Atatürk's Reforms 2445001 224751327 2008-07-10T07:24:18Z Edward 4261 link 'anti-religious' to [[antireligion]] using [[User:Edward/Find link|Find link]] {{Infobox Mustafa Kemal Ataturk series}} '''Atatürk's Reforms''' ([[Turkish language|Turkish]]: ''Atatürk Devrimleri'' or ''Atatürk İnkılapları'') were a series of significant political, legal, cultural, social and economic [[reform movement|reforms]] that were implemented to transform the young [[Republic of Turkey]] into a modern, [[Politics of Turkey|democratic]] and [[secularism in Turkey|secular]] [[nation-state]]. The reforms were guided by educational and scientific progress, and based on the principles of [[positivism|positivist]] and [[rationalism|rationalist]] [[Age of Enlightenment|enlightenment]]. They were implemented under the leadership of [[Mustafa Kemal Atatürk]] in accordance with [[Kemalist ideology]]. Members of [[Republican People's Party (Turkey)|Republican People's Party]], mostly graduates of the 'modern schools' that were established during [[Tanzimat]] era, applied their western-inspired modernization to all areas of government.<ref name="science">Regine ERICHSEN, «Scientific Research and Science Policy in Turkey», in Cemoti, n° 25 - Les Ouïgours au vingtième siècle, [En ligne], mis en ligne le 5 décembre 2003.</ref> [[Image:Mustafa Kemal Ataturk before adressing the Turkish Parliament.jpg|right|thumb|[[Mustafa Kemal Atatürk]]]] The reform movement began with [[Turkish Constitution of 1924|the modernization of the constitution]], including the adaptation of European laws and jurisprudence to the needs of the new Republic. This was followed by a thorough secularization and modernization of the administration, with particular focus on the education system. The development of industry was promoted by strategies such as import substitution and the founding of state enterprises and state banks<ref name="science"/>. Central to these reforms were the belief that Turkish society would have to Westernize itself both politically and culturally in order to modernize.<ref>S. N. Eisenstadt, “The Kemalist Regime and Modernization: Some Comparative and Analytical Remarks,” in J. Landau, ed., Atatürk and the Modernization of Turkey, Boulder, Colorado: Westview Press, 1984, 3–16.</ref> ==Political reforms== {{see also|Politics of Turkey}} Until the moment the republic was formally proclaimed, the [[Ottoman Empire]] was still in existence, with its heritage of religious and dynastic authority. The dynasty was abolished by the Ankara Government, but its traditions and cultural symbols remained active among the people (though less so among the elite). Atatürk's political reforms involved a number of fundamental institutional changes that would see the end of these traditions, and a carefully planned program of political change was implemented to unravel the complex system that had developed over the centuries.<ref>Jacob M. Landau "Atatürk and the Modernization of Turkey" page 57.</ref> Not only were all the social institutions of Turkish Society reorganized, but the social and political values of the state were replaced as well.<ref name="military">Ali Arslan "The evaluation of parliamentary democracy in turkey and Turkish political elites" HAOL, núm. 6 (invierno, 2005), 131–141.</ref> This new, secular state ideology was to become known as [[Kemalism]], and it is the basis of the democratic Turkish republic. Since the establishment of the republic the Turkish military has perceived itself as the guardian of Kemalism, and it has intervened in Turkish politics to that end on several occasions. While this may seem contrary to democratic ideals, it should be considered in the light of Turkish history, ongoing efforts to maintain secular government, and the fact that the reforms were implemented [[interwar period|at a time]] when the military occupied 16.9% of the professional job positions (the corresponding figure today is only 3%).<ref name="military"/> === Republic === [[Image:Sultanvahideddin.jpg|thumb|Departure of [[Mehmed VI]], last Sultan of the Ottoman Empire, 1922]] The most fundamental reforms allowed the Turkish nation to exercise [[popular sovereignty]] through [[representative democracy]]. This involved dissolving the two main offices that had claims over the sovereignty of the people; the [[Ottoman Dynasty]] on [[November 1]], [[1922]], and the [[Caliphate]] on [[March 3]], [[1924]]. Following the latter, the Sultan and his family were declared [[150 personae non gratae of Turkey|personae non gratae of Turkey]] and exiled. Those ancient institutions were replaced by the Turkish [[republic]] that was proclaimed on [[October 29]], [[1923]], and the subsequent adoption of the [[Turkish Constitution of 1924]]. The bicameral system of the Ottoman Empire — composed of an [[Upper house]] of ''viziers'', assigned by the Sultan, and a [[lower house]] of ''deputies'' selected by two-level elections — was dissolved. The new system, which gave primacy to national independence and popular sovereignty, established the offices of Prime Minister and President while placing legislative power within a [[unicameral]] [[Grand National Assembly]]. ''The Assembly'' was elected by [[direct election]] using a type of [[proportional representation]]. The establishment of the republic did not mean the end of reform, as Atatürk and his fellow 'revolutionaries' continually presented their reform agenda before The Assembly. They had no choice but to subject their proposals to the scrutiny of The Assembly because only that body had authority to approve them. The direct involvement of the Executive at this level of the legislative process may have been contrary to the spirit if not the letter of the new constitution (and the concept of the [[separation of powers|separation of power]] expected within a representative democracy), but it was legitimised by the ongoing approval of the electorate. Through this, at least at the legislative level, the fledgling democracy developed while awaiting the true [[multi-party elections]] that were to take place in [[1945]]. ===Secularism=== {{Seealso|Secularism in Turkey}} The establishment of [[popular sovereignty]] involved confronting centuries-old traditions. As such, the reform process was characterised by a struggle between progressives and conservatives; on one side Atatürk and his reform-minded liberal elite, on the other the broad mass of uneducated, conservative common people. The changes were both conceptually radical and culturally significant. The religious education system was replaced by a national education system on [[March 3]], [[1924]], and the office of [[caliphate]], held by the [[Ottomans]] since 1517, was abolished on the same day. The [[Islamic]] courts and [[Sharia|Islamic canon law]] gave way to a [[secular]] law structure based on the [[Zivilgesetzbuch|Swiss Civil Code]]. Furthermore, the changes meant the end of the [[millet (Ottoman Empire)|millet]] system of religious/ethnic communities. The people of each millet had traditionally enjoyed a degree of autonomy, with their own leadership, collecting their own taxes and living according to their own system of religious/cultural law. Naturally ultimate authority in all cases resided in the Sultan. Under the Kemalist reforms official recognition of the millets was withdrawn, to be replaced by a common, secular authority. Many of the religious communities failed to adjust to the new regime This was exacerbated by the emigration or impoverishment, due to deteriorating economic conditons, of families that hitherto had financially supported community institutions such as hospitals and schools. The secularism of the Kemalist state, however, did not mean that it was antitheistic or [[Islamophobia|anti-Islamic]]. It acted firmly against [[antireligion|anti-religious]] acts, and asserted the equality and rights of all Turkish citizens to the protection of the Republic. The state protected freedom of worship while itself standing aloof of any form of religious influence. It is true that Kemalist ideology‎ targeted [[political Islam]], but only because it posed a threat to the independence of the state and its ability to govern with equal concern for all. In fact, the Kemalist state's support for Islam was demonstrated by the establishment of [[Diyanet İşleri Başkanlığı|Directorate for Religious Affairs]] ({{lang-tr|Diyanet İşleri Başkanlığı}}), created "to execute the works concerning the beliefs, worship, and ethics of Islam, enlighten the public about their religion, and administer the sacred worshipping places". It was not deaf to complaints of 'going too far' either; the reforms initially required that the Islamic [[call to prayer]] use the Turkish language rather than [[Arabic (language)|Arabic]]. Following widespread public dismay it was recognised that this requirement was excessive, and it was subsequently rescinded. ===Milestones=== {| class="ambox" style="font-size:90%;width:60%;border:0px;line-height:120%;" | style="background: #FCFCFC;" height="17" align=left| [[November 1]], [[1922]] | Abolition of the office of the [[Ottoman Dynasty|Ottoman Sultan]]. |- | style="background: #FCFCFC;" height="17" | [[October 29]], [[1923]] | Proclamation of the Republic - [[Republic of Turkey]]. |- | style="background: #FCFCFC;" height="17" | [[March 3]], [[1924]] | Abolition of the office of [[Caliphate]] held by the [[Ottoman Caliphate]]. |} ==Social reforms== [[Image:Turkey and Turkish people during War of Independence.ogg|thumb|[[Anatolia]] and [[Turkish people]] after World War I]] ===Women's rights=== The reforms in the Turkish civil code, including those affecting women's suffrage, were "breakthroughs not only within the Islamic world but also in the western world".<ref>Necla Arat in Marvine Howe's ''Turkey today'', page 18.</ref> Legal equality between the sexes was instituted between [[1926]]–[[1934|34]] with changes to a multitude of rules and regulations. Women gained many rights for the first time, including the rights to vote and own property. Turkish women's rights campaigners differed from their sisters (and sympathetic brothers) in other countries. Rather than fighting directly for their basic rights and equality, they saw their best chance in the promotion and maintenance of Kemalist reform, with its espousal of secular values and equality for all, including women.<ref>Nüket Kardam "Turkey's Engagement With Global Women's Human Rights" page 88.</ref> Turkish women are now free, of course, to cover their heads or not. Despite this now longstanding freedom, many women, especially older women, still feel compelled to cover their heads. Georgia Scott, an American magazine art director who spent a year surveying women's head coverings, offers the following quote to illustrate the generational differences in attitude towards headware in modern Turkey: :"My mother and grandmother covered every day. They could never go outside and feel the air, or go on a boat and feel the mist. My mother still covers. I hate it, and I would never want to like that."<ref>Georgia Scott 2003 ''Headwraps: A Global Journey'', page 89.</ref> ===Dress code === [[Image:Mustafa Kemal the law of prohibited garment.ogg|thumb|The Law Relating to Prohibited Garments of 1934 banned religion-based clothing such as the veil and turban]] The Ottoman Empire had a social system based on religious affiliation, and it was normal for people to wear clothing or insignia that identified them with their own particular religious grouping. The Kemalist reforms to the dress code aimed to eliminate this kind of religious identification. To that end the wearing of religious clothing and other overt signs of religious affiliation became officially controlled. Beginning in 1923, a series of laws progressively limited the wearing of selected items of traditional clothing. The most famous was the Hat Law of 1925, banning the wearing of the [[fez (clothing)|fez]] (Turkish ''fes''). This type of hat had originally been introduced to the Ottoman Empire's dress code by Sultan [[Mahmud II]] in 1826 as a symbol of [[feudalism]] that followed on the example of [[Peter the Great]] in [[Russia]]. Another control on the dress code was the 1934 law relating to the wearing of 'Prohibited Garments'. It banned religion-based clothing, such as the veil and turban, while actively promoting western-style attire. ===Milestones=== {| class="ambox" style="font-size:90%;width:60%;border:0px;line-height:120%;" | style="background: #FCFCFC;" height="17" align=left| *[[November 25]], [[1925]] | Change of headgear and dress |- | style="background: #FCFCFC;" height="17" align=left| [[November 30]], [[1925]] | Closure of religious convents and [[dervish]] lodges. |- | style="background: #FCFCFC;" height="17" align=left| [[June 21]], [[1934]] | Law on family names. |- | style="background: #FCFCFC;" height="17" align=left| [[November 26]], [[1934]] | Abolition of titles and by-names. |} ==Legal reforms== {{seealso|Legal System in the Republic of Turkey|Constitution of Turkey|Constitutional history of Turkey}} The Ottoman Empire was a religious empire in which each religious community enjoyed a large degree of autonomy (See [[Millet (Ottoman Empire)|Millet]]). Each millet had an internal system of governance based upon its religious law, such as [[Sharia]], [[catholicism|Catholic]] [[Canon law (Catholic Church)|Canon law]], or [[Judaism|Jewish]] [[Halakha]]. The leading legal reforms instituted by Mustafa Kemal included a secular [[Constitution of Turkey|constitution]] ([[laïcité]]) with the complete separation of government and religious affairs, the replacement of [[Islamic]] courts and [[Sharia|Islamic canon law]] with a [[secular]] civil code based on the [[Zivilgesetzbuch|Swiss model]], and a penal code based on that of [[Italy]] (1924–37). The reforms also instituted legal equality and full political rights for both sexes [[December 5]], [[1934]], well before [[Timeline of women's suffrage|several other European nations]]. In 1920, and today, the [[Islamic Law]] does not contain provisions regulating the sundry relationships of "political institutions" and "commercial transactions".<ref name="TIMUR">TIMUR, Hıfzı. 1956. "The Place of Islamic Law in Turkish Law Reform", ''Annales de la Faculté de Droit d'Istanbul''. Istanbul: Fakülteler Matbaası.</ref> The Ottoman Empire dissolved not only because of its outdated systems, but also its traditions were not applicable to the demands of its time. For example, the rules relating to "criminal cases" which were shaped under [[Islamic Law]] were limited in serving their purpose adequately.<ref name="TIMUR"/> Beginning with the 19th century, the Ottoman Islamic codes and legal provisions generally were impracticable in dealing with the wider concept of social systems. The non-Muslim millet affected with the [[Age of Enlightenment]] in Europe modernized the Christian Law. Islamic Law and Christian Law<ref>For the law system used by the Christian millets, see [[Millet (Ottoman Empire)|]].</ref> became drastically different. Polygamy has not been practiced by law-abiding citizens of Turkey after Atatürk's reforms, in contrast to the former rules of the [[Megelle]].<ref> Dr. Ayfer Altay "Difficulties Encountered in the Translation of Legal Texts: The Case of Turkey", ''Translation Journal'' volume 6, No. 4.</ref> There were thousands of articles in the [[Megelle]] which were not used due to their inapplicability. Legal reforms of Kemal could be perceived as the last step of a failed history of modernization in Ottoman Empire. The Ottoman Empire tried to modernize the code with the reforms of 1839 ([[Hatt-i Sharif]]). Hatt-i Sharif tried to end the confusion in the judicial sphere by extending the legal equality to all citizens. In 1841 a criminal code was drawn up. When the Empire dissolved, there was still no legislation with regard to family and marital relationships<ref name="TIMUR"/>. The adaptation of laws relating to family and marital relationships is an important step which is attributed to Mustafa Kemal. ===Milestones=== {| class="ambox" style="font-size:90%;width:60%;border:0px;line-height:120%;" | style="background: #FCFCFC;" height="17" align=left| [[December 5]], [[1934]] | Full political rights, to vote and be elected, to women. |- | style="background: #FCFCFC;" height="17" align=left| [[March 1]], [[1926]] | Introduction of the new [[Criminal law|penal law]] modeled after the [[Italy|Italian]] penal code. |- | style="background: #FCFCFC;" height="17" align=left| [[October 4]], [[1926]] | Introduction of the new [[civil code]] modeled after the [[Swiss civil code]]. |- | style="background: #FCFCFC;" height="17" align=left| [[February 5]], [[1937]] | The inclusion of the principle of [[laïcité]] in the constitution. |} ==Educational reforms== [[Image:Literacy-1924-Turkey.png|200px|thumb|Literacy of Turkish people in 1927]] {{seealso|Education in Turkey}} The educational reforms combined with the opening of ''[[People's Houses]]'' throughout the country and the active encouragement of people by Atatürk himself with many trips to the countryside teaching the new alphabet. However, "its effect on the struggle against illiteracy was disappointing".<ref>Erik J. Zürcher. ''Turkey, A Modern History''. I. B. Tauris (third edition, 2004), p.&nbsp;188. ISBN 978-1860649585.</ref> The literacy reform was also supported by strengthening the private publishing sector with a new ''Law on Copyrights'' and congresses for discussing the issues of copyright, public education and scientific publishing. ===Unification === The unification of education had two important features. The first one was the democratization and the second one was to activate secularism in the field of education. Unification came with the Law on Unification of National Education, which introduced three regulations:<ref name="education">{{cite web |url=http://www.meb.gov.tr/Stats/apk2001ing/Section_3/1TransformationMotivated.htm| title=Education since republic| publisher= Ministry of National Education (Turkey)| accessdate=2007-01-01 }}</ref> First, all [[medrese]]s and schools administered by private foundations or the [[Diyanet İşleri Başkanlığı]] (Presidency for Religious Affairs) were connected to the Ministry of National Education. Second, the money allocated to schools and medreses from the budget of the Diyanet was transferred to the education budget. Third, the Ministry of Education had to open a religious faculty for training higher religious experts within the system of higher education, and separate schools for training imams and hatips. With the unification of education, along with the closure of the old-style universities, applied a large-scale program of science transfer from Europe. One of the corner stone of educational institutions, the [[University of Istanbul]], accepted German and Austrian scientists who the National Socialist regime in Germany had considered `racially' or politically undesirable. This political decision was accepted as the building the nucleus of science as a modern institution in Turkey<ref name="science" />. The reform aimed to break away the traditional dependency [since the Ottoman Empire] on the transfer of science and technology by foreign experts<ref name="science" />. ===Modernization === On [[November 1]], [[1928]], the new [[Turkish alphabet]] was introduced by the ''Language Commission'' at the initiative of Atatürk, replacing the previously used [[Arabic alphabet|Arabic script]]. The adoption of the new alphabet, the modernization of language by removing adapted words was part of Mustafa Kemal's program of modernization.<ref name="nafi">Nafi Yalın. ''The Turkish language reform: a unique case of language planning in the world'', Bilim dergisi 2002 Vol.&nbsp;3 page 9.</ref> The removal of [[Arabic script]] was defended on the ground that it was not appropriate for the authentic [[Turkish phonology]], which needs a new set of symbols to be correctly represented<ref name="nafi"/>. Adaptation of technical vocabulary is a step of modernization, which was tried thoroughly. Vernacularization and simplification of the non-technical Turkish was made on the ground that the language of Turkish people should be comprehensible by the language they use. A good example is the Turkish word "Bilgisayar" (''bilgi'' = "information", ''sayar'' = "counter"), which was adapted for the word "Computer". Another important part of Atatürk's reforms encompassed his emphasis on the Turkish language and history, leading to the establishment of [[Turkish Language Association]] and [[Turkish Historical Society]] for research on [[Turkish language]] and [[History of Turkey|history]], during the years 1931–2. ===Milestones=== {| class="ambox" style="font-size:90%;width:60%;border:0px;line-height:120%;" | style="background: #FCFCFC;" height="17" align=left| [[March 3]], [[1924]] | The unification of education |- | style="background: #FCFCFC;" height="17" align=left| [[November 1]], [[1928]] | Adoption of the new [[Turkish alphabet]] |- | style="background: #FCFCFC;" height="17" align=left| 1931 | Establishment of [[Turkish Language Association]] for regulating the [[Turkish language]] |- | style="background: #FCFCFC;" height="17" align=left| 1932 | Establishment of [[Turkish Historical Society]] for research on [[History of Turkey|history]] |- | style="background: #FCFCFC;" height="17" align=left| [[January 1]], [[1928]] | Establishment of [[Turkish Education Association]] for supporting children in financial need and contributing to the educational life. |- | style="background: #FCFCFC;" height="17" align=left| ([[May 31]], [[1933]]) |Regulation of the university education |} ==Economic reforms== {{seealso|Economic history of Turkey|Economy of Turkey}} [[Image:Mustafa Kemal establishment of model farms.ogg|thumb|Atatürk visiting a model farm, probably AOC]] Economic reforms included the establishment of many state-owned factories throughout the country for the agriculture, machine making and textile industries. Many of these grew into successful enterprises, only to be [[Privatization|privatized]] during the latter part of 20th century. Atatürk considered the development of a national [[Rail transport|rail network]] as another important step for industrialization. In 1927 he established the [[Turkish State Railways]], developing an extensive rail network in a relatively short timespan. ===Milestones=== {| class="ambox" style="font-size:90%;width:60%;border:0px;line-height:120%;" | style="background: #FCFCFC;" height="17" align=left| 24 July 1923 |Abolition of [[capitulations of the Ottoman Empire|capitulations]] with [[Treaty of Lausanne]] |- | style="background: #FCFCFC;" height="17" align=left| 1927 | Establishment of [[Turkish State Railways]] |- | style="background: #FCFCFC;" height="17" align=left| 1924 |The Weekend Act ([[Workweek]]:Monday to Friday become [[work day]]s) |- | style="background: #FCFCFC;" height="17" align=left| 1925 | Establishment of model farms; [[Atatürk Orman Çiftliği]] |- | style="background: #FCFCFC;" height="17" align=left| 1925 |The International Time and Calendar System ([[Gregorian calendar]], [[Time zone]]) |- | style="background: #FCFCFC;" height="17" align=left| 1926 |The Obligation Law |- | style="background: #FCFCFC;" height="17" align=left| 1926 |The Commercial Law |- | style="background: #FCFCFC;" height="17" align=left| 1933 |The System of Measures ([[International System of Units]]} |- | style="background: #FCFCFC;" height="17" align=left| 1933 | First Five Year Development Plan (Planned economy) |- | style="background: #FCFCFC;" height="17" align=left| 1937 | Second Five Year Development Plan (Planned economy) |} ==Criticism== ===Effectiveness=== Some people thought that the pace of change under Atatürk was too rapid as, in his quest to modernize Turkey, he effectively abolished centuries-old traditions. Nevertheless, the bulk of the population willingly accepted the reforms, even though some were seen as reflecting the views of the urban elites at the expense of the generally illiterate inhabitants of the rural countryside, where religious sentiments and customary norms tended to be stronger.<ref>Kinross, p.&nbsp;503.</ref> Probably the most controversial area of reform was that of religion. The policy of state secularism ("active neutrality") met with opposition at the time and it continues to generate a considerable degree of social and political tension. However, any political movement that attempts to harness religious sentiment at the expense of Turkish secularism is likely to face the opposition of the armed forces, which has always regarded itself as the principal and most faithful guardian of secularism. A historical example is the case of Prime Minister [[Adnan Menderes]], who was overthrown by the military in 1960.<ref>Kinross, p.&nbsp;504.</ref> ===Reform or Revolution === The Turkish name for Atatürk's Reforms literally means "Atatürk's Revolutions", as, strictly speaking, the changes were too profound to be described as mere 'reforms'. It also reflects the belief that those changes, implemented as they were during the [[Single-Party Period of Republic of Turkey‎|Single-Party period]], were more in keeping with the attitudes of the country's progressive elite than with a general populace accustomed to centuries of Ottoman stability – an attempt to convince a people so-conditioned of the merits of such far-reaching changes would test the political courage of any government subject to multi-party conditions. ==See also== *[[Mustafa Kemal Atatürk]] *[[History of the Republic of Turkey]] ==External links== * [http://www.mebnet.net/ataturk/inlilaplar.htm Ministry of National Education and Culture, Turkish Republic of Northern Cyprus] {{tr icon}} ==Notes== {{Reflist}} [[Category:History of Turkey]] [[Category:Mustafa Kemal Atatürk]] [[Category:Reform movements]] [[fr:Réformes kémalistes]] [[he:רפורמות אטאטורק]] [[lv:Ataturka reformas]] [[hu:Atatürk reformjai]] [[ms:Pembaharuan Atatürk]] [[vi:Cải cách Atatürk]] [[tr:Atatürk İnkılapları]]