Bat 4659 225639554 2008-07-14T18:04:44Z Anaxial 2273576 Request cite for alleged controversy {{otheruses}}{{redirect|Chiroptera}} {{Taxobox | name = Bats | fossil_range = Late [[Paleocene]] - Recent | image = Haeckel Chiroptera.jpg | image_width = 240px | image_caption = "Chiroptera" from [[Ernst Haeckel]]'s ''[[Kunstformen der Natur]]'', 1904 | regnum = [[Animalia]] | phylum = [[Chordate|Chordata]] | classis = [[Mammalia]] | infraclassis = [[Eutheria]] | superordo = [[Laurasiatheria]] / [[Archonta]] (''debating, see article'') | ordo = '''Chiroptera''' | ordo_authority = [[Johann Friedrich Blumenbach|Blumenbach]], 1779 | subdivision_ranks = Suborders | subdivision = ''See article'' }} A '''bat''' is a [[mammal]] in the [[order (biology)|order]] '''Chiroptera'''. Their most distinguishing feature is that their forelimbs are developed as [[wing]]s, making them the only mammals in the world naturally capable of [[flight]] (though other mammals, such as [[flying squirrel]]s, gliding [[flying possum]]s and [[colugo]]s, can [[gliding|glide]] for limited distances). The word ''Chiroptera'' comes from the [[Greek language|Greek]] words ''cheir'' "hand" and ''pteron'' "wing," as the structure of the open wing is very similar to an outspread human hand with a [[skin|membrane]] ([[patagium]]) between the fingers that also stretches between hand and body. A measure of the success of bats is their estimated total of about 1,100 [[species]] of bats worldwide, accounting for about 20 percent of all mammal species.<ref name="tudge">{{cite book | last = Tudge | first = Colin | title = The Variety of Life | publisher = Oxford University Press | date = 2000 | id=ISBN 0-19-860426-2}}</ref> About 70 percent of bats are [[insectivore]]s. Most of the rest are fructivores, with a few species being carnivorous. Bats are present throughout most of the world. Bats perform a vital ecological role by [[pollinator|pollinating]] some [[flower]]s, and also have an important role in seed dispersal; indeed, many tropical plants are totally dependent on bats. This role explains environmental concerns when a bat is [[introduced species|introduced]] in a new setting.{{Clarifyme|how?|date=March 2008}} [[Tenerife]] provides a recent example with the introduction of the [[Egyptian fruit bat]].{{Clarifyme|What happened? This fact should be referred to in the article text|date=March 2008}} ==Fossil bats== Since bats are terrestrial and light-boned, there are few fossilized remains. An Early [[Eocene]] bat, ''[[Onychonycteris finneyi]]'', was found in the 52-million-year-old [[Green River Formation]] in Wyoming (US) in 2003. The new genus was placed in a new family when it was published in ''Nature'', February 2008.<ref>[http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/science/nature/7243502.stm (''BBC News'') "Bat fossil solves evolution poser"] 13 February 2008.</ref>. It was clearly a flier, but the well-articulated skeleton showed underdeveloped [[cochlea]] of the inner ear, which provide echolocation capabilities in all modern true bats, demonstrating at last that flight in bats was developed before echolocation. The team realized ''Onychonycteris finneyi'' was different when they noticed that the species lacked the ear and throat features present in all living, echolocating bats today, and even in other ancient species. The bats of 52.5 million years ago flew differently than the bats of today and looked vastly different too. ''Onychonycteris'' had claws on all five of its fingers, whereas modern bats have - at most - claws for only two digits on each hand. It also had longer hind legs, and shorter forearms, similar to those of climbing mammals that hang under branches (such as [[sloth]]s or [[gibbon]]s). This palm-sized animal had broad, short wings that suggest the it could not fly as fast or as far as those that evolved later. Instead of flapping its wings continuously while flying, it would likely have alternated flapping and gliding while in the air. These physical characteristics suggest that this species also did not fly as much as modern bats do; perhaps just flying to get from tree to tree, spending most of their waking day just climbing or hanging.<ref>[http://www.discoverychannel.ca/reports/article.aspx?aid=7047 (''Discovery Channel article'') "Prehistoric bats learned to fly before they could see"]February 13, 2008.</ref> Another early Eocene fossil ''[[Icaronycteris|Icaronycteris index]]'', was unearthed in 1960. ==Classification and evolution== [[Image:Big-eared-townsend-fledermaus.jpg|thumb|240px|Townsends's Big-eared Bat, ''Corynorhinus townsendii'']] [[Image:Golden crowned fruit bat.jpg|thumb|[[Giant golden-crowned flying fox]], ''Acerodon jubatus'']] [[Image:Pipistrellus pipistrellus01.jpg|thumb|[[Common Pipistrelle]], ''Pipistrellus pipistrellus'']] Bats are mammals. Though sometimes called "flying [[rodent]]s", "flying mice," or even mistaken for [[insect]]s and birds, bats are not, in fact, any of these things. There are two traditional suborders of bats: * [[Megabat|Megachiroptera]] (megabats) * [[Microbat|Microchiroptera]] (microbats/echolocating bats) Despite the name, not all megabats are larger than microbats. The major distinction between the two suborders is based on other factors: * Microbats use [[Animal echolocation|echolocation]], whereas megabats do not (except for ''[[Rousettus]]'' and relatives). * Microbats lack the [[claw]] at the second [[toe]] of the [[forelimb]]. * The [[ear]]s of microbats do not form a closed ring, but the edges are separated from each other at the base of the ear. * Microbats lack [[underfur]]; they have only [[guard hair]]s or are naked. Megabats eat fruit, [[nectar]] or [[pollen]] while microbats eat [[insect]]s, [[blood]] (small quantities of the blood of animals), small mammals, and fish. While megabats have a well-developed [[visual cortex]] and show good [[visual acuity]], microbats rely on [[animal echolocation|echolocation]] for navigation and finding prey. The phylogenetic relationships of the different groups of bats have been the subject of much debate. The traditional subdivision into Megachiroptera and Microchiroptera reflects the predominant view that suggests that these two groups of bats have evolved independently for a long time, from a [[common ancestor]] that was already capable of flight. This hypothesis recognizes the marked differences between microbats and megabats, while at the same time acknowledging the likelihood that flight has evolved only once in mammals. In addition, the majority of molecular biological evidence supports the point of view that bats form a monophyletic group (e.g. <ref name=simmons2008>{{cite journal|journal=nature| doi=10.1038/nature06549|title=Primitive Early Eocene bat from Wyoming and the evolution of flight and echolocation|author=Nancy B. Simmons1, Kevin L. Seymour2, Jo¨rg Habersetzer3 & Gregg F. Gunnell4|volume=451|year=2008|pages=818|unused_data=|14 February 2008}}</ref>). More recently, researchers have proposed alternative views of chiropteran phylogeny (and classification), but more research is required to assess the merits of these proposals. * [[Genetics|Genetic]] evidence indicates that megabats should be placed within the four major lines of microbats, which originated during the early [[Eocene]]. This has resulted in a new classification, which includes two suborders: [[Yinpterochiroptera]] which includes the families Pteropodidae, Rhinolophidae, Megadermatidae, and Rhinopomatidae, and [[Yangochiroptera]], including all other families of bats. Because these relationships combine echolocating and non-echolocating bats, it's unknown if the ancestor of bats possessed laryngeal echolocation and the bats of Pteropodiae subsequently lost it, or if this ability evolved twice.<ref>{{cite web | title = Order Chiroptera bats| publisher = http://animaldiversity.ummz.umich.edu/site/index.html| url = http://animaldiversity.ummz.umich.edu/site/accounts/information/Chiroptera.html | accessdate =2007-12-30}}</ref> * In the 1980s, it was hypothesized based on [[morphology (biology)|morphological]] evidence that Megachiroptera evolved flight separately from Microchiroptera. The so-called [[Flying primates theory]] proposed that when adaptations to flight are discounted in a [[cladistic]] analysis, the Megachiroptera are allied to [[primates]] by anatomical features that are not shared with Microchiroptera. For example, the brains of megabats show a number of advanced characteristics linking these animals to primates. Although recent genetic studies support the monophyly of bats<ref>{{cite web | title=Primitive Early Eocene bat from Wyoming and the evolution of flight and echolocation | url=http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v451/n7180/abs/nature06549.html | accessdate=2008-07-03 | date=[[2008-02-14]] | work=Nature}}</ref>, debate persists about the relative merits of DNA versus morphological evidence in settling this controversy{{fact|date=July 2008}}. Little fossil evidence exists about the [[evolution]] of bats, since their small, delicate [[skeleton]]s do not fossilize well. However a [[Late Cretaceous]] tooth from South America resembles that of an early Microchiropteran bat. The oldest known definite bat fossils, such as ''[[Icaronycteris]]'', ''[[Archaeonycteris]]'', ''[[Palaeochiropteryx]]'' and ''[[Hassianycteris]]'', are from the early [[Eocene]] ({{Ma|52.5}}<ref name=simmons2008/>), but they were already very similar to modern microbats. ''Archaeopteropus'', formerly classified as the earliest known megachiropteran, is now classified as a microchiropteran. Bats are traditionally grouped with the tree [[shrew]]s ([[Scandentia]]), colugos ([[Dermoptera]]), and the [[primate]]s in [[order (biology)|superorder]] [[Archonta]] because of the similarities between Megachiroptera and these mammals. However, molecular studies have placed them as sister group to [[Ferungulata]]—a large grouping including [[carnivora]]ns, [[Pholidota|pangolins]], [[Perissodactyla|odd-toed ungulates]], [[Artiodactyla|even-toed ungulates]], and [[Cetacea|whales]]. Below is the traditional classification of bats. * Order Chiroptera (Ky-rop`ter-a) (Gr. ''cheir'', hand, + ''pteron'', wing) ** Suborder [[Megachiroptera]] ([[megabat]]s) *** [[Pteropodidae]] ** Suborder [[Microchiroptera]] ([[microbat]]s) *** Superfamily [[Emballonuroidea]] **** [[Emballonuridae]] ([[Sac-winged bat|Sac-winged]] or [[Sheath-tailed bat]]s) *** Superfamily [[Molossoidea]] **** [[Antrozoidae]] ([[Pallid bat]]s) **** [[Molossidae]] ([[Free-tailed bat]]s) *** Superfamily [[Nataloidea]] **** [[Furipteridae]] ([[Smoky bat]]s) **** [[Myzopodidae]] ([[Sucker-footed bat]]s) **** [[Natalidae]] ([[Funnel-eared bat]]s) **** [[Thyropteridae]] ([[Disk-winged bat]]s) *** Superfamily [[Noctilionoidea]] **** [[Mormoopidae]] ([[Ghost-faced Bat|Ghost-faced]] or [[Moustached bat]]s) **** [[Mystacinidae]] ([[New Zealand short-tailed bat]]s) **** [[Noctilionidae]] ([[Bulldog bat]]s or [[Fisherman bat]]s) **** [[Phyllostomidae]] ([[Leaf-nosed bat]]s) *** Superfamily [[Rhinolophoidea]] **** [[Megadermatidae]] ([[False vampire]]s) **** [[Nycteridae]] ([[Hollow-faced bat|Hollow-faced]] or [[Slit-faced bat]]s) **** [[Rhinolophidae]] ([[Horseshoe bat]]s) *** Superfamily [[Rhinopomatoidea]] **** [[Craseonycteridae]] ([[Bumblebee Bat]] or [[Kitti's Hog-nosed Bat]]) **** [[Rhinopomatidae]] ([[Mouse-tailed bat]]s) *** Superfamily [[Vespertilionoidea]] **** [[Vespertilionidae]] ([[Vesper bat]]s or [[Evening bat]]s) Megabats are primarily fruit- or nectar-eating. They have probably evolved for some time in New Guinea without microbat concurrention. This has resulted in some smaller megabats of the genus ''[[Nyctimene]]'' becoming (partly) insectivorous to fill the vacant microbat ecological niche. Furthermore, there is some evidence that the fruit bat genus ''[[Pteralopex]]'' from the [[Solomon Islands]], and its close relative ''[[Mirimiri]]'' from [[Fiji]], have evolved to fill some niches that were open because there are no nonvolant (non-flying) mammals in those islands. ==Anatomy== [[Image:Myotis-myotis-skeleton.jpg|thumb|right|150px|Skeleton of a [[Greater Mouse-eared Bat]] (''Myotis myotis''))]] By emitting high-pitched sounds and listening to the [[echo (phenomenon)|echoes]], also known as sonar, microbats locate prey and other nearby objects. This is the process of echolocation, an ability they share with [[dolphin]]s and [[whale]]s. Two groups of [[moth]]s exploit the bats' senses: [[Arctiidae|tiger moths]] produce [[ultrasonic]] signals to warn the bats that the moths are chemically-protected ([[aposematism]]) (this was once thought to be a form of "[[radar jamming]]", but this theory has been disproved); the moths [[Noctuidae]] have a hearing organ called a [[tympanal organ|tympanum]] which responds to an incoming bat signal by causing the moth's flight muscles to twitch erratically, sending the moth into random evasive manoeuvres. Although the [[eye]]s of most microbat species are small and poorly developed, leading to poor [[visual acuity]], it is incorrect to assume that they are nearly blind. Vision is used as an aid in navigation especially at long distances, beyond the range of echolocation. It has even been discovered that some species are able to detect [[ultraviolet]] light. Their senses of smell and hearing are excellent. The teeth of microbats resemble those of the [[insectivora]]ns. They are very sharp in order to bite through the [[sclerotization|hardened]] armor of insects or the skin of fruits. [[Image:wiki bat.jpg|thumb|330px|Thermographic image of a bat using trapped air as insulation.]] While other mammals have one-way valves only in their [[vein]]s to prevent the blood from flowing backwards, bats also have the same mechanism in their [[artery|arteries]]. The finger bones of bats are much more flexible than those of other mammals. One reason is that the [[cartilage]] in their fingers lacks [[calcium]] and other [[mineral]]s nearer the tips, increasing their ability to bend without splintering. The cross-section of the finger bone is also flattened instead of circular as is the bone in a human finger, making it even more flexible. The skin on their wing membranes is a lot more elastic and can stretch much more than is usually seen among mammals. Because their wings are much thinner than those of birds, bats can manoeuvre more quickly and more precisely than birds. The surface of their wings are also equipped with touch-sensitive receptors on small bumps called [[Merkel cell]]s, found in most mammals, including humans. But these sensitive areas are different in bats as each bump has a tiny hair in the center,<ref name=Calhoun2005>{{cite web | url=http://news.research.ohiou.edu/news/index.php?item=257 | title= Bats Use Touch Receptors on Wings to Fly, Catch Prey, Study Finds | date= [[15 December]] [[2005]] | accessdate = 2006-10-18 | author = Melissa Calhoun}}</ref> making it even more sensitive, and allowing the bat to detect and collect information about the air flowing over its wings. An additional kind of receptor cell is found in the wing membrane of species that use their wings to catch prey. This receptor cell is sensitive to the stretching of the membrane.<ref name=Calhoun2005/> The cells are concentrated in areas of the membrane where insects hit the wings when the bats capture them. One species of bat has the longest [[tongue]] of any mammal relative to its body size. This is extremely beneficial to them in terms of pollination and feeding - their long narrow tongues can reach deep down into the long cup shape of some [[flower]]s. When their tongue retracts, it coils up inside their rib cage.<ref name="NGtongue">{{cite web |url= http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2006/12/061206-tongue-photo.html |title= Photo in the News: Bat Has Longest Tongue of Any Mammal |accessdate= 2007-06-18 |last= Chamberlain |first= Ted |date= 2006-12-06 |work= National Geographic News |publisher= National Geographic Society |quote=''A. fistulata'' (shown lapping sugar water from a tube) has the longest tongue, relative to body length, of any mammal—and now scientists think they know why. }}</ref> == Reproduction == [[Image:Myotis myotis, nursery roost.jpg|thumb|left|Colony of [[Mouse-eared Bat]]s, ''Myotis myotis'']] Mother bats usually have only one offspring per year, and they are [[viviparous]]. A baby bat is referred to as a [[pup]].<ref>[http://www.bats.org.uk/news_events/babybats.asp "Baby bats under threat from wet weather"], Bat Conservation Trust, [[3 July]] [[2007]], retrieved [[2 August]], [[2007]]</ref> Pups are usually left in the roost when they are not [[breastfeeding|nursing]]. However, a newborn bat can cling to the fur of the mother and be transported, although they soon grow too large for this. It would be difficult for an adult bat to carry more than one young, but normally only one young is born. Bats often form [[nursery roost]]s, with many females giving birth in the same area, be it a [[cave]], a tree hole, or a cavity in a building. Mother bats are able to find their young in huge colonies of millions of other pups. Pups have even been seen to feed on other mothers' milk if their mother is dry. Only the mother cares for the young, and there is no continuous partnership with male bats. The ability to fly is congenital, but at birth the wings are too small to fly. Young [[microbat]]s become independent at the age of 6 to 8 weeks, [[megabat]]s not until they are four months old. At the age of two years, bats are sexually mature. A single bat can live over 20 years, but the bat population growth is limited by the slow [[birth rate]].<ref>http://www.batworld.org/main/main.html Retrieved 22 October 2006.</ref> ==Behavior== {{Unreferencedsection|date=February 2008}} Most microbats are active at night or at twilight. Many bats [[Bird migration|migrate]], while others pass into [[torpor]] in cold weather but rouse themselves and feed when warm spells permit insect activity. Yet others retreat to caves for winter and [[hibernation|hibernate]] for six months. Bats rarely fly in rain- the rain interferes with their echo location, and they are unable to locate their food. The social structure of bats varies, with some bats leading a solitary life and others living in caves colonized by more than a million bats. The [[fission-fusion society|fission-fusion social structure]] is seen among several species of bats. "Fusion" refers to the grouping of large numbers of bats in one roosting area and "fission" is the breaking apart and mixing of subgroups, with individual bats switching roosts with others and often ending up in different trees and with different roostmates. Studies also show that bats make all kinds of sounds to communicate with others. Scientists in the field have listened to bats and have been able to identify some sounds with some behaviour bats will make right after the sounds are made. 70% of bat species are insectivorous, locating their prey by means of sonar. Of the remainder, most feed on [[fruit]]s and their [[Fruit juice|juices]]. Only three species sustain themselves with [[blood]], some preying on [[vertebrate]]s: these are the [[leaf-nosed bat]]s (''Phyllostomidae'') of [[Central America]] and [[South America]], and the two [[bulldog bat]] (''Noctilionidae'') species, which feed on [[fish]]. At least two species of bat are known to feed on other bats: the [[Spectral Bat]], also called the American False Vampire bat, and the [[Ghost Bat]] of [[Australia]]. One species, the [[Greater Noctule bat]], is believed to catch and eat small [[bird]]s in the air.{{Fact|date=February 2008}} == As vectors for pathogens == [[Image:bat-capture-moth1nov2000 hi.jpg|thumb|A [[big brown bat]] (''Eptesicus fuscus'') approaches a wax moth (''Galleria mellonella''), which serves as the control species for the studies of the [[tiger moth]]s. The moth is only "semi-tethered," allowing it to fly evasively.]] Bats are natural reservoirs or [[vector (biology)|vectors]] for a large number of [[zoonosis|zoonotic]] [[pathogen]]s<ref name="Wong2007">{{cite journal | last = Wong | first = Samson | coauthors = Susanna Lau, Patrick Woo, Kwok-Yung Yuen | date = 2006-10-16 | accessdate = 2007-12-29 | format = Review | title = Bats as a continuing source of emerging infections in humans | journal = [[Reviews in Medical Virology]] | volume = 17 | issue = 2 | pages = 67&ndash;91 | publisher = [[John Wiley & Sons]] | pmid = 17042030 | doi = 10.1002/rmv.520 | url = http://www3.interscience.wiley.com/cgi-bin/abstract/113398566/ABSTRACT?CRETRY=1&SRETRY=0 | quote = The currently known viruses that have been found in bats are reviewed and the risks of transmission to humans are highlighted. (from abstract) }}</ref> including [[Rabies#Rabies_and_bats|rabies]],<ref name="McColl2000">{{cite journal | last = McColl | first = KA | coauthors = N Tordo, AA Aquilar Setien | year = 2000 | month = April | title = Bat lyssavirus infections | accessdate = | journal = [[Revue scientifique et technique]] | volume = 19 | issue = 1 | pages = 177&ndash;196 | format = | publisher = | location = | pmid = 11189715 | doi = | url = | language = | laysummary = | laysource = | laydate = | quote = Bats, which represent approximately 24% of all known mammalian species, frequently act as vectors of lyssaviruses. (from abstract) }}</ref> [[severe acute respiratory syndrome]] (SARS),<ref name="Li2005">{{cite journal | last = Li | first = Wendong | coauthors = Z. Shi, M. Yu, W. Ren and 13 additional coauthors | date = 2005-10-28 | accessdate = 2007-12-29 | title = Bats are natural reservoirs of SARS-like coronaviruses | journal = [[Science (journal)|Science]] | volume = 310 | issue = 5748 | pages = 676&ndash;679 | pmid = 16195424 | doi = 10.1126/science.1118391 | url = http://www.sciencemag.org/cgi/content/abstract/310/5748/676 | laysummary = http://www.sciencemag.org/cgi/content/summary/sci;310/5748/628 | laysource = Science | laydate = 2005-10-28 | quote = The genetic diversity of bat-derived sequences supports the notion that bats are a natural reservoir host of the SARS cluster of coronaviruses. }}</ref> [[Henipavirus]] (ie. Nipah virus and Hendra virus)<ref name="Halpin2000">{{cite journal | last = Halpin | first = K. | coauthors = P. L. Young, H. E. Field and J. S. Mackenzie | year = 2000 | month = August | accessdate = 2007-12-29 | title = Isolation of Hendra virus from pteropid bats: a natural reservoir of Hendra virus | journal = [[Journal of General Virology]] | volume = 81 | pages = 1927&ndash;1932 | pmid = 10900029 | url = http://vir.sgmjournals.org/cgi/content/abstract/81/8/1927 | quote = In this paper we describe the isolation of HeV from pteropid bats, corroborating our serological and epidemiological evidence that these animals are a natural reservoir host of this virus. }}</ref> and possibly [[ebola virus]]<ref name="Leroy2005">{{cite journal | last = Leroy | first = Eric M. | coauthors = Brice Kumulungui, Xavier Pourrut, Pierre Rouquet and 6 additional coauthors | date = 2005-12-01 | accessdate = 2007-12-29 | title = Fruit bats as reservoirs of Ebola virus | format = Brief Communication | journal = [[Nature (journal)|Nature]] | volume = 438 | pages = 575&ndash;576 | pmid = 16319873 | doi = 10.1038/438575a | url = http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v438/n7068/abs/438575a.html | quote = We find evidence of asymptomatic infection by Ebola virus in three species of fruit bat, indicating that these animals may be acting as a reservoir for this deadly virus. (from abstract) }}</ref>.<ref name="SciAm2006">{{cite news | author = Charles Q. Choi | title = Going to Bat | url = http://www.sciam.com/article.cfm?id=going-to-bat | work = [[Scientific American]] | pages = 24, 26 | date = March 2006 | accessdate = 2007-12-29 | quote = Long known as vectors for rabies, bats may be the origin of some of the most deadly emerging viruses, including SARS, Ebola, Nipah, Hendra and Marburg. }} Note: This could be considered a lay summary of the various scientific publications cited in the preceding sentence.</ref> Their high mobility, broad distribution, and social behaviour (communal roosting, fission-fusion social structure) make bats favourable hosts and vectors of disease. Many species also appear to have a high tolerance for harbouring pathogens and often do not develop disease while infected. Only 0.5% of bats carry rabies. However, of the very few cases of [[rabies]] reported in the [[United States]] every year, most are caused by bat [[bite (medicine)|bites]].<ref name="CDC1999">{{cite journal | last = Gibbons | first = Robert V. | coauthors = Charles Rupprecht | year = 2000 | accessdate = 2007-12-29 | title = Twelve Common Questions About Human Rabies and Its Prevention | journal = [[Infectious Diseases in Clinical Practice]] | volume = 9 | pages = 202&ndash;207 | publisher = [[Lippincott Williams & Wilkins]] | issn = 1056-9103 | url = http://www.cdc.gov/rabies/docs/12_questions_rabies.pdf | format = PDF | quote = Excluding dog bites that occurred outside of the country, 22 of the 31 (71%) human cases of rabies in the United States since 1980 have been associated with bat rabies virus variants. }} Note: the 71% figure in the quote would be for the 20 year period from 1980 to c.2000.</ref> Although most bats do not have rabies, those that do may be clumsy, disoriented, and unable to fly, which makes it more likely that they will come into contact with humans. Although one should not have an unreasonable [[fear of bats]], one should avoid handling them or having them in one's living space, as with any wild animal. If a bat is found in living quarters near a child, mentally handicapped person, intoxicated person, sleeping person, or pet, the person or pet should receive immediate medical attention for rabies. Bats have very small teeth and can bite a sleeping person without necessarily being felt. There is evidence that it is possible for the bat rabies virus to infect victims purely through airborne transmission, without direct physical contact of the victim with the bat itself.<ref name="cons">{{cite journal | last = Constantine | first = Denny G. | year = 1962 | month = April | accessdate = 2007-12-29 | title = Rabies transmission by nonbite route | journal = [[Public Health Reports]] | volume = 77 | issue = 4 | pages = 287&ndash;289 | publisher = [[United States Public Health Service|Public Health Service]] | pmid = 13880956 | url = http://www.pubmedcentral.nih.gov/picrender.fcgi?artid=1914752&blobtype=pdf | format = PDF | quote = These findings support consideration of an airborne medium, such as an aerosol, as the mechanism of rabies transmission in this instance. }}</ref><ref name="Messenger2002">{{cite journal | last = Messenger | first = Sharon L. | coauthors = Jean S. Smith and Charles E. Rupprecht | date = 2002-09-15 | accessdate = 2007-12-29 | title = Emerging Epidemiology of Bat-Associated Cryptic Cases of Rabies in Humans in the United States | journal = [[Clinical Infectious Diseases]] | volume = 35 | issue = 6 | pages = 738&ndash;747 | pmid = 12203172 | doi = 10.1086/342387 | url = http://www.journals.uchicago.edu/doi/abs/10.1086/342387 | quote = Cryptic rabies cases are those in which a clear history of exposure to rabies virus cannot be documented, despite extensive case‐history investigation. Absence of a documented bite history reflects inherent difficulties in obtaining accurate animal‐contact information.... <gap> Thus, absence of bite‐history data does not mean that a bite did not occur. }}</ref> If a bat is found in a house and the possibility of exposure cannot be ruled out, the bat should be sequestered and an animal control officer called immediately, so that the bat can be analysed. This also applies if the bat is found dead. If it is certain that nobody has been exposed to the bat, it should be removed from the house. The best way to do this is to close all the doors and windows to the room except one to the outside. The bat should soon leave. Due to the risk of rabies and also due to health problems related to their faecal droppings ([[guano]]), bats should be excluded from inhabited parts of houses. The [http://www.cdc.gov/rabies/bats.html Center for Disease Control's website on bats and rabies] provides full detailed information on all aspects of bat management, including how to capture a bat, what to do in case of exposure, and how to bat-proof a house humanely. In certain countries, such as the [[United Kingdom]], it is illegal to handle bats without a license. Where rabies is not endemic, as throughout most of [[Western Europe]], small bats can be considered harmless. Larger bats can give a nasty bite. They should be treated with the respect due to any wild animal. ==Cultural aspects== [[Image:Mochebat.jpg|thumb|left|200px|Bat. Moche Culture 100 A.D. [[Larco Museum]] [[Lima]], [[Peru]].]] The bat is sacred in [[Tonga]] and [[West Africa]] and is often considered the physical manifestation of a separable [[soul]] {{Fact|date=May 2008}}. Bats are closely associated with [[vampire]]s, who are said to be able to [[shapeshifting|shapeshift]] into bats, [[fog]], or [[wolf|wolves]]. Bats are also a symbol of [[ghost]]s, [[death]], and [[disease]]. Among some [[Native Americans in the United States|Native Americans]], such as the [[Creek (people)|Creek]], [[Cherokee]] and [[Apache Tribe|Apache]], the bat is a [[trickster]] spirit. [[China|Chinese]] lore claims the bat is a symbol of longevity and happiness, and is similarly lucky in [[Poland]] and geographical [[Macedonia (region)|Macedonia]] and among the [[Kwakiutl]] and [[Arab]]s. The bat is also a heraldic animal of the Spanish autonomous community of [[Valencia (autonomous community)|Valencia]]. [[Pre-Columbian]] cultures associated animals with gods and often displayed them in art. The [[Moche]] people depicted bats in their ceramics.<ref>Berrin, Katherine & Larco Museum. ''The Spirit of Ancient Peru:Treasures from the [[Larco Museum|Museo Arqueológico Rafael Larco Herrera]].'' New York: [[Thames and Hudson]], 1997.</ref> In [[Western Culture]], the bat is often a symbol of the night and its foreboding nature. The bat is a primary animal associated with fictional characters of the night, both [[villain]]s like [[Dracula]] and [[hero]]es like [[Batman]]. The association of the fear of the night with the animal was treated as a literary challenge by [[Kenneth Oppel]], who created a best selling series of novels, beginning with ''[[Silverwing (novel)|Silverwing]]'', which feature bats as the central heroic figures much as anthropomorphized [[rabbit]]s were the central figures to the classic [[novel]] ''[[Watership Down]]''. An [[old wives' tale]] has it that bats will entangle themselves in people's hair. One likely source of this belief is that insect-eating bats seeking prey may dive erratically toward people, who attract [[mosquito]]es and [[gnat]]s, leading the squeamish to believe that the bats are trying to get in their hair. In the [[United Kingdom]] all bats are protected under the [[Wildlife and Countryside Act]]s, and even disturbing a bat or its roost can be punished with a heavy fine. [[Image:06-09TlhFLBatHouse.jpg|thumb|right|240px|Very large bat house, Tallahassee, Florida.]] In [[Sarawak]], [[Malaysia]] bats are protected species under the Wildlife Protection Ordinance 1998 (see [[Malaysian Wildlife Law]]). The large Naked bat (see [[Mammals of Borneo]]) and Greater Nectar bat are consumed by the local communities. Bats can be a tourist attraction. The [[Congress Avenue]] bridge in [[Austin, Texas|Austin]], [[Texas]] is the summer home to [[North America]]'s largest urban bat colony, an estimated 1,500,000 [[Mexican free-tailed bat]]s, which eat an estimated 10,000 to 30,000 pounds of insects each night. An estimated 100,000 tourists per year visit the bridge at twilight to watch the bats leave the roost. ==Artificial roosts== Many people put up bat houses to attract bats just like many people put up [[birdhouse]]s to attract birds. Reasons for this vary, but mostly center around the fact that bats are the primary nocturnal insectivores in most if not all ecologies. Bat houses can be made from scratch, made from kits, or bought ready made. Plans for bat houses exist on many web sites, as well as guidelines for designing a bat house{{Fact|date=July 2007}}. Some conservation societies are giving away free bat houses to bat enthusiasts worldwide{{Fact|date=July 2007}}. A bat house constructed in 1991 at the [[University of Florida]] campus next to Lake Alice in [[Gainesville, Florida|Gainesville]] has a population of over 100,000 free-tailed bats.<ref>{{cite web |url= http://www.napa.ufl.edu/2001news/backyardbats.htm |title= Backyard Bat Houses Promote Pest Control, Says UF Expert |accessdate= 2007-06-18 |last= Nordlie |first= Tom |authorlink= |coauthors= |date= 2001-10-29 |work= UF News |publisher= University of Florida |pages= 30 |archiveurl= http://web.archive.org/web/20011030203049/http://www.napa.ufl.edu/2001news/backyardbats.htm |archivedate= 2001-11-30 |quote= ... an example of good bat management. When a large colony of Brazilian free-tailed bats roosting in a campus stadium caused odor problems, university officials installed the massive house, which now holds about 100,000 bats and has become a local landmark. }}</ref> In Britain, [[British hardened field defences of World War II|pillboxes dating from World War II]] have been converted to make roosts for bats. Pillboxes that are well dug-in and thick walled are naturally damp and provide a stable thermal environment that is required by bats that would otherwise hibernate in caves. With a few minor modifications, suitable pillboxes can be converted to artificial caves for bats.<ref>{{cite web| url=http://www.eurobats.org/documents/pdf/AC9/Doc_AC9_15_Protecting_underground_sites.pdf| title=Protecting and managing underground sites for bats (pdf), see section 6.4.| accessdate=2006-05-18}}</ref><ref>{{cite web| url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/england/4885642.stm| title=Pillbox converted to bat retreat, BBC website| accessdate=2006-05-18}}</ref> == See also == *[[Bat bomb]] *[[:Category:Bats|Bat species]] *[[Agreement on the Conservation of Populations of European Bats (UNEP/EUROBATS)]] *[[Bat World Sanctuary]] *[[European Bat Night]] *[[:Category:Fictional bats|Fictional bats]] *[[Flying and gliding animals]] *[[Audiograms in mammals]] *[[Batman]] *[[Bat boy]] *[[White nose syndrome]] ==References==<!-- Biol. Rev.80:573 --> {{reflist|2}} ;General references {{refbegin|2}} *Greenhall, Arthur H. 1961. ''Bats in Agriculture''. A Ministry of Agriculture Publication. Trinidad and Tobago. *Nowak, Ronald M. 1994. " Walker's BATS of the World". The John Hopikins University Press, Baltimore and London. *[http://www.uq.edu.au/nuq/jack/consensus.htm John D. Pettigrew's summary on Flying Primate Hypothesis] *Altringham, J.D. 1998. Bats: Biology and Behaviour. Oxford: Oxford University Press. *Dobat, K.; Holle, T.P. 1985. Blüten und Fledermäuse: Bestäubung durch Fledermäuse und Flughunde (Chiropterophilie). Frankfurt am Main: W. Kramer & Co. Druckerei. *Fenton, M.B. 1985. Communication in the Chiroptera. Bloomington: Indiana University Press. *Findley, J.S. 1995. Bats: a Community Perspective. Cambridge: Press Syndicate of the University of Cambridge. *Fleming, T.H. 1988. The Short-Tailed Fruit Bat: a Study in Plant-Animal Interactions. Chicago: The University of Chicago Press. *Kunz, T.H. 1982. Ecology of Bats. New York: Plenum Press. *Kunz, T.H.; Racey, P.A. 1999. Bat Biology and Conservation. Washington: Smithsonian Institution Press. *Kunz, T.H.; Fenton, M.B. 2003. Bat Ecology. Chicago: The University of Chicago Press. *Neuweiler, G. 1993. Biologie der Fledermäuse. Stuttgart: Georg Thieme Verlag. *Nowak, R.M. 1994. Walker's Bats of the World. Baltimore: The Johns Hopkins University Press. *Richarz, K. & Limbruner, A. 1993. The World of Bats. Neptune City: TFH Publications. *Twilton, B. 1999. My Life as The Bat. Liverpool Hope University press {{refend}} ==Further reading== {{sisterlinks|bat}} {{Wikibookspar|Dichotomous Key|Chiroptera}} * {{cite book |last=Davis |first=William B. |authorlink= |coauthors=David J. Schmidly |editor=Lisa Bradley |others=Dave Scarbrough |title=The Mammals of Texas - Online Edition |origyear=1947 |url=http://www.nsrl.ttu.edu/tmot1/Default.htm |accessdate=2008-07-10 |edition=1994 |year=1997 |publisher=Texas Parks and Wildlife Department |isbn= |pages= |chapter=Order Chiroptera:Bats |chapterurl=http://www.nsrl.ttu.edu/tmot1/ordchiro.htm |quote= }} *[http://animaldiversity.ummz.umich.edu/chordata/mammalia/chiroptera.html University of Michigan Museum of Zoology] *[http://greenfield.fortunecity.com/wilderness/258/tarsier.htm/ Bats and Tarsier] *[http://tolweb.org/tree?group=Chiroptera&contgroup=Eutheria Tree of Life] *[http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/science/nature/4213495.stm Bat evolution linked to warming] * [http://www.fladdermus.net/thesis.htm Microbat Vision] *[http://www.batsandtrees.com/ Information On Bats & Trees in The UK] *[http://www.amonline.net.au/bats/ Bats of Australia] *[http://www.getbatsout.com/batinhouse.htm Article - Safely and Humanely Deal with Bat in House] {{Mammals}} [[Category:Bats| ]] [[Category:Pollinators]] [[ang:Hreaðemūs]] [[ar:خفاش]] [[an:Chiroptera]] [[ast:Esperteyu]] [[gn:Mbopi]] [[ay:Chiñi]] [[zh-min-nan:Bi̍t-pô]] [[bg:Прилепи]] [[ca:Ratapinyada]] [[cs:Letouni]] [[co:Topu pinnutu]] [[cy:Ystlum]] [[da:Flagermus]] [[de:Fledertiere]] [[et:Käsitiivalised]] [[es:Chiroptera]] [[eo:Kiropteroj]] [[fa:خفاش]] [[fo:Flogmýs]] [[fr:Chiroptera]] [[hak:Phi̍t-phò-è]] [[ko:박쥐]] [[hr:Šišmiši]] [[io:Vespertilio]] [[id:Kelelawar]] [[ia:Vespertilion]] [[is:Leðurblaka]] [[it:Chiroptera]] [[he:עטלפים]] [[pam:Talibatab]] [[ka:ღამურები]] [[la:Chiroptera]] [[lv:Sikspārņi]] [[lt:Šikšnosparniai]] [[li:Fleermuis]] [[hu:Denevérek]] [[ml:വവ്വാല്‍]] [[ms:Kelawar]] [[nah:Tzinācantli]] [[nl:Vleermuizen]] [[ja:コウモリ]] [[no:Flaggermus]] [[nn:Flaggermus]] [[nrm:Caûque-souothis]] [[nov:Chiroptera]] [[oc:Chiroptera]] [[pl:Nietoperze]] [[pt:Morcego]] [[ro:Chiroptere]] [[qu:Masu]] [[ru:Рукокрылые]] [[scn:Taddarita (pipistrellu)]] [[simple:Bat]] [[sk:Netopiere]] [[sl:Netopirji]] [[sr:Слепи мишеви]] [[sh:Šišmiš]] [[su:Kalong]] [[fi:Lepakot]] [[sv:Fladdermöss]] [[tl:Paniki]] [[ta:வௌவால்]] [[te:గబ్బిలం]] [[th:ค้างคาว]] [[tr:Yarasa]] [[uk:Кажан]] [[ur:چمگادڑ]] [[zh-yue:蝙蝠]] [[zh:蝙蝠]]