Assyria 2085 224698684 2008-07-10T00:46:58Z 67.149.153.220 {{otheruses}} {| align=right |- |{{History of Assyrian people}} |} '''Assyria''' was originally (in the [[Middle Bronze Age]]) a region on the Upper [[Tigris]] river, named for its original capital, the ancient city of [[Assur]] ([[Akkadian language|Akkadian]]: {{lang|akk|''Aššur''}}; [[Arabic language|Arabic]]: {{lang|ar|أشور}} ''{{lang|arLatn|Aššûr}}''; [[Hebrew language|Hebrew]]: {{lang|he|אַשּׁוּר}} ''{{lang|he-Latn|Aššûr}}'', [[Aramaic language|Aramaic]]: ''{{lang|arc-Latn| Ashur}}''). Later, as a nation and empire that came to control all of the [[Fertile Crescent]], [[Egypt]] and much of [[Anatolia]], the [[term]] "Assyria proper" referred to roughly the northern half of [[Mesopotamia]] (the southern half being [[Babylonia]]), with [[Nineveh]] as its capital. The Assyrian kings controlled a large kingdom at three different times in history. These are called the '''Old''' (20th to 15th c. BC), '''Middle''' (15th to 10th c. BC), and '''[[Neo-Assyrian Empire|Neo-Assyrian]]''' (911–612 BC) kingdoms, or periods, of which the last is the most well known and best documented. The Assyrian homeland was located near a mountainous region, extending along the Tigris as far as the high Gordiaean or Carduchian mountain range of [[Armenia]], sometimes known as the "Mountains of Ashur". Assyrians invented [[sapping|excavation to undermine]] [[fortification|city walls]], [[battering ram]]s to knock down gates, as well as the concept of a corps of [[engineers]], who bridged rivers with pontoons or provided soldiers with inflatable skins for swimming.<ref>{{cite book|last=Bertman|first=Stephen|title=Handbook to Life in Ancient Mesopotamia|location=New York|publisher=Oxford UP|year=2005|pages=}}</ref> ==Early history== {{Ancient Mesopotamia}} The most [[neolithic]] site in Assyria is at [[Tell Hassuna]], the center of the [[Hassuna]] culture. Of the early history of the kingdom of Assyria, little is positively known. According to some Judaeo-Christian traditions, the city of [[Ashur]] (also spelled [[Assur]] or Aššur) was founded by [[Ashur (Bible)|Ashur]] the son of [[Shem]], who was deified by later generations as the city's patron god. The upper [[Tigris]] River valley seems to have been ruled by [[Sumer]], [[Akkad]], and northern Babylonia in its earliest stages; once a part of [[Sargon the Great]]'s empire, it was destroyed by [[barbarian]]s in the [[Gutian period]], then rebuilt, and ended up being governed as part of the Empire of the [[3rd dynasty of Ur]]. ==Old Assyrian city-states and kingdoms== The first inscriptions of Assyrian rulers appear after 2000 BC. Assyria then consisted of a number of city states and small [[Semitic]] kingdoms. The foundation of the Assyrian monarchy was traditionally ascribed to [[Zulilu]], who is said to have lived after Bel-kap-kapu (Bel-kapkapi or Belkabi, ca. [[1900 BC]]), the ancestor of [[Shalmaneser I]]. ===City state of Ashur=== The city-state of Ashur had extensive contact with cities on the [[Anatolia]]n plateau. The Assyrians established "merchant colonies" in [[Cappadocia]], ''e.g.,'' at [[Kanesh]] (modern [[Kültepe]]) circa [[1920 BC]]&ndash;[[1840 BC]] and [[1798 BC]]&ndash;[[1740 BC]]. These colonies, called ''karum'', the Akkadian word for 'port', were attached to Anatolian cities, but physically separate, and had special tax status. They must have arisen from a long tradition of trade between Ashur and the Anatolian cities, but no archaeological or written records show this. The trade consisted of metal (perhaps lead or tin; the terminology here is not entirely clear) and textiles from Assyria, that were traded for precious metals in Anatolia. ===Kingdom of Shamshi-Adad I=== The city of Ashur was conquered by [[Shamshi-Adad I]] ([[1813 BC]]–[[1791 BC]]) in the expansion of [[Amorite]] tribes from the [[Khabur river]] delta. He put his son [[Ishme-Dagan]] on the throne of a nearby city, Ekallatum, and allowed the former Anatolian trade to continue. Shamshi-Adad I also conquered the kingdom of [[Mari, Syria|Mari]] on the [[Euphrates]] putting another of his sons, [[Yasmah-Adad]] on the throne there. Shamshi-Adad's kingdom now encompassed the whole of northern Mesopotamia. He himself resided in a new capital city founded in the Khabur valley, called [[Shubat-Enlil]]. Ishme-Dagan inherited the kingdom, but Yasmah-Adad was overthrown, and Mari was lost. The new king of Mari allied himself with [[Hammurabi]] of [[Babylon]]. Assyria now faced the rising power of Babylon in the south. Ishme-Dagan responded by making an alliance with the enemies of Babylon, and the power struggle continued for decades. ===Assyria reduced to vassal states=== Hammurabi eventually prevailed over Ishme-Dagan, and conquered Ashur for Babylon. With Hammurabi, the various ''karum'' in Anatolia ceased trade activity&mdash;probably because the goods of Assyria were now being traded with the Babylonians' partners. Assyria was ruled by [[vassal]] kings dependent on the Babylonians for a century. After Babylon fell to the [[Kassites]], the [[Hurrians]] dominated the northern region, including [[Assur]]. There are dozens of Mesopotamian cuneiform texts from this period, with precise observations of solar and lunar eclipses, that have been used as 'anchors' in the various attempts to define the [[chronology of Babylonia and Assyria]] for the early second millennium (i.e., the 'high', 'middle', and 'low' chronologies). ==Middle Assyrian period== [[Image:Amarnamap.png|thumb|300px|Map of the [[Ancient Near East]] during the [[Amarna period]], showing the great powers of the day: Egypt (green), [[Hatti]] (yellow), the [[Kassites|Kassite]] kingdom of Babylon (purple), Assyria (grey), and Mitanni (red). Lighter areas show direct control, darker areas represent spheres of influence. The extent of the Achaean/Mycenaean civilization is shown in orange.]] (Scholars variously date the beginning of the "Middle Assyrian period" to either the fall of the Old Assyrian kingdom of [[Shamshi-Adad I]], or to the ascension of [[Ashur-uballit I]] to the throne of Assyria.) ===Ashur-uballit I=== In the [[15th century BC]], [[Saushtatar]], king of ''Hanilgalbat'' (Hurrians of [[Mitanni]]), sacked Ashur and made Assyria a vassal. Assyria paid tribute to Hanilgalbat until Mitanni power collapsed from [[Hittites|Hittite]] pressure from the north-west and Assyrian pressure from the east, enabling [[Ashur-uballit I]] ([[1365 BC]]&ndash;[[1330 BC]]) to again make Assyria an independent and conquering power at the expense of [[Babylonia]]; and a time came when the Kassite king in Babylon was glad to marry the daughter of Ashur-uballit, whose letters to [[Akhenaten]] of [[Egypt]] form part of the [[Amarna letters]]. This marriage led to disastrous results, as the Kassite faction at court murdered the Babylonian king and placed a pretender on the throne. Assur-uballit promptly marched into Babylonia and avenged his son-in-law, making [[Kurigalzu]] of the royal line king there. ===Assyrian expansion=== {{See also|Military history of the Neo-Assyrian Empire}} Hanilgalbat was finally conquered under [[Adad-nirari I]], who described himself as a "Great-King" (''Sharru rabû'') in letters to the Hittite rulers. The successor of Adad-nirari I, [[Shalmaneser I]] (c. 1300 BC), threw off the pretense of Babylonian suzerainty, made [[Kalhu]] his capital, and continued expansion to the northwest, mainly at the expense of the Hittites, reaching [[Carchemish]] and beyond. Shalmaneser's son and successor, [[Tukulti-Ninurta I]], deposed Kadashman-Buriash of Babylon and ruled there himself as king for seven years, taking on the old title "King of Sumer and Akkad". Another weak period for Assyria followed when Babylon revolted against Tukulti-Ninurta, and later even made Assyria tributary during the reigns of the Babylonian kings Melishipak II and Marduk-apal-iddin I. The correct chronology of these Assyrian kings is still is much debated. There are some crucial solar eclipse records. [[Wikipedia]]'s [[Assyrian eclipse]] page refers to four such eclipses. For example, the [[Assyrian eclipse]] associated with June 15, 763 BC is widely accepted by the defenders of a middle chronology, but three ignored solar eclipses from the reign of Esarhaddon would affect the calculation drastically. ===Tiglath-Pileser I reaches the Mediterranean Sea=== As the Hittite empire collapsed from onslaught of the [[Phrygians]] (called [[Meshech|Mushki]] in Assyrian annals), Babylon and Assyria began to vie for [[Amorite]] regions, formerly under firm Hittite control. When their forces encountered one another in this region, the Assyrian king [[Ashur-resh-ishi I]] met and defeated [[Nebuchadnezzar I]] of Babylon. The son of Ashur-resh-ishi's, [[Tiglath-Pileser I]], may be regarded as the founder of the first Assyrian empire. In [[1120 BC]], he crossed the [[Euphrates]], capturing Carchemish, and defeated the Mushki and the remnants of the Hittites&mdash; even claiming to reach the [[Black Sea]]. He advanced to the [[Mediterranean Sea|Mediterranean]], subjugating [[Phoenicia]], where he hunted wild bulls. He also marched into Babylon twice, assuming the old title "King of Sumer and Akkad", although he was unable to depose the actual king in Babylonia, where the old Kassite dynasty had now succumbed to an Elamite one. ===Society in the Middle Assyrian period=== Assyria had difficulties with keeping the trade routes open. Unlike the situation in the Old Assyrian period, the Anatolian metal trade was effectively dominated by the [[Hittites]] and the [[Hurrians]]. These peoples now controlled the Mediterranean ports, while the [[Kassites]] controlled the river route south to the [[Persian Gulf]]. The Middle Assyrian kingdom was well organized, and in the firm control of the king, who also functioned as the High Priest of [[Anshar|Ashur]], the state god. He had certain obligations to fulfill in the cult, and had to provide resources for the temples. The priesthood became a major power in Assyrian society. Conflicts with the priesthood are thought to have been behind the murder of king [[Tukulti-Ninurta I]]. The main Assyrian cities of the middle period were [[Assur|Ashur]], Kalhu ([[Nimrud]]) and [[Nineveh]], all situated in the [[Tigris]] River valley. At the end of the Bronze Age, Nineveh was much smaller than Babylon, but still one of the world's major cities (population ca. 33,000). By the end of the Neo-Assyrian period, it had grown to a population of some 120,000, and was possibly the largest city of that time.<ref>see [[historical urban community sizes]]. Estimates are those of Chandler (1987).</ref> All free male citizens were obliged to serve in the army for a time, a system which was called the ''ilku''-service. The [[Assyrian law]] code, notable for its repressive attitude towards women in their society, was compiled during this period. ==Neo-Assyrian Empire== [[Image:Map of Assyria.png|thumb|300px|Map of the Neo-Assyrian Empire and its expansions.]] {{main|Neo-Assyrian Empire|Military history of the Neo-Assyrian Empire}} The Neo-Assyrian Empire is usually considered to have begun with the accession of [[Adad-nirari II]], in [[911 BC]], lasting until the fall of Nineveh at the hands of the Babylonians in [[612 BC]].<ref>[http://www.allempires.com/article/index.php?q=AE_Chart Chart of World Kingdoms, Nations and Empires - All Empires<!-- Bot generated title -->]</ref> In the Middle Assyrian period, Assyria had been a minor kingdom of northern Mesopotamia, competing for dominance with [[Babylonia]] to the south. Beginning with the campaigns of Adad-nirari II, Assyria became a great regional power, growing to be a serious threat to [[Twenty-fifth dynasty of Egypt|25th dynasty Egypt]]. It began reaching the peak of its power with the [[Tiglath-Pileser III#Reforms|reforms]] of [[Tiglath-Pileser III]] (ruled [[745 BC|745]]&ndash;[[727 BC]])<ref>[http://www.livius.org/li-ln/limmu/limmu_1c.html Assyrian Eponym List<!-- Bot generated title -->]</ref><ref>Tadmor, H. (1994). ''The Inscriptions of Tiglath-Pileser III, King of Assyria.''pp.29</ref>. This period, which included the Sargonic dynasty, is well-referenced in several sources, including the ''[[Babylonian Chronicles|Assyro-Babylonian Chronicles]]'' and the ''[[Hebrew Bible]]''. Assyria finally succumbed to the rise of the [[Neo-Babylonian Empire|neo-Babylonian]] [[Chaldean dynasty]] with the sack of [[Nineveh]] in [[612 BC]]. ==Language== The ancient people of Assyria spoke an Assyrian dialect of the [[Akkadian language]], a branch of the [[Semitic languages]]. The first inscriptions, called Old Assyrian (OA), were made in the Old Assyrian period. In the Neo-Assyrian period the [[Aramaic language]] became increasingly common, more so than [[Akkadian language|Akkadian]] - this was thought to be largely due to the mass deportations undertaken by Assyrian kings, in which large Aramaic-speaking populations, conquered by the Assyrians, were relocated to other parts of the empire. The ancient Assyrians also used the [[Sumerian language]] in their literature and liturgy, although to a more limited extent in the Middle- and Neo-Assyrian periods, when Akkadian became the main literary language. The utter and complete destruction of the Assyrian capitals of Nineveh and Assur by the Babylonians and Medes ensured that the bilingual elite, perhaps the few remaining still competent in Akkadian, were wiped out. By the 6th century B.C., much of the Assyrian population that survived used Aramaic and not the cuneiform Akkadian. In time, Akkadian would no longer be used by the Assyrians, although many aspects of the culture associated, such as naming with Assur, continued, and do so today. ==Arts and sciences== {{main|Art and architecture of Babylonia and Assyria}} [[Image:Transport of cedar Dur Sharrukin.jpg|thumb|Relief from Assyrian capital of [[Dur Sharrukin]], showing transport of Lebanese cedar (8th century BC)]] Assyrian art preserved to the present day predominantly dates to the Neo-Assyrian period. Art depicting battle scenes, and occasionally the impaling of whole villages in gory detail, was intended to show the power of the emperor, and was generally made for propaganda purposes. These stone reliefs lined the walls in the royal palaces where foreigners were received by the king. Other stone reliefs depict the king with different deities and conducting religious ceremonies. A lot of stone reliefs were discovered in the royal palaces at [[Nimrud]] (Kalhu) and [[Khorsabad]] (Dur-Sharrukin). A rare discovery of metal plates belonging to wooden doors was made at [[Balawat]] (Imgur-Enlil). Assyrian sculpture reached a high level of refinement in the Neo-Assyrian period. One prominent example is the winged bull ''Lamassu'', or [[shedu]] that guard the entrances to the king's court. These were apotropaic meaning they were intended to ward off evil. C. W. Ceram states in ''The March of Archaeology'' that ''lamassi'' were typically sculpted with five legs so that four legs were always visible, whether the image were viewed frontally or in profile. Since works of precious gems and metals usually do not survive the ravages of time, we are lucky to have some fine pieces of Assyrian jewelry. These were found in royal tombs at Nimrud. There is ongoing discussion among academics over the nature of the [[Nimrud lens]], a piece of [[rock crystal]] unearthed by [[Austen Henry Layard]] in [[1850]], in the Nimrud palace complex in northern [[Iraq]]. A small minority believe that it is evidence for the existence of ancient Assyrian telescopes, which could explain the great accuracy of [[Assyrian astronomy]]. Other suggestions include its use as a magnifying glass for jewellers, or as a decorative furniture inlay. The Nimrud Lens is held in the British Museum.<ref name = "Muſeum">[http://www.thebritishmuseum.ac.uk/ane/anecofaq.html#lens Lens], Britiſh Muſeum.</ref> ==Legacy and rediscovery== {{main|Assyria (Persian province)|History of the Assyrian people|Assyriology}} Achaemenid Assyria retained a separate identity for some time, official correspondence being in [[Imperial Aramaic]], and there was even an attempted revolt of the two provinces of Mada and Athura in 520 BC. Under [[Seleucid]] rule, however, Aramaic gave way to Greek as the official language. Aramaic was marginalised, but remained spoken in [[Judea]] ([[Biblical Aramaic]]), the [[Syrian Desert]] ([[Nabataeans]]) and [[Khūzestān Province|Khuzestan]] ([[Mandaic language|Mandaic]]). [[Classical authorities on Babylonia and Assyria|Classical historiographers]] had only retained a very dim picture of Assyria. It was remembered that there had been an Assyrian empire predating the Persian one, but all particulars were lost. Thus Jerome's ''[[Chronicon (Jerome)|Chronicon]]'' lists 36 kings of the Assyrians, beginning with [[Ninus]], son of [[Belus]], down to [[Sardanapalus]], the last king of the Assyrians before the empire fell to [[Arbaces]] the Median. Almost none of these have been substantiated as historical, with the exception of the Neo-Assyrian and Babylonian rulers listed in [[Ptolemy's Canon]], beginning with [[Nabonassar]]. With the rise of [[Syriac Christianity]], Aramaic enjoyed a renaissance as a classical language in the 2nd to 8th centuries AD, and the modern [[Assyrian people]] continue to speak [[Neo-Aramaic]] dialects. The [[modern discovery of Babylonia and Assyria]] begins with excavations in [[Nineveh]] in 1845, which revealed the library of [[Ashurbanipal]]. Decipherment of [[cuneiform]] was a formidable task that took more than a decade, but by [[1857]], the [[Royal Asiatic Society]] was convinced that reliable reading of cuneiform texts was possible. [[Assyriology]] has since pieced together the formerly forgotten history of Mesopotamia. In the wake of the archaeological and philological [[rediscovery of ancient Assyria]], [[Assyrian nationalism]] has come to strongly identify with ancient Assyria. ==References== {{reflist}} ==See also== {{wiktionary|Assyria}} {{Commons|Assyria}} *[[Assyrian eclipse]] *[[Assyriology]] *[[Ancient Near East]] *[[Kings of Assyria]] *[[Military history of the Assyrian Empire]] *[[Assyria and Babylonia contrasted]] *[[Chronology of Babylonia and Assyria]] *[[Geography of Babylonia and Assyria]] *[[Social life in Babylonia and Assyria]] *[[Cuneiform script]] {{Ancient Near East}} ==References and further reading== * Ascalone, Enrico. ''Mesopotamia: Assyrians, Sumerians, Babylonians (Dictionaries of Civilizations; 1)''. Berkeley: University of California Press, 2007 (paperback, ISBN 0520252667). * Grayson, Albert Kirk: ''Assyrian and Babylonian Chronicles'' ('''ABC'''), Locust Valley, N.Y.; Augustin (1975), Winona Lake, In.; Eisenbrauns (2000). *{{cite book | author = Healy, Mark | authorlink = | coauthors = | editor = | others = | title = The Ancient Assyrians | origdate = | origyear = | origmonth = | url = http://books.google.com/books?id=Hodh6fgx-DMC&printsec=frontcover&dq=isbn:1855321637 | format = | accessdate = | accessyear = | accessmonth = | edition = | series = | date = | year = 1991 | month = | publisher = Osprey | location = London | language = English | isbn = 1855321637 | oclc = 26351868 | doi = | id = | pages = | chapter = | chapterurl = | quote = | ref = }} * Leick, Gwendolyn. ''Mesopotamia''. * Lloyd, Seton. ''The Archaeology of Mesopotamia: From the Old Stone Age to the Persian Conquest''. * Nardo, Don. ''The Assyrian Empire''. * Nemet-Nejat, Karen Rhea. ''Daily Life in Ancient Mesopotamia''. * Oppenheim, A. Leo. ''Ancient Mesopotamia: Portrait of a Dead Civilization''. *{{cite journal | quotes = | author = [[Simo Parpola|Parpola, Simo]] | date = | year = 2004 | month = | title = National and Ethnic Identity in the Neo-Assyrian Empire and Assyrian Identity in Post-Empire Times | journal = [[Journal of Assyrian Academic Studies]] | volume = Vol. 18 | issue = No. 2 | pages = | publisher = | location = | issn = | doi = | bibcode = | oclc = | id = | url = http://www.jaas.org/edocs/v18n2/Parpola-identity_Article%20-Final.pdf | language = English | format = PDF | accessdate = | laysummary = | laysource = | laydate = | quote = }} * Roux, Georges. ''Ancient Iraq''. Third edition. Penguin Books, 1992 (paperback, ISBN 014012523X). * Saggs, H. W. F., ''[[The Might That Was Assyria]]'', ISBN 0283989610 *{{cite book | author = Virginia Schomp|Schomp, Virginia | authorlink = | coauthors = | editor = | others = | title = Ancient Mesopotamia: The Sumerians, Babylonians, and Assyrians | origdate = | origyear = | origmonth = | url = | format = | accessdate = | accessyear = | accessmonth = | edition = | series = | date = | year = 2005 | month = | publisher = Scholastic Library Pub | location = New York | language = English | isbn = 0531167410 | oclc = 60341786 | doi = | id = | pages = | chapter = | chapterurl = | quote = | ref = }} * Spence, Lewis. ''Myths and Legends of Babylonia and Assyria''. == External links == *[http://web.archive.org/web/20040416132927/www.bol.ucla.edu/~szuchman/hist312.htm Assyrian administrative letters] *[http://fax.libs.uga.edu/DS71xJ39C/ Morris Jastrow, Jr., ''The Civilization of Babylonia and Assyria: its remains, language, history, religion, commerce, law, art, and literature'' London, Lippincott (1915) ''(a searchable facsimile at the University of Georgia Libraries)]; also as [http://fax.libs.uga.edu/DS71xJ39C/1f/civilization_of_babylonia_and_assyria.pdf layered PDF format]'' *[http://www.allempires.com/empires/assyria/assyria1.htm "The Assyrian Empire", ''All Empires Online History''] *[http://video.google.com/videoplay?docid=-4066140085264233173 "Assyrian Legacy", Prototype Productions (video)] *[http://lexicorient.com/e.o/assyria.htm "Assyria", ''LookLex Encyclopedia''] *[http://www.third-millennium-library.com/readinghall/UniversalHistory/THE_OLD_WORLD/ASSYRIA/Door.html Robert William Rogers, ''The History of Assyria'' in "btm" format] *[http://www.third-millennium-library.com/readinghall/UniversalHistory/THE_OLD_WORLD/Religion-Babilonia-Assyria/THEOPHILUS_G_PINCHES/1-Foreword.html Theophilus G. Pinches, ''The Religion of Babylonia and Assyria'' in "btm" format] *[http://www.bbc.co.uk/radio4/history/inourtime/inourtime_20080515.shtml "The Library at Ninevah", ''In our Time - BBC Radio 4''] {{eastons}} [[Category:Assyria| ]] [[Category:History of Iraq]] [[Category:Civilizations]] [[Category:Former countries in Asia]] [[Category:Hebrew Bible places]] [[Category:Geography of Iraq]] {{Link FA|hr}} [[als:Assyrien]] [[am:አሦር]] [[ar:آشور (مملكة)]] [[arc:ܐܬܘܪ]] [[bg:Асирия]] [[ca:Assíria]] [[cs:Asýrie]] [[da:Assyrien]] [[de:Geschichte des assyrischen Reiches]] [[et:Assüüria]] [[el:Ασσυρία]] [[es:Asiria]] [[eo:Asirio]] [[fa:آشور]] [[fr:Assyrie]] [[gl:Asiria]] [[ko:아시리아]] [[hr:Asirija]] [[it:Assiria]] [[he:אשור]] [[ka:ასურეთი]] [[la:Assyria]] [[lv:Asīrija]] [[lt:Asirijos imperija]] [[hu:Asszíria]] [[mk:Асирија]] [[mr:असिरिया]] [[ms:Assyria]] [[nl:Assyrische Rijk]] [[ja:アッシリア]] [[no:Assyria]] [[pl:Asyria]] [[pt:Assíria]] [[ro:Asiria]] [[ru:Ассирия]] [[sk:Asýria]] [[cu:Асѹръ]] [[sl:Asirija]] [[sr:Асирско царство]] [[sh:Asirija]] [[fi:Assyria]] [[sv:Assyrien]] [[tl:Assyria]] [[vi:Assyria]] [[tr:Asur]] [[uk:Ассирія]] [[ur:اشوریہ]] [[yi:אשור]] [[zh:亚述]]