science/species/asia_strategy/pdf_downloads/grasslandsGO2.pdf Indo-Gangetic Grasslands]</ref>, [[bamboo]]<ref> National Mission on Bamboo Applications 2004</ref> orchards and numerous [[wetland]]<ref> Sharma 2003</ref> ecosystems; Many are now protected as national parks and reserved forests. The [[Kaziranga National Park|Kaziranga]], home of the rare [[Indian Rhinoceros]], and [[Manas National Park|Manas]] are two UNESCO [[World Heritage Sites]] in Assam. The state is the last refuge for numerous other endangered species such as [[Golden Langur]] (Trachypithecus geei), [[White-winged Wood Duck]] or ''Deohanh'' (Cairina scutulata), [[Bengal Florican]], [[Black-breasted Parrotbill]], [[Pygmy Hog]], [[Greater Adjutant]] and so on. Some other endangered species with significant population in Assam are [[Tiger]], [[Elephant]], [[Hoolock Gibbon]], [[Jerdon's Babbler]] and so on. Assam is also known for [[Orchidaceae|orchids]].<ref> ENVIS Assam 2003</ref>
The region is prone to natural disasters with annual floods and frequent mild earthquakes. Strong earthquakes are rare; three of these were recorded in 1869, 1897 (8.1 on the [[Richter magnitude scale|Richter scale]]); and in 1950 (8.6).
==History==
{{main|History of Assam}}
===Pre-history===
Assam and adjoining regions have evidences of human settlements from all the periods of the [[Stone age]]s. The hills at the height of 460 to 615 m were popular habitates probably due to availability of exposed doleritic basalt useful for tool-making.<ref name="HKBarpujariCHOA">Barpujari 1990</ref>
According to [[Kalika Purana]] (c.8th-9th A.D), written in Assam, the earliest ruler was Mahiranga followed by Hatak, Sambar, Ratna and Ghatak; Naraka removed this line of rulers and established his own dynasty. It mentions that the last of the Naraka-bhauma rulers, Narak, was slain by [[Krishna]]. Naraka's son Bhagadatta, mentioned in the [[Mahabharata]], fought for the [[Kaurava]]s in the battle of Kurushetra with an army of ''kiratas'', ''chinas'' and ''dwellers of the eastern coast''. Later rulers of [[Kamarupa]] frequently drew their lineage from the Naraka rulers.
===Ancient and medieval===
[[Image:Assam MK Lion.JPG|thumb|right|180px|A ferocious lion excavated in Madan Kamdev close to Baihata Cariali in Assam representing the powerful Kamarupa-Palas (c. 9th-10th century A.D.)]]
[[Image:Rangghar Assam.JPG|thumb|right|180px|[[Rang Ghar]], a pavilion built by Pramatta Singha (also Sunenpha; 1744–1751) in Ahom capital Rongpur, now [[Sibsagar]]; the Rang Ghar is one of the earliest pavilions of outdoor stadia in South Asia]]
[[Image:Assam in 1950s.png|thumb|right|180px|Assam till 1950s; The new states of [[Nagaland]], [[Meghalaya]] and [[Mizoram]] formed in the 1960-70s. From Shillong, the capital of Assam was shifted to [[Dispur]], now a part of [[Guwahati]]. After the Indo-China war in 1962, [[Arunachal Pradesh]] was also separated out.]]
Ancient Assam known as [[Kamarupa Kingdom|Kamarupa]] was ruled by powerful dynasties: the [[Varman dynasty|Varmanas]] (c.350-650A.D.), the Salstambhas (''Xalostombho'', c.655-900 A.D.) and the Kamarupa-Palas (c.900-1100A.D.). In the reign of the Varman king, Bhaskaravarman (c.600–650A.D.), the Chinese traveler [[Xuan Zang]] visited the region and recorded his travels. Later, after weakening and disintegration (after the Kamarupa-Palas), the Kamarupa tradition was somewhat extended till c.1255A.D. by the Lunar I (c.1120-1185A.D.) and Lunar II (c.1155-1255A.D.) dynasties.<ref name="HKBarpujariCHOA">Barpujari 1990</ref>
Two later dynasties, the [[Ahom]]s and the [[Koch]] left larger impacts. The Ahoms, originally a [[Tai peoples|Tai]] group, ruled Assam for nearly 600 years (1228–1826) and the [[Koch]], a [[Tibeto-Burman languages|Tibeto-Burmese]], established sovereignty in c.1510A.D.. The Koch kingdom in western Assam and present North Bengal was at its zenith in the early reign of Naranarayana (c.1540-1587A.D.). It split into two in c.1581A.D, the western part as a [[Moghul]] vassel and the eastern as an Ahom satellite state. Since c 13th A.D., the nerve centre of Ahom polity was upper Assam; the kingdom was gradually extended till Karatoya river in the c.17th-18th A.D.. It was at its zenith during the reign of Sukhrungpha or Sworgodeu Rudra Simha (c.1696-1714A.D.). Among other dynasties, the [[Chutiya Kingdom|Chutiyas]] ruled the north-eastern Assam and parts of present [[Arunachal Pradesh]] and the [[Kachari Kingdom|Kacharis]] ruled from Dikhow river to central and southern Assam. With expansion of Ahom kingdom, by c.1520A.D. the Chutiya areas were annexed and since c.1536A.D. Kacharis remained only in [[Cachar]] and [[North Cachar]] more as an Ahom ally then a competing force. Despite numerous invasions, mostly by the Muslim rulers, no western power ruled Assam until the arrival of the British. The most successful invader [[Mir Jumla]], a governor of [[Aurangzeb]], briefly occupied [[Garhgaon]] (c.1662–63A.D.) the then capital, but found it difficult to control people making [[guerrilla warfare|guerrilla]] attacks on his forces, forcing them to leave. The decisive victory of the Assamese led by the great general [[Lachit Borphukan]] on the [[Mughal empire|Mughals]] then under command of Raja Ram Singha at [[Saraighat]] (1671) has almost ended Mughal ambitions. Mughals were finally expelled in c.1682A.D. from lower Assam.
===British Assam===
Ahom palace intrigue, and political turmoil due to the [[Moamoria rebellion]], aided the expansionist Burmese ruler of Ava to invade Assam and install a [[puppet regime|puppet king]] in 1821. With the Burmese having reached the [[British East India Company|East India Company’s]] borders, the [[First Anglo-Burmese War]] ensued. The war ended under the [[Treaty of Yandaboo]]<ref>Aitchison 1931, p230–233 (web-version from [http://projectsouthasia.sdstate.edu/ Project South Asia, South Dakota State University, USA])</ref> in 1826, with the Company taking control of the Lower Assam and installing Purander Singh as king of Upper Assam in 1833. The arrangement lasted till 1838 and thereaftre British annexed the entire region. Initially Assam was made a part of the [[Bengal Presidency]], then in 1906 it was a part of [[Eastern Bengal and Assam]] province and in 1912 it was reconstituted into a Chief Commissioners' province. In 1913, a Legislative Council and in 1937 the Assam Legislative Assembly was formed in Shillong, the erstwhile Capital. The British tea planters imported labour from central India adding to the demographic canvas. After few initial unsuccessful attempts to free Assam during 1850s, the Assamese since early 20th century joined and actively supported [[Indian National Congress]] against the British. In 1947, Assam inclusive of present [[Arunachal Pradesh]], [[Nagaland]], [[Mizoram]], [[Meghalaya]] became a state of Republic of India (princely states, Manipur and Tripura became Group C provinces) and a district of Assam, [[Sylhet]] chose to join Pakistan.
===Post British===
Since 1947, with increasing economic problems in the region, separatist groups began forming along ethnic lines, and demands for autonomy and sovereignty grew, resulting into fragmentation of Assam.
Since mid-20th century, people from present Bangladesh have been migrating to Assam. In 1961, the Government of Assam passed a legislation making use of [[Assamese language]] compulsory; It had to be withdrawn later under pressure from Bengali speaking people in [[Cachar]]. In the 1980s the Brahmaputra valley saw a six-year [[Assam Agitation]] <ref name="HazarikaSmist"> Hazarika 2003</ref> triggered by the discovery of a sudden rise in registered voters on electoral rolls. It tried to force the government to identify and deport foreigners illegally migrating from neighbouring [[Bangladesh]] and changing the demographics. The agitation ended after an accord between its leaders and the Union Government, which remained unimplemented, causing simmering discontent. On the other hand, political parties neglecting the burning problem have used the Bangladeshi card as a vote bank.<ref name="SinhaSKillmig">The Governor of Assam 1998</ref>
The post 1970s experienced the growth of armed separatist groups like [[United Liberation Front of Asom]] (ULFA) <ref name="HazarikaSmist"> Hazarika 2003</ref> and [[National Democratic Front of Bodoland]] (NDFB). In November 1990, the Government of India deployed the Indian army, after which low-intensity military conflicts and political homicides have been continuing for more than a decade. In recent times, ethnicity based militant groups (UPDS, DHD, KLO, HPCD etc.) have also mushroomed. Regional autonomy has been ensured for Bodos in Bodoland Territorial Council Areas (BTCA) and for the Karbis in Karbi Anglong after agitation of the communities due to sluggish rate of development and aspirations for self-government.
==Tea history==
{{main|Assam Tea}}
[[Image:Assam.jpg|thumb|180px|This 1850 engraving shows the different stages in the process of making tea in Assam.]]
After discovery of [[Camellia sinensis]] (1834) in Assam followed by its tests in 1836-37 in London, the British allowed companies to rent land since 1839. Thereafter tea plantations mushroomed in Upper Assam, where the soil and the climate were most suitable. Problems with the imported labourers from China and hostilities of native Assamese resulted into migration of forced labourers from central-eastern parts of India. After initial trial and error with planting the Chinese and the Assamese-Chinese hybrid varieties, the planters later accepted the local [[Camellia assamica]] as the most suitable one for Assam. By 1850s, the industry started seeing some profits. Industry saw initial growth, when in 1861, investors were allowed to own land in Assam and it saw substantial progress with invention of new technologies and machinery for preparing processed tea during 1870s. The cost of Assam tea was lowered down manifold and became competitive than its Chinese variant.
Despite having commercial success, tea labourers remained exploited and worked and lived under poor conditions. In the fear of greater government interference the tea growers formed [[The Indian Tea Association]] in 1888 to lobby for the continued status quo. The organization was very successful in this, and even after India’s independence conditions of the labourers have improved very little.<ref>MacFarlane, Alan and Iris MacFarlane 2003</ref>
==Subdivisions==
[[Image:Assam Districts.png|thumb|400px|Districts of Assam:1. [[Tinsukia]], 2. [[Dibrugarh]], 3. [[Sibsagar]], 4. [[Dhemaji]], 5. [[Jorhat]], 6. [[Lakhimpur]], 7. [[Golaghat]], 8. [[Sonitpur]], 9. [[Karbi Anglong]], 10. [[Nagaon]], 11. [[Marigaon]], 12. [[Darrang]], 13. [[Kamrup Rural]], 14. [[Nalbari]], 15. [[Barpeta district|Barpeta]], 16. [[Bongaigaon district|Bongaigaon]], 17. [[Goalpara]], 18. [[Kokrajhar]], 19. [[Dhubri]], 20. [[North Cachar Hills]], 21. [[Cachar]], 22. [[Hailakandi]], 23. [[Karimganj]], 24. [[Kamrup Metropolitan]], 25. Baksa, 26. [[Chirang]] and 27. [[Udalguri]].]]
{{main|Districts of Assam}}
Assam is divided into 27 administrative [[Districts of India|districts]].<ref name="RDGoA">Revenue Department, Government of Assam</ref> More than half of these districts were carved out during 80s and 90s from original 1. Lakhimpur, 2. Jorhat, 3. Karbi Anglong, 4. Darrang, 5. Nagaon, 6. Kamrup, 7. Goalpara, 8. North Cachar and 9. Cachar districts, delineated by the [[United Kingdom|British]]. Earlier, during 70s, Dibrugarh was separated out from original Lakhimpur district.
These districts are further sub-divided into 49 “Sub-divisions” or [[Tehsil|''Mohkuma'']].<ref name="RDGoA">Revenue Department, Government of Assam</ref> Every district is administered from a district head quarter with the office of the [[District collector|District Collector]], [[Magistrate|District Magistrate]], Office of the District Panchayat and usually with a [[district court]].
The districts are delineated on the basis of the features such as the rivers, hills, forests, etc and majority of the newly constituted districts are sub-divisions of the earlier districts. For the present districts of Assam and their location, refer the attached map.
The [[Local Governance in India|local governance]] system is organised under the ''jila-parishad'' (District Panchayat) for a district, [[Panchayati Raj|''panchayat'']] for group of or individual rural areas and under the urban local bodies for the towns and cities. Presently there are 2489 village panchayats covering 26247 villages in Assam.<ref name="DIPRGoA">Directorate of Information and Public Relations, Government of Assam</ref> The 'town-committee' or ''nagar-xomiti'' for small towns, 'municipal board' or ''pouro-xobha'' for medium towns and [[municipal corporation]] or ''pouro-nigom'' for the cities consist of the urban local bodies.
For the revenue purposes, the districts are divided into revenue circles and ''mouza''s; for the development projects, the districts are divided into 219 'development-blocks' and for law and order these are divided into 206 police stations or ''thana''.<ref name="DIPRGoA">Directorate of Information and Public Relations, Government of Assam</ref>
==Demographics==
{{main|People of Assam}}
[[Image:Assam Demography 1.png|thumb|right|400px|District-wise Demographic Characteristics in 2001]]
Total population of Assam was 26.66 million with 4.91 million households in 2001.<ref name="GoAStats">The Government of Assam 2002-03</ref> Higher population concentration was recorded in the districts of Kamrup, Nagaon, Sonitpur, Barpeta, Dhubri, Darang and Cachar. Assam's population was estimated at 28.67 million in 2006 and at 30.57 million by 2011, 34.18 million by 2021 and 35.60 million by 2026.<ref>The National Commission on Population 2006</ref>
In 2001, the census recorded [[literacy]] in Assam at 63.30 percent with male literacy at 71.30 and female at 54.60 percents. [[Urbanisation]] rate was recorded at 12.90 percent.<ref>Director of Census Operations, Census of India 2001</ref>
Growth of population in Assam has experienced a very high trajectory since the mid-decades of the 20th century. Population grew steadily from 3.29 million in 1901 to 6.70 million in 1941, while it has increased unprecedentedly to 14.63 million in 1971 and 22.41 million in 1991 to reach the present level.<ref name="GoAStats">The Government of Assam 2002-03</ref> The growth in the western and southern districts was of extreme high in nature mostly attributable to rapid influx of population from the then [[East Pakistan]] or [[Bangladesh]].<ref>Hussain 2004</ref><ref name="SinhaSKillmig">The Governor of Assam 1998</ref>
[[Image:Assam Demography 2.png|thumb|left|250px|Population Growth Trend 1901 to 2001]]
Assam has many ethnic groups and the [[People of India project]] has studied 115 of these. Out of which 79 (69%) identify themselves regionally, 22 (19%) locally, and 3 trans-nationally. The earliest settlers were [[Austroasiatic]], followed by [[Tibeto-Burman]], [[Indo-Aryan languages|Indo-Aryan speakers]] and [[Tai-Kadai]] speakers.<ref>Taher 1993</ref> Forty-five languages are spoken by different communities, including three major language families: [[Austroasiatic]] (5), [[Sino-Tibetan languages|Sino-Tibetan]] (24) and [[Indo-European languages|Indo-European]] (12). Three of the spoken languages do not fall in these families. There is a high degree of [[bilingualism]].
Major religions are [[Hinduism]] (64.9%) <ref>http://www.censusindia.net/religiondata/ 2001 Indian Census Data</ref> and [[Islam]] (30.9% - grown to the second largest proportional population among Indian states after [[Jammu and Kashmir|J&K]]). <ref>http://www.censusindia.net/religiondata/ 2001 Indian Census Data</ref> Others include [[Christianity]] (3.7%), [[Sikhism]], [[Animism]], [[Buddhism]] (Khamti, Phake, Aito etc. communities).
==Cultural evolution==
{{main|Culture of Assam}}
{{seealso|Bihu|Music of Assam|Assamese literature|Assamese cinema|Fine Arts of Assam}}
[[Image:Assam Assimilation.png|thumb|right|325px|Development of Hybrid Culture in Assam: Assamese culture developed due to assimilation of ethno-cultural groups under various politico-economic systems in different time. The roots go back to three thousand years when the first assimilation took place between the [[Austro-Asiatic]] and [[Tibeto-Burman]] cultures.<ref name="HKBarpujariCHOA">Barpujari 1990</ref> Thereafter, western [[Human migration|migrations]] such as those of various branches of [[Mediterranean race|Mediterraneans]], [[Indo-Scythians|Indo-scythians /Irano-scythians]] and [[Nordic race|Nordics]] along with the people from [[North India|northern Indian]] states such as [[Magadha]] have enriched the aboriginal culture and under stronger politico-economic systems, [[Sanskritisation]] and [[Hindu]]isation intensified. Migration and assimilation of Tai people in the past millennium provided another dimension to its hybridity.<ref name="HKBarpujariCHOA">Barpujari 1990</ref> ]]
[[Assamese Culture|Assamese culture]] is traditionally a [[Hybridity|hybrid]] one developed due to assimilation of ethno-cultural groups in the past. Therefore, both local elements or the local elements in Sanskritised forms are distinctly found.<ref name="BKakatiAIFD">Kakati 1962</ref> The major milestones in evolution of Assamese culture are:
*Assimilation in the [[Kamarupa Kingdom]] for almost 700 years (under the [[Varman dynasty|Varmans]] for 300 years, [[Mlechchha dynasty|Salastambhas]] and [[Pala dynasty (Kamarupa)|Palas]] for each 200 years).<ref name="HKBarpujariCHOA">Barpujari 1990</ref>
*Establishment of the [[Ahom Dynasty|Ahom dynasty]] in the 13th century AD and assimilation for next 600 years.<ref name="HKBarpujariCHOA">Barpujari 1990</ref>
*Assimilation in the [[Koch Kingdom]] (15th-16th century AD) of western Assam and [[Kachari Kingdom]] (12th-18th century AD) of central and southern Assam.<ref name="HKBarpujariCHOA">Barpujari 1990</ref>
*[[Vaishnavism|Vaishnava]] Movement led by [[Srimanta Sankardeva]] (''Xonkordeu'') and its contribution and cultural changes.
[[Image:OXXlogo.gif|thumb|180px|left|[[Axom Xahitya Xabha|Ôxôm Xahityô Xôbha]] (est. 1917), the foremost organisation for development of literature; its annual conventions are the major celebrations and workshops portraying literary and cultural development. However, feeling inadequate attention, many groups have created their own Xôbhas.]]
With rich traditions, the modern culture is greatly influenced by events in the British and the Post-British Era. The language was standardised by the American [[Baptist]] [[Missionary|Missionaries]] such as [[Nathan Brown (missionary)|Nathan Brown]], Dr. Miles Bronson and local pundits such as [[Hemchandra Barua]] with the form available in the [[Sibsagar]] (''Xiwoxagor'') District (the ex-nerve centre of the Ahom Kingdom). A renewed Sanskritisation was increasingly adopted for developing [[Assamese language]] and grammar. A new wave of [[Western culture|Western]] and northern [[Culture of India|Indian influence]] was apparent in the performing arts and literature.
Increasing efforts of standardisation in the 20th century alienated the localised forms present in different areas and with the less-assimilated [[Ethnic groups|ethno-cultural groups]] (many source-cultures). However, Assamese culture in its hybrid form and nature is one of the richest, still developing and in true sense is a [[Cultural system|'cultural system']] with sub-systems. It is interesting that many source-cultures of Assamese cultural-system are still surviving either as sub-systems or as sister entities, for e.g. [[Bodo people|Bodo]] or [[Khasi]] or [[Mishing|Micing]]. Today it is important to keep the broader system closer to its roots and at the same time to focus on development of the sub-systems.
Some of the common and unique cultural traits in the region are peoples' respect towards [[Betel nut|areca-nut]] and [[betel]] leaves, symbolic clothes ([[Gamosa]], Arnai, etc), [[Assam silk|traditional silk]] garments and towards forefathers and elderly. Moreover, great hospitality and [[Bamboo]] culture are common.
==Symbolism==
[[Image:Tamulpanor Xorai Assam.JPG|thumb|right|180px|A pair of areca nuts, betel leaves and a 'Gamosa' in a Xorai; this represents cultural symbolism of respect towards the recipient person by the person presenting it]]
Symbolism is an ancient cultural practice in Assam and is still a very important part of Assamese way of life. Various elements are being used to represent beliefs, feelings, pride, identity, etc. ''Tamulpan'', ''[[Xorai]]'' and ''[[Gamosa]]'' are three important symbolic elements in Assamese culture. ''Tamulpan'' (the areca nut and betel leaves) or ''guapan'' (gua from ''kwa'') are considered along with the Gamosa (a typical woven cotton or silk cloth with embroidery) as the offers of devotion, respect and friendship. The Tamulpan-tradition is an ancient one and is being followed since time-immemorial with roots in the aboriginal Austro-Asiatic culture. [[Xorai]] is a traditionally manufactured bell-metal article of great respect and is used as a container-medium while performing respectful offers. Moreover, symbolically many ethno-cultural groups use specific clothes to portray respect and pride.
There were many other symbolic elements and designs, but are now only found in literature, art, sculpture, architecture, etc or in use today for only religious purposes. The typical designs of ''assamese-lion'', ''dragon'', ''flying-lion'', etc were used for symbolising various purposes and occasions. The archaeological sites such as the Madan Kamdev (c. 9th-10th A.D.) exhibits mass-scale use of lions, dragon-lions and many other figures of demons to show case power and prosperity. The Vaishnava monasteries and many other architectural sites of late medieval period also showcase use of lions and dragons for symbolic effects.
==Languages==
{{seealso|Assamese language|Assamese literature|Bodo language|}}
[[Assamese language|Assamese]] and [[Bodo language|Bodo]] are the major indigenous and official languages while [[Bengali language|Bengali]] holds official status in the three districts in the Barak Valley.
Traditionally Assamese was the language of the commons (of mixed origin - [[Austroasiatic]], [[Tibeto-Burman]], [[Magadhan Prakrit]]) in the ancient [[Kamarupa kingdom|Kamarupa]] and in the medieval kingdoms of Kamatapur, [[Kachari kingdom|Kachari]], [[Chutiya kingdom|Cuteeya]], Borahi, [[Ahom kingdom|Ahom]] and [[Koch kingdom|Koch]]. Traces of the language is found in many poems by Luipa, Sarahapa, etc in [[Charyapada]] (c.7th-8th AD). Modern dialects Kamrupi, Goalpariya, etc are the remnant of this language. Moreover, Assamese in its traditional form was used by the ethno-cultural groups in the region as lingua-franca, which spread during the stronger kingdoms and was required for needed economic integration. Localised forms of the language still exist in [[Nagaland]], [[Arunachal Pradesh]], [[North Bengal]], [[Cachar]], etc and in the south, languages such as [[Chittagonian language|Chatgaia]], [[Sylheti language|Siloti]], etc exhibit similarities. The form used in the upper Assam was enriched by the advent of Tai-Shans in the 13th century.
{{wide image|Charyapada.jpg|1000px|A Page from [[Charyapada]]: 7th-8th century Specimen of Assamese Literature}}
Linguistically modern Assamese traces its roots to the version developed by the American Missionaries based on the local form in practice near [[Sibsagar]] (Xiwoxagor) district. Assamese (''Oxomeeya'') is a rich language due to its hybrid nature with its unique characteristics of pronunciation and softness. Assamese literature is one of the richest.
[[Bodo language|Bodo]] is an ancient language of Assam. Spatial distribution patterns of the ethno-cultural groups, cultural traits and the phenomenon of naming all the major rivers in the [[North-East India|North East Region]] with Bodo-Kachari words (e.g. [[Dihing]], [[Dibru]], [[Dihong]], D/[[Teesta River|Tista]], [[Dikrai]], etc) reveal that it was the most important language in the ancient times. Bodo is presently spoken largely in the Lower Assam ([[Bodo Territorial Council]] area). After years of neglect, now [[Bodo language]] is getting attention and its literature is developing. Other native languages of [[Tibeto-Burman]] origin and related to Bodo-Kachari are [[Mishing language|Mishing]], [[Karbi]], [[Dimasa people|Dimaca]], [[Rabha]], Tiwa, etc. [[Rajbongshi]] also known as kamatapuri/Goalpariya is also widely spoken by the people of western assam.
There are smaller groups of people speaking [[Tai-Phake]], [[Tai-Aiton]], [[Tai-Khamti]], etc related to [[Tai-Kadai|Tai-group of languages]]. The Tai-Ahom language (brought by [[Sukaphaa]] and his followers), which is no more a spoken language today is getting attentions for research after centuries long care and preservation by the Bailungs (traditional priests). There are also small groups of people speaking [[Manipuri]], [[Khasi]], [[Garo]], [[Hmar]], [[Kuki]], etc in different parts.
In the past century migration of Bengalis in the [[Barak]] Valley has led to their majority, prompting the government of Assam to include Bengali as the official language in the area.
==Festivals==
[[Image:Bihu dancer with a horn.jpg|thumb|180px|A [[Bihu dance]]r with a horn]]
[[Image:kerai.jpg|thumb|right|180px|[[Bodo people|Bodo]] girls performing the Kherai dance.]]
[[Image:Print2.gif|right|thumb|180px|An Assamese woman in Pat Silk performing [[Sattriya dance]].]]
There are several important traditional festivals in Assam. [[Bihu]] is the most important and common and celebrated all over Assam.
[[Bihu]] is a series of three prominent festivals. Primarily a non-religious festival celebrated to mark the seasons and the significant points of a cultivator's life over a yearly cycle. Three Bihus, ''rongali'' or ''bohag'', celebrated with the coming of spring and the beginning of the sowing season; ''kongali'' or ''kati'', the barren bihu when the fields are lush but the barns are empty; and the ''bhogali'' or ''magh'', the thanksgiving when the crops have been harvested and the barns are full. Bihu songs and Bihu dance are associated to ''rongali'' bihu. The day before the each bihu is known as 'uruka'. The first day of 'rongali bihu' is called 'Goru bihu' (the bihu of the cows), when the cows are taken to the nearby rivers or ponds to be bathed with special care. In recent times the form and nature of celebration has changed with the growth of urban centres.
Moreover, there are other important traditional festivals being celebrated every year for different occasions at different places. Many of these are celebrated by different ethno-cultural groups (sub and sister cultures). Few of these are:
{{columns |width=180px |gap=5px
|col1 =
*Me-dam-me-phi
*Ali-aye-ligang
*Kherai
*Garja
*Hapsa Hatarnai
*Awnkham Gwrlwi Janai
|col2 =
*Chojun/Swarak
*Rongker
*Sokk-erroi
*Hacha-kekan
*Porag
}}
==Performing arts==
{{seealso|Music of Assam}}
Assam has rich tradition of performing arts. ''Ankiya Nat'' (''Onkeeya Naat'') is a traditional Vaishnav dance-drama (''bhaona'') form popular since 15th century A.D. It makes use of large masks of gods, goddesses, demons and animals and in between the plays a ''Sutradhar'' (''Xutrodhar'') keeps on telling the story. The [[Bihu]] dance and ''Hucory'' performed during the ''Bohag Bihu'', ''Kushan nritra'' of Rajbongshi's, ''Bagurumba'' and ''Bordoicikhla'' dance of [[Bodos]], [[Mishing]] Bihu, ''Banjar Kekan'' performed during ''Chomangkan'' by [[Karbis]] are some of the major folk dances. [[Sattriya]] (''Xotriya'') dance related to Vaishnav tradition is a classical form of dance. Moreover, there are several other age-old dance-forms such as Barpeta’s ''Bhortal Nritya'', ''Deodhoni Nritya'', ''Oja Paali'', ''Beula Dance'', ''Ka Shad Inglong Kardom'', ''Nimso Kerung'', etc. The tradition of modern moving theatres is typical of Assam with immense popularity of many large theatre groups such as Kohinoor, Apsara, Hengul, etc.
At the same time musical tradition is also rich. Folk songs and music related to Bihu and other festivals dates back to time-immemorial. ''Borgeet'', the popular Vaishnav songs are written and composed in 15th century. Assam has large numbers of traditional musical instruments including several types of [[drums]], [[string instruments]], [[flutes]], [[cymbals]], [[pipes]], etc.
The indigenous folk music has substantially influenced the growth of a modern idiom, that finds expression in the music of such artists like [[Bhupen Hazarika]], [http://www.rupaliparda.com/english/who's-who/anima.htm Anima Choudhury] Nirmalendu Choudhury & Utpalendu Choudhury, [[Rudra Baruah|Luit Konwar Rudra Baruah]], [[Parvati Prasad Baruva]], [[Jayanta Hazarika]], [http://www.rupaliparda.com/english/who's-who/khagenmahanta.htm Khagen Mahanta] among many others. Among the new generation, [[Zubeen Garg]] and Jitul Sonowal have a great fan following.
==Traditional crafts==
{{main|Traditional crafts of Assam}}
{{seealso|Assam silk}}
[[Image:Assam Xorai.png|thumb|right|180px|[[Bell metal]] made xorai and xophura are important parts of culture; offerings with respect are made using these during festivals and religious ceremonies and are seen as respectable items]]
[[Image:Assam Knahor Knahi.jpg|thumb|right|180px|A beautifully made traditional brass dish from Assam]]
[[Image:Assam Traditional Painting.JPG|thumb|180px|A colourful page of manuscript painting from Assam; The medieval painters used locally manufactured painting materials such as the bright colours of [[hangool and haital]] and papers manufactured from aloewood bark]]
Assam has a rich tradition of [[crafts]]; presently, [[Cane]] and [[bamboo]] craft, [[bell metal]] and [[brass]] craft, [[silk]] and [[cotton]] [[weaving]], [[toy]] and [[mask]] making, [[pottery]] and [[terracotta]] work, wood craft, [[jewellery]] making, musical instruments making, etc remained as major traditions.<ref> Assam Tourism 2002</ref> Historically, Assam also excelled in making [[boat]]s, traditional [[gun]]s and [[gunpowder]], [[ivory]] crafts, colours and [[paint]]s, articles of [[lac]], [[agarwood]] products, traditional building materials, utilities from iron, etc.
Cane and bamboo craft provide the most commonly used utilities in daily life, ranging from household utilities, weaving accessories, fishing accessories, furniture, musical instruments, construction materials, etc. Utilities and symbolic articles such as ''Xorai'' and ''Bota'' made from bell metal and brass are found in every Assamese household.<ref>Ranjan</ref><ref>Nath</ref> [[Hajo]] and [[Sarthebari]] (''Xorthebaary'') are the most important centres of traditional bell-metal and brass crafts. Assam is the home of several types of [[Assam silk|silks]], the most prestigious are: Muga - the natural golden silk, Pat - a creamy-bright-silver coloured silk and Eri - a variety used for manufacturing warm clothes for winter. Apart from [[Sualkuchi]] (''Xualkuchi''), the centre for the traditional silk industry, in almost every parts of the [[Brahmaputra]] Valley, rural households produce silk and silk garments with excellent embroidery designs. Moreover, various ethno-cultural groups in Assam make different types of cotton garments with unique embroidery designs and wonderful colour combinations.
Moreover, Assam possesses unique crafts of [[toy]] and [[mask]] making mostly concentrated in the Vaishnav Monasteries, [[pottery]] and [[terracotta]] work in lower Assam districts and wood craft, iron craft, [[jewellery]], etc in many places across the region.
==Fine arts==
{{main|Fine Arts of Assam}}
{{seealso|Culture of Assam}}
The archaic [[Mauryan Empire|Mauryan]] [[Stupas]] discovered in and around [[Goalpara district]] are the earliest examples (c. 300B.C. to c. 100A.D.) of ancient art and architectural works. The remains discovered in Daparvatiya (''Doporboteeya'') archaeological site with a beautiful doorframe in Tezpur are identified as the best examples of art works in ancient Assam with influence of [[Sarnath]] School of Art of the late [[Gupta empire|Gupta]] period. Many other sites also exhibit development of local art forms with local motifs and sometimes with similarities with those in the [[Southeast Asia]]. There are currently more than forty discovered ancient archaeological sites across Assam with numerous sculptural and architectural remains. Moreover, there are examples of several Late-Middle Age art and architectural works including hundreds of sculptures and motifs along with many remaining temples, palaces and other buildings. The motifs available on the walls of the buildings such as [[Rang Ghar]], Joydoul, etc are remarkable examples of art works.
Painting is an ancient tradition of Assam. [[Xuanzang]] (7th century CE) mentions that among the [[Kamarupa]] king Bhaskaravarma's gifts to [[Harshavardhana]] there were paintings and painted objects, some of which were on [[Assam silk|Assamese silk]]. Many of the manuscripts such as [[Hastividyarnava]] (A Treatise on Elephants), the [[Chitra Bhagawata]] and in the Gita Govinda from the Middle Ages bear excellent examples of traditional paintings. The medieval [[Assamese literature]] also refers to chitrakars and patuas.
There are several renowned contemporary artists in Assam. The [[Guwahati Art College]] in [[Guwahati]] is a government institution for tertiary education. Moreover, there are several art-societies and non-government initiatives across the state and the [[Guwahati Artists Guild]] is a front-runner organisation based in Guwahati.
==Economy==
[[Image:Assam historical pci.png|right|thumb|250px|In the 1950s, [[per capita income]] in Assam was little higher than that in India. In 2000-01, in Assam it was [[INR]] 6,157 at constant prices (1993-94) and INR 10,198 at current prices; almost 40 percent lower than that in India.<ref>Government of Assam, Economic Survey of Assam 2001-2002 in Assam Human Development Report, 2003 p25</ref> According to the recent estimates,<ref>Government of Assam, Economic Survey of Assam 2005-2006</ref> per capita income in Assam has reached INR 6756 (1993-94 constant prices) in 2004-05, which is still much lower than India's.]]
[[Image:TeaGardenOfAssam.jpg|thumb|180px|A tea garden in Assam: tea is grown at elevations near sea level, giving it a malty sweetness and an earthy flavor, as opposed to the more floral aroma of highland (e.g. [[Darjeeling tea|Darjeeling]], [[Taiwanese tea|Taiwanese]]) teas.]]
===Macro-economy===
Economy of Assam today represents a unique juxtaposition of backwardness amidst plenty.<ref>National Commission for Women 2004</ref> Growth rate of Assam’s [[Gross domestic product|income]] has not kept pace with that of India’s; differences increased rapidly since 1970s.<ref name="AHDR2003">UNDP 2004 p22-23</ref> Indian economy grew at 6 percent per annum over the period of 1981 to 2000, the same of Assam was only 3.3 percent.<ref>UNDP 2004 p22</ref> In the Sixth Plan period Assam experienced a negative growth rate of 3.78 percent when India's was positive at 6 percent.<ref name="AHDR2003">UNDP 2004 p22-23</ref> In the post-liberalised era (after 1991), the differences widened further.
According to recent analysis, Assam’s economy is showing signs of improvement. In 2001-02, the economy grew (at 1993-94 constant prices) at 4.5 percent, to fall to 3.4 percent in the next financial year.<ref name="GoAESA0405">Government of Assam, Economic Survey of Assam 2004-2005</ref> During 2003-04 and 2004-05, the economy grew (at 1993-94 constant prices) more satisfactorily at 5.5 and 5.3 percent respectively.<ref name="GoAESA0405">Government of Assam, Economic Survey of Assam 2004-2005</ref> The advanced estimates placed the growth rate for 2005-06 at above 6 percent.<ref>Government of Assam, Economic Survey of Assam 2005-2006</ref> Assam's GDP in 2004 is estimated at $13 billion in current prices. Sectoral analysis again exhibits a dismal picture. The average annual growth rate of agriculture, which was only 2.6 percent per annum over 1980s has unfortunately fallen to 1.6 percent in the 1990s.<ref name="AHDR2003II">UNDP 2004 p24-25</ref> Manufacturing sector has shown some improvement in the 1990s with a growth rate of 3.4 percent per annum than 2.4 percent in the 1980s.<ref name="AHDR2003II">UNDP 2004 p24-25</ref> Since past five decades, the tertiary sector has registered the highest growth rates than the other sectors, which even has slowed down in the 1990s than in 1980s.<ref name="AHDR2003II">UNDP 2004 p24-25</ref>
===Agriculture===
Accounts for more than a third of Assam’s income and employs 69 percent of workforce.<ref>Government of Assam, Economic Survey of Assam 2001-2002 in Assam Human Development Report, 2003 p32</ref> Assam's biggest contribution to the world is [[Assam tea|tea]]. It produces some of the finest and expensive teas and has its own variety ''[[Camellia assamica]]''. Assam also accounts for fair share of India’s production of [[rice]], [[rapeseed]], [[mustard]], [[jute]], [[potato]], [[sweet potato]], [[banana]], [[papaya]], [[areca nut]] and [[turmeric]]. It is also a home of large varieties of [[citrus]] fruits, [[leaf vegetables]], [[vegetables]], useful grasses, [[herbs]], [[spices]], etc.
Assam’s agriculture yet to experience modernisation in real sense. With implications to food security, per capita food grain production has declined in past five decades.<ref name="AHDR2003III">UNDP 2004 p33</ref> Productivity has increased marginally; but still lower comparing to highly productive regions. For instance, yield of rice (staple food of Assam) was just 1531 kg per hectare against India’s 1927 kg per hectare in 2000-01<ref name="AHDR2003III">UNDP 2004 p33</ref> (which itself is much lower than [[Egypt]]’s 9283, [[USA]]’s 7279, [[South Korea]]’s 6838, [[Japan]]’s 6635 and [[China]]’s 6131 kg per hectare in 2001<ref> FAO Statistics Division 2007 </ref>). On the other hand, after having strong domestic demand, 1.5 million hectares of inland water bodies, numerous rivers and 165 varieties of fishes,<ref>Assam Small Farmers’ Agri-business Consortium</ref> [[fishing]] is still in its traditional form and production is not self-sufficient.<ref name="AHDR2003IV">UNDP 2004 p37</ref>
===Industry===
Apart from tea and petroleum refineries, Assam has few industries of significance. Industrial development is inhibited by its physical and political isolation from neighbouring countries such as [[Myanmar]], [[China]] and [[Bangladesh]] and from other growing [[Southeast Asia]]n economies. The region is landlocked, situated in the eastern periphery of India and is linked to the mainland by a [[flood]] and [[cyclone]] prone narrow corridor, known as the [[Siliguri Corridor]] or Chicken's Neck, with weak transport infrastructure. The [[Lokpriya Gopinath Bordoloi International Airport|international airport in Guwahati]] is yet to find airlines providing direct international flights. The [[Brahmaputra]] suitable for [[navigation]] does not possess sufficient infrastructure for [[international trade]] and success of such a navigable trade route will be dependent on proper channel maintenance and diplomatic and trade relationships with Bangladesh.
[[Image:Tea 7.gif|thumb|180px|left|Processed Assam tea]]
Assam is a major producer of [[crude oil]], exploited by the [[Assam Oil Company Ltd.]], and [[natural gas]] in India and is the second place in the world (after [[Titusville, Pennsylvania|Titusville]] in the [[United States]]) where [[petroleum]] was discovered. Asia’s first successful mechanically drilled oil well was drilled in Makum (Assam) way back in 1867. Most of the oilfields are located in the Upper Assam region. Assam has four oil refineries located in [[Guwahati]], [[Digboi]], Numaligarh and [[Bongaigaon]] with a total capacity of 7 Million Metric Tonnes per annum.
Although having a poor overall industrial performance, several other industries have nevertheless been started, including a chemical [[fertiliser]] plan at [[Namrup]], [[petrochemical]] industries at [[Namrup]] and [[Bongaigaon]], paper mills at [[Jagiroad]], Panchgram and [[Jogighopa]], sugar mills at Barua Bamun Gaon, Chargola, Kampur, cement plant at Bokajan & [[Badarpur]], cosmetics plant (HLL) at [[Doom Dooma]], etc. Moreover, there are other industries such as jute mill, textile and yarn mills, silk mill, etc. Unfortunately many of these industries are facing loss and closer due to lack of infrastructure and improper management practices.<sup>[citations needed]</sup>
==Education==
[[Image:Assam Cotton College.jpg|thumb|180px|right|[[Cotton College, Guwahati|Cotton College]] in Guwahati initiated modern tertiary education and research in Assam and has been continuing classical and high-educational standards for more than hundred years; many of the buildings in the college are excellent examples of Assamese architecture with colonial flavours]]
Assam has several institutions for tertiary education and research. The major institutions are:
* [[Gauhati University]], [[Guwahati]]
* [[Dibrugarh University]], [[Dibrugarh]]
* [[Assam University]], [[Silchar]]
* [[Tezpur University]], [[Tezpur]]
* [[Assam Agricultural University]], [[Jorhat]]
* [[Indian Institute of Technology Guwahati]]
* [[National Institute of Technology, Silchar]]
* North Eastern Regional Institute of Water and Land Management, [[Tezpur]]
* Lokopriya Gopinath Bordoloi Regional Institute of Mental Health, [[Tezpur]]
* Defence Research Labroratory,[[Tezpur]]
* [[North East Institute of Science and Technology, Jorhat]] (Formerly Regional Research Laboratory), Jorhat
* Tocklai Experimental Station, Tea Research Association, Jorhat
* Centre for Plasma Physics, Guwahati
* Assam Engineering College, Jalukbari, Guwahati.
* Jorhat Engineering College, Jorhat
==Places==
[[Image:sarania-hills-brahmaputra.jpg|thumb|180px|A View of Guwahati; the city known as Pragjyotishapura (city of eastern light) in the ancient times has a past extended to more than two thousand years]]
===Cities and towns===
History of urban development goes back to almost two thousand years in the region. Existence of ancient urban areas such as Pragjyotishapura (Guwahati), Hatapesvara (Tezpur), Durjaya, etc and medieval towns such as Charaideu, Garhgaon, Rongpur, Jorhat, Khaspur, Guwahati, etc are well recorded.<ref name="HKBarpujariCHOA">Barpujari, H. K. (ed.),1990 The Comprehensive History of Assam, 1st edition, Assam Publication Board, Guwahati</ref>
[[Guwahati]] is the largest [[Urban area|urban]] centre and a million plus city in Assam. The city has experienced multifold growth during past three decades to grow as the [[primate city]] in the region; the city's population was approximately 0.9 million (considering [[Guwahati Metropolitan Development Authority|GMDA]] area) during the census of 2001. The other important urban areas are [[Dibrugarh]], [[Jorhat]],[[Golaghat]], [[Tinsukia]] (Tinicukiya), [[Sibsagar]] (Xiwoxagor), [[Silchar]] (Silcor), [[Tezpur]], [[Nagaon]], [[Lakhimpur]], [[Bongaigaon]], etc. Population growth in the Barak Valley town of Silchar is also astonishing during past two decades. [[Nalbari]], [[Mangaldoi]], [[Barpeta]], [[Kokrajhar]], [[Goalpara]], [[Dhubri]] (Dhubury), etc are other towns and district head quarters. On the other hand [[Duliajan]], [[Digboi]], [[Namrup]], [[Moran]], [[Bongaigaon]], [[Numaligarh]], [[Jogighopa]], etc are major industrial towns. Currently, there are around 125 total urban centres in the state.
{{wide image|Top 12 Cities Assam.PNG|1000px|Growth Dynamism in Major Urban Areas}}
===Destinations===
[[Image:Kazi-sunbird.jpg|thumb|180px|A [[Crimson Sunbird]] at Kaziranga]]
[[Image:Rhino side view.jpg|thumb|180px|The famous [[Indian Rhinoceros|Rhinoceros]] of Assam at Kaziranga]]
[[Image:Bhatou Phul.jpg|thumb|right|180px|Orchids are abundantly found in Assam; a variety - Bhatou Phul or [[Vanda]] coerulea, the '''Blue Orchid'']]
Assam has several attractive destinations; majority of these are [[National Parks]], Wildlife and Bird Sanctuaries,<ref>Directorate of Information and Public Relations 2002</ref> areas with archaeological interests and areas with unique [[Culture of Assam|cultural heritage]]. Moreover, as a whole, the region is covered by beautiful natural landscapes.
{{columns |width=250px |gap=5px
|col1 =
*[[Kaziranga National Park]]
*[[Manas National Park]]
*[[Nameri National Park]]
*[[Dibru-Saikhowa National Park]]
*[[Orang National Park]]
*[[Joydihing Rainforest]]
*[[Gibbon Wildlife Sanctuary]]
*[[Garampani Wildlife Sanctuary]]
*[[Chakrasila Wildlife Sanctuary]]
*[[Burasapori Wildlife Sanctuary]]
*[[Bornodi Wildlife Sanctuary]]
*[[Sonai-rupai Wildlife Sanctuary]]
*[[Pobitora Wildlife Sanctuary]]
*[[Nambor Wildlife Sanctuary]]
*[[Laokhowa Wildlife Sanctuary]]
*[[Gibon Wildlife Sanctuary]]
*[[East Karbi-Anglong Wildlife Sanctuary]] (Proposed)
*[[Karbi-Anglong Wildlife Sanctuary]] (Proposed)
*[[Podumani Bherjan Borajan Wildlife Sanctuary]]
*[[Bordoibum Beelmukh Bird Sanctuary]] (Proposed)
*[[Panidihing Bird Sanctuary]]
*[[Deepor Beel]] Bird Sanctuary
|col2 =
*[[Majuli]]
*[[Sualkuchi]]
*[[Sarthebari]]
*[[Digboi]] oil town
*[[Ledo]] and [[Stilwell Road]]
*[[Haflong]] and [[Jatinga]]
*Umrangshu hotwater spring
|col3 =
*[[Guwahati]] archaeological region
*[[Hajo]] archaeological region
*Madan Kamdev
*[[Sibsagar]] archaeological region
*[[Charaideo]]
*Surya Pahar [[Goalpara]] archaeological region
*[[Tezpur]] archaeological region
*[[Kapili]] Valley archaeological region
*[[Dhansiri]]/Dhonxiri Valley archaeological region
*[[Maibong]]
}}
==See also==
{{columns |width=200px |gap=5px
|col1 =
* [[1897 Assam earthquake]]
* [[1950 Assam earthquake]]
* [[Ahom]]
* [[Ahom kingdom]]
* [[Assam Rifles]]
* [[Assamese cinema]]
* [[Assamese language]]
* [[Axom Xahitya Xabha]]
* [[Biodiversity of Assam]]
* [[Bodo language]]
* [[Bodo people]]
|col2 =
* [[Charyapada]]
* [[Cuisine of Assam]]
* [[Culture of Assam]]
* [[Districts of Assam]]
* [[Etymology of Assam]]
* [[Fine Arts of Assam]]
* [[History of Assam]]
* [[Kamarupa (History)]]
* [[Karbi]]
|col3 =
* [[Mishing]]
* [[Mishing language]]
* [[Music of Assam]]
* [[People of Assam]]
* [[Physical Geography of Assam]]
* [[:Category:Political parties in Assam|Political parties in Assam]]
|col4 =
* [[Traditional crafts of Assam]]
* [[Textiles and dresses of Assam]]
* [[Wikipedia: WikiProject Assam|WikiProject Assam]]
}}
==Notes and references==
{{reflist|2}}
{{refbegin}}
*{{Citation
| first = C. U. ed | last = Aitchison
| author-link =
| title = [http://projectsouthasia.sdstate.edu/Docs/history/primarydocs/Treaties/Burma/002.htm The Treaty of Yandaboo], A Collection of Treaties, Engagements and Sanads: Relating to India and Neighbouring Countries. Vol. XII.
| place = Calcutta
| publisher = Government of India Central Publication Branch
| year = 1931
| doi =
| isbn = }}
*{{Citation
| last = Assam Small Farmers’ Agri-business Consortium
| first =
| title = {{PDFlink|[http://www.assamagribusiness.nic.in/2ndoct/fishspeciesofAssam.pdf Fish Species of Assam]|400 [[Kibibyte|KiB]]<!-- application/pdf, 409976 bytes -->}}
| url=
| access-date = 2006-06-05}}
*{{Citation
| last = Assam Tourism 2002
| first = Government of Assam
| title = Arts and Crafts of Assam in About Assam
| url= http://www.assamtourism.org/arts.htm
| access-date = 2007-06-3}}
*{{Citation
| first = H. K. (ed.)| last = Barpujari
| author-link =
| title = The Comprehensive History of Assam, 1st edition
| place = Guwahati, India
| publisher = Assam Publication Board
| year = 1990
| doi =
| isbn = }}
*{{Citation
| last1 = Birdlife International, UK
| title = {{PDFlink|[http://www.birdlife.org/action/science/species/asia_strategy/pdf_downloads/grasslandsGO2.pdf Indo-Gangetic Grasslands]|431 [[Kibibyte|KiB]]<!-- application/pdf, 441680 bytes -->}}
| publisher =
| pages =
| year = }}
*{{Citation
| last = Borthakur
| first = Ahir Bhairab
| author-link =
| title = [http://www.downtoearth.org.in/full6.asp?foldername=20020115&filename=gra&sec_id=11&sid=1 Call of the wild]
| journal = Down To Earth
| volume =
| pages =
| date = January 15, 2002
| year = 2002}}
*{{Citation
| last = Directorate of Information and Public Relations
| first = Government of Assam
| title = Area of the National Parks and Wildlife Sanctuaries in Assam, 2002
| url= http://janasanyogassam.nic.in/assamataglance.htm
| access-date = 2006-05-29}}
*{{Citation
| last = Directorate of Information and Public Relations
| first = Government of Assam
| title = Assam at a Glance
| url= http://janasanyogassam.nic.in/assamataglance.htm
| access-date = 2007-05-25}}
*{{Citation
| last=Dixit
| first=K. M.
| author-link=
| title=Chicken's Neck (Editorial)
| newspaper=Himal South Asian
| volume=
| issue=
| pages=
| year=2002
| date=August 2002
| url=http://www.himalmag.com/2002/august/lastpage.htm}}
*{{Citation
| last=Editorial
| first=
| author-link=
| title=Assam or Asom?
| newspaper=The Assam Tribune
| volume=
| issue=
| pages=
| year=2007
| date=6 January 2007
| url=http://www.assamtribune.com/scripts/details.asp?id=jan0607\edit}}
*{{Citation
| last = ENVIS Assam
| first =
| author-link =
| title = {{PDFlink|[http://www.envisassam.org/VOL2_2.pdf Endemic Orchids of Assam]|6.46 [[Mebibyte|MiB]]<!-- application/pdf, 6775452 bytes -->}}
| journal = ENVIS Assam, Assam Science Technology and Environment Council
| volume = 2
| pages = 8
| date = April-June 2003
| year = 2003}}
*{{Citation
| last = FAO Statistics Division, 2007
| first = Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations
| title = FAOSTAT
| url=http://faostat.fao.org/site/340/DesktopDefault.aspx?PageID=340
| access-date = 2006-06-05}}
*{{cite paper
| author = Government of Assam
| title = Economic Survey of Assam 2001-2002 in Assam Human Development Report, 2003
| date =
| url = http://planassam.org/reports/hdr_2003/HRD.htm Chapter 2, Income, Employment and Poverty
| format = [[PDF]]
| accessdate = 2007-06-06 }}
*{{cite paper
| author = Government of Assam
| title = Economic Survey of Assam 2004-2005 in NEDFi, Assam Profile, NER Databank
| date = 2006
| url = http://databank.nedfi.com/mod.php?mod=userpage&menu=11&page_id=4
| format = [[html]]
| accessdate = 2007-06-06 }}
*{{cite paper
| author = Government of Assam
| title = Economic Survey of Assam 2005-2006 in NEDFi, Assam Profile, NER Databank
| date =
| url = http://databank.nedfi.com/mod.php?mod=userpage&menu=11&page_id=4
| format = [[html]]
| accessdate = 2007-06-06 }}
*{{Citation
| last = Government of Assam 2002-03
| first =
| title = Statistics of Assam
| url= http://www.assamgov.org/generalinformation/assamstatistics.html
| access-date = 2007-06-3}}
*{{cite paper
| author = Governor of Assam
| title = Report on Illegal Migration into Assam
| date = 1998-11-08
| url = http://www.satp.org/satporgtp/countries/india/states/assam/documents/papers/illegal_migration_in_assam.htm
| format =
| accessdate = 2007-05-26 }}
*{{Citation
| first = Sanjoy | last = Hazarika
| author-link =
| title = Strangers of the Mist
| place =
| publisher = Penguin Books Australia Ltd.
| year = 2003
| doi =
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*{{Citation
| last = Hussain
| first = Wasbir
| author-link =
| title = [http://www.satp.org/satporgtp/sair/Archives/3_10.htm Assam: Demographic Jitters], Weekly Assessments & Briefings
| journal = South Asia Intelligence Review
| volume = 3-10
| pages =
| date = September 20, 2004
| year = 2004}}
*{{Citation
| first = Banikanta | last = Kakati
| author-link =
| title = Assamese, Its Formation and Development, 2nd edition
| place = Guwahati, India
| publisher = Lawyer's Book Stall
| year = 1962
| doi =
| isbn = }}
*{{Citation
| last1 = MacFarlane | first1 = Alan
| last2 = MacFarlane | first2 = Iris
| title = Green Gold, The Empire of Tea, Ch.6-11
| publisher = Random House, London
| date = 2003
| year = 2003
| isbn = }}
*{{Citation
| first = T.K.| last = Nath
| author-link =
| title = Bamboo Cane and Assam
| place = Guwahati, India
| publisher = Industrial Development Bank of India, Small Industries Development Bank of India
| year =
| doi =
| isbn = }}
*{{cite paper
| author = National Commission for Women
| title = Situational Analysis of Women in Assam
| date = 2004
| url = http://www.ncw.nic.in/pdfreports/Gender%20Profile-Assam.pdf
| format = [[PDF]]
| accessdate = 2006-07-05 }}
*{{cite paper
| author = National Commission on Population, Census of India
| title = Population Projections for India and States 2001-2026
| date = 2006
| url = http://www.censusindia.net/Projection_Report.pdf
| format = [[PDF]]
| accessdate = 2007-05-15 }}
*{{Citation
| last = National Mission on Bamboo Applications
| first =
| title = Assam, State Profile
| url= http://www.bambootech.org/subsubTOP.asp?subsubid=101&subid=37&sname=STATE
| access-date = 2007-05-25}}
*{{Citation
| last = NEDFi & NIC-Assam
| first =
| title = North East India Databank
| url= http://nerdatabank.nic.in/as_minerals.htm
| access-date = 2007-05-20}}
*{{Citation
| last = Purdue University
| first =
| title = The Köppen Classification of Climates
| url= http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/tropical/lecture_04/lec_04.html
| access-date = 2007-05-25}}
*{{Citation
| last1 = Ranjan | first1 = M.P.
| last2 = Iyer | first2 = Nilam
| last3 = Pandya | first3 = Ghanshyam
| title = Bamboo and Cane Crafts of Northeast India
| publisher = National Institute of Design
| date =
| year =
| isbn = }}
*{{Citation
| last = Revenue Department
| first = Government of Assam
| title = Revenue Administration - Districts and Subdivisions
| url= http://revenueassam.nic.in/
| access-date = 2007-05-25}}
*{{Citation
| last = Sharma
| first = Pradip
| author-link =
| title = {{PDFlink|[http://www.envisassam.org/VOL2_2.pdf An Overview on Wetlands in Assam]|6.46 [[Mebibyte|MiB]]<!-- application/pdf, 6775452 bytes -->}}
| journal = ENVIS Assam, Assam Science Technology and Environment Council
| volume = 2
| pages = 7
| date = April-June 2003
| year = 2003}}
* Singh, K. S (ed) (2003) ''People of India: Assam Vol XV Parts I and II'', Anthropological Survey of India, Seagull Books, Calcutta
*{{Citation
| first = R. L. | last = Singh
| author-link =
| title = India, A Regional Geography
| place = Varanasi, India
| publisher = National Geographical Society of India
| year = 1993
| doi =
| isbn = }}
* Taher, Mohammad (1993) ''The Peopling of Assam and contemporary social structure'' in Ahmad, Aijazuddin (ed) Social Structure and Regional Development, Rawat Publications, New Delhi
*{{Citation
| last=Times News Network
| first=
| author-link=
| title=Assam to fall off the map, turn Asom
| newspaper=The Times of India
| volume=
| issue=
| pages=
| year=2006
| date=28 February 2006
| url=http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/articleshow/1431357.cms}}
*{{Citation
| first = | last = UNDP
| author-link = UNDP
| title = {{PDFlink|1=[http://planassam.org/reports/hdr_2003/HRD.htm Chapter 2, Income, Employment and Poverty in Assam Human Development Report, 2003]}}
| place =
| publisher = Government of Assam
| year = 2004
| doi =
| isbn = }}
*{{Citation
| last = Wandrey
| first = C. J.
| author-link =
| title = {{PDFlink|[http://pubs.usgs.gov/bul/2208/D/b2208-d.pdf Sylhet-Kopili/Barail-Tipam Composite Total Petroleum System, Assam Geologic Province, India]|1.73 [[Mebibyte|MiB]]<!-- application/pdf, 1817223 bytes -->}}
| journal = U.S. Geological Survey Bulletin
| volume = 2208-D
| pages =
| date = 2004
| year = 2004}}
*{{cite web
| last = World Heritage Centre
| first = UNESCO
| title = World Heritage List
| url= http://whc.unesco.org/pg.cfm?cid=31
| accessdate = 2007-06-06}}
{{refend}}
==Further reading==
Language and literature
*{{Citation
| first = Mahendra | last = Bara
| author-link =
| title = The Evolution of the Assamese Script
| place = Jorhat, Assam
| publisher = Asam Sahitya Sabha
| year = 1981
| doi =
| isbn = }}
*{{Citation
| first = H. K. | last = Barpujari
| author-link =
| title = Amerikan Michanerisakal aru Unabimsa Satikar Asam
| place = Jorhat, Assam
| publisher = Asam Sahitya Sabha
| year = 1983
| doi =
| isbn = }}
*{{Citation
| first = Birinchi Kumar | last = Barua
| author-link =
| title = History of Assamese Literature
| place = Guwahati
| publisher = East-West Centre Press
| year = 1965, c1964
| doi =
| isbn = }}
*{{Citation
| first = Hem | last = Barua
| author-link =
| title = Assamese Literature
| place = New Delhi
| publisher = National Book Trust
| year = 1965
| doi =
| isbn = }}
*{{Citation
| first = William Barclay | last = Brown
| author-link =
| title = An Outline Grammar of the Deori Chutiya Language Spoken in Upper Assam with an Introduction, Illustrative Sentences, and Short Vocabulary
| place = Shillong
| publisher = The Assam Secretariat Printing Office
| year = 1895
| doi =
| isbn = }}
*{{Citation
| first = Anandaram 1829-1859 | last = Dhekial Phukan
| author-link =
| title = Anandaram Dhekiyal Phukanar Racana Samgrah
| place = Guwahati
| publisher = Lawyer's Book Stall
| year = 1977
| doi =
| isbn = }}
*{{Citation
| first = Sidney | last = Endle
| author-link =
| title = Outline of the Kachari (Baro) Language as Spoken in District Darrang, Assam
| place = Shillong
| publisher = Assam Secretariat Press
| year = 1884
| doi =
| isbn = }}
*{{Citation
| first = Lila | last = Gogoi
| author-link =
| title = Sahitya-Samskriti-Buranji
| place = Dibrugarh
| publisher = New Book Stall
| year = 1972
| doi =
| isbn = }}
*{{Citation
| first = Lila | last = Gogoi
| author-link =
| title = The Buranjis, Historical Literature of Assam
| place = New Delhi
| publisher = Omsons Publications
| year = 1986
| doi =
| isbn = }}
*{{Citation
| first = Praphulladatta | last = Goswami
| author-link =
| title = Folk-Literature of Assam
| place = Guwahati
| publisher = Department of Historical and Antiquarian Studies in Assam
| year = 1954
| doi =
| isbn = }}
*{{Citation
| first = Philip Richard Thornhagh | last = Gurdon
| author-link =
| title = Some Assamese Proverbs
| place = Shillong
| publisher = The Assam Secretariat Printing Office
| year = 1896
| doi =
| isbn = }}
*{{Citation
| first = Banikanta | last = Kakati
| author-link =
| title = Aspects of Early Assamese Literature
| place = Guwahati
| publisher = Gauhati University
| year = 1959
| doi =
| isbn = }}
*{{Citation
| first = S. P. | last = Kay
| author-link =
| title = An English-Mikir Vocabulary
| place = Shillong
| publisher = The Assam Secretariat Printing Office
| year = 1904
| doi =
| isbn = }}
*{{Citation
| first = Kaliram | last = Medhi
| author-link =
| title = Assamese Grammar and Origin of the Assamese Language
| place = Guwahati
| publisher = Assam Publication Board
| year = 1988
| doi =
| isbn = }}
*{{Citation
| first = Bronson | last = Miles
| author-link =
| title = A Dictionary in Assamese and English
| place = Sibsagar, Assam
| publisher = American Baptist Mission Press
| year = 1867
| doi =
| isbn = }}
*{{Citation
| first = Stephen | last = Morey
| author-link =
| title = The Tai languages of Assam : a grammar and texts
| place = Canberra
| publisher = Pacific Linguistics
| year = 2005
| doi =
| isbn =0858835495 }}
History
*{{Citation
| first = H. | last = Antrobus
| author-link =
| title = A History of the Assam Company
| place = Edinburgh
| publisher = Private Printing by T. and A. Constable
| year = 1957
| doi =
| isbn = }}
*{{Citation
| first = Hiteswara 1876-1939 | last = Barabaruwa
| author-link =
| title = Ahomar Din
| place = Guwahati
| publisher = Assam Publication Board
| year = 1981
| doi =
| isbn = }}
*{{Citation
| first = Nirode K. | last = Barooah
| author-link =
| title = David Scott In North-East India, 1802-1831
| place = New Delhi
| publisher = Munshiram Manoharlal Publishers
| year = 1970
| doi =
| isbn = }}
*{{Citation
| first = Harakanta 1813-1900 | last = Barua
| author-link =
| title = Asama Buranji
| place = Guwahati
| publisher = Department of Historical and Antiquarian Studies, Assam
| year = 1962
| doi =
| isbn = }}
*{{Citation
| first = H. K. | last = Barpujari
| author-link =
| title = Assam in the Days of the Company, 1826-1858
| place = Guwahati
| publisher = Lawyer's Book Stall
| year = 1963
| doi =
| isbn = }}
*{{Citation
| first = H. K. | last = Barpujari
| author-link =
| title = Political History of Assam. Department for the Preparation of Political History of Assam
| place = Guwahati
| publisher = Government of Assam
| year = 1977
| doi =
| isbn = }}
*{{Citation
| first = Kanak Lal | last = Barua
| author-link =
| title = An Early History of Kamarupa, From the Earliest Time to the Sixteenth Century
| place = Guwahati
| publisher = Lawyers Book Stall
| year =
| doi =
| isbn = }}
*{{Citation
| first = Kanak Lal | last = Barua
| author-link =
| title = Studies in the Early History of Assam
| place = Jorhat, Assam
| publisher = Asam Sahitya Sabha
| year =
| doi =
| isbn = }}
*{{Citation
| first = Swarna Lata | last = Baruah
| author-link =
| title = Last days of Ahom monarchy : a history of Assam from 1769-1826
| place = New Delhi
| publisher = Munshiram Manoharlal Publishers
| year = 1993
| doi =
| isbn = }}
*{{Citation
| first = Suryya Kumar | last = Bhuyan
| author-link =
| title = Anglo-Assamese Relations, 1771-1826
| place = Guwahati
| publisher = Department of Historical and Antiquarian Studies in Assam
| year = 1949
| doi =
| isbn = }}
*{{Citation
| first = Suryya Kumar | last = Bhuyan
| author-link =
| title = Annals of the Delhi Badshahate
| place = Guwahati
| publisher = Department of Historical and Antiquarian Studies, Government of Assam
| year = 1947
| doi =
| isbn = }}
*{{Citation
| first = Suryya Kumar | last = Bhuyan
| author-link =
| title = Atan Buragohain and His Times
| place = Guwahati
| publisher = Lawyer's Book Stall
| year = 1957
| doi =
| isbn = }}
*{{Citation
| first = Suryya Kumar | last = Bhuyan
| author-link =
| title = Deodhai Asam Buranji
| place = Guwahati
| publisher = Department of Historical and Antiquarian Studies
| year = 1962
| doi =
| isbn = }}
*{{Citation
| first = Suryya Kumar | last = Bhuyan
| author-link =
| title = Early British Relations with Assam
| place = Shillong
| publisher = Assam Secretariat Press
| year = 1928
| doi =
| isbn = }}
*{{Citation
| first = Suryya Kumar | last = Bhuyan
| author-link =
| title = Lachit Barphukan and His Times
| place = Guwahati
| publisher = Department of Historical and Antiquarian Studies, Government of Assam
| year = 1947
| doi =
| isbn = }}
*{{Citation
| first = Suryya Kumar | last = Bhuyan
| author-link =
| title = Satasari Asama Buranji
| place = Guwahati
| publisher = Gauhati University
| year = 1964
| doi =
| isbn = }}
*{{Citation
| first = Suryya Kumar | last = Bhuyan
| author-link =
| title = Swargadew Rajeswarasimha
| place = Guwahati
| publisher = Assam Publication Board
| year = 1975
| doi =
| isbn = }}
*{{Citation
| first = Francis Hamilton 1762-1829| last = Buchanan
| author-link =
| title = An Account of Assam
| place = Guwahati
| publisher = Department of Historical and Antiquarian Studies
| year = 1963
| doi =
| isbn = }}
*{{Citation
| first = Srinath | last = Duara Barbarua
| author-link =
| title = Tungkhungia Buranji
| place = Bombay
| publisher = H. Milford, Oxford University Press
| year = 1933
| doi =
| isbn = }}
*{{Citation
| first = Edward Albert 1863-1950| last = Gait
| author-link =
| title = A History of Assam
| place = Calcutta
| publisher = Thacker, Spink & Co.
| year = 1926
| doi =
| isbn = }}
*{{Citation
| first = Padmeswar | last = Gogoi
| author-link =
| title = The Tai and the Tai Kingdoms
| place = Guwahati
| publisher = Gauhati University
| year = 1968
| doi =
| isbn = }}
*{{Citation
| first = Amalendu | last = Guha
| author-link =
| title = The Ahom Political System
| place = Calcutta
| publisher = Centre for Studies in Social Sciences
| year = 1983
| doi =
| isbn = }}
*{{Citation
| first = William Wilson 1840-1900| last = Hunter
| author-link =
| title = A Statistical Account of Assam
| place = London
| publisher = Trubner & Co.
| year = 1879
| doi =
| isbn = }}
Tradition and Culture
*{{Citation
| first = Sukumar | last = Barkath
| author-link =
| title = Hastibidyarnnara Sarasamgraha (English & Assamese), 18th Century
| place = Guwahati
| publisher = Assam Publication Board
| year = 1976
| doi =
| isbn = }}
*{{Citation
| first = Birinchi Kumar | last = Barua
| author-link =
| title = A Cultural History of Assam
| place = Guwahati
| publisher = Lawyer's Book Stall
| year = 1969
| doi =
| isbn = }}
*{{Citation
| first = Birinchi Kumar | last = Barua
| author-link =
| title = Sankardeva
| place = Guwahati
| publisher = Assam Academy for Cultural Relations
| year = 1960
| doi =
| isbn = }}
*{{Citation
| first = Jayakanta | last = Gandhiya
| author-link =
| title = Huncari, Mukali Bihu, aru Bihunac
| place = Dibrugarh
| publisher =
| year = 1988
| doi =
| isbn = }}
*{{Citation
| first = Praphulladatta | last = Goswami
| author-link =
| title = Ballads and Tales of Assam
| place = Guwahati
| publisher = Gauhati University
| year = 1960
| doi =
| isbn = }}
*{{Citation
| first = Praphulladatta | last = Goswami
| author-link =
| title = Bohag Bihu of Assam and Bihu Songs
| place = Guwahati
| publisher = Assam Publication Board
| year = 1988
| doi =
| isbn = }}
*{{Citation
| first = Pona | last = Mahanta
| author-link =
| title = Western Influence on Modern Assamese Drama
| place = Delhi
| publisher = Mittal Publications
| year = 1985
| doi =
| isbn = }}
*{{Citation
| first = Kaliram | last = Medhi
| author-link =
| title = Studies in the Vaisnava Literature and Culture of Assam
| place = Jorhat, Assam
| publisher = Asam Sahitya Sabha
| year = 1978
| doi =
| isbn = }}
==External links==
*[http://assam.gov.in/ Government of Assam]
*{{dmoz|Regional/Asia/India/Assam}}
*[http://www.barakbangla.com/ Barak Valley of Assam]
{{commonscat|Assam}}
{{Districts of Assam}}
{{States and territories of India}}
[[Category:Assam|*]]
[[Category:States and territories of India]]
[[Category:Seven Sister States]]
[[Category:North East India]]
[[as:অসম]]
[[bn:আসাম]]
[[be:Асам]]
[[bg:Асам]]
[[ca:Assam]]
[[cv:Асам]]
[[cs:Ásám (indický stát)]]
[[da:Assam]]
[[de:Assam]]
[[dv:އާސާމު]]
[[et:Assam]]
[[es:Assam]]
[[eo:Asamo]]
[[fa:آسام]]
[[fr:Assam]]
[[gl:Assam]]
[[gu:આસામ]]
[[ko:아삼 주]]
[[hi:असम]]
[[bpy:অসম]]
[[id:Assam]]
[[it:Assam]]
[[he:אסאם]]
[[ka:ასამი (შტატი)]]
[[lt:Asamas]]
[[hu:Asszám]]
[[ml:ആസാം]]
[[mr:आसाम]]
[[ms:Assam]]
[[nl:Assam]]
[[ja:アッサム州]]
[[no:Assam]]
[[nn:Assam]]
[[pl:Assam]]
[[pt:Assam]]
[[ro:Assam]]
[[ru:Ассам]]
[[sa:असाम]]
[[simple:Assam]]
[[sr:Асам]]
[[sh:Assam]]
[[fi:Assam]]
[[sv:Assam]]
[[ta:அஸ்ஸாம்]]
[[te:అసోం]]
[[th:รัฐอัสสัม]]
[[vi:Assam]]
[[tg:Ассам]]
[[uk:Ассам]]
[[zh:阿萨姆邦]]