Battle of Dyrrhachium (1081)
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{{for|the battle between [[Gnaeus Pompeius Magnus]] and [[Julius Caesar|Gaius Julius Caesar]]|Battle of Dyrrhachium (48 BC)}}
{{Infobox Military Conflict|
|conflict=Battle of Dyrrhachium
|image=[[Image:Byzantiumforecrusades.PNG|300px]]
|caption=The Byzantine Empire in 1081 AD.
|partof=the [[Byzantine-Norman Wars]]
|date=[[October 18]], [[1081]]
|place=[[Durrës|Dyrrhachium]]
|result=[[Normans|Norman]] victory
|combatant1=[[Image:Flag of the Byzantine Empire.svg|30px]] [[Byzantine Empire]]
|combatant2=[[Image:Armoiries Manfred de Sicile.svg|30px]] [[List of Counts and Dukes of Apulia and Calabria|Duchy of Apulia and Calabria]]
|commander1=[[Alexius I Comnenus]]<br/>[[George Palaeologus]]
|commander2=[[Robert Guiscard]]<br/>[[Bohemond I of Antioch|Bohemond of Taranto]]
|strength1=20,000 men<ref name="Haldon134">Haldon, ''The Byzantine Wars'', 134</ref>
|strength2=30,000 men<ref>Haldon, ''The Byzantine Wars'', 134; Anna Comnena, ''The Alexiad'', 1.16</ref><br/> 150 ships
|casualties1=5,000 men dead<ref name="Haldon137">Haldon, ''The Byzantine Wars'', 137</ref><br> 7,000 men deserted<ref>Norwich, ''Byzantium: Decline and Fall'', 20<br>* Warren Treadgold, ''A History of Byzantine State and Society'', 614</ref>
|casualties2=Substantial<ref name="Haldon137">Haldon, ''The Byzantine Wars'', 137</ref>
}}
The '''Battle of Dyrrhachium''' or '''Siege of Durazzo''' took place on [[October 18]], [[1081]] between the [[Byzantine Empire]], led by the [[Byzantine Emperor|Emperor]] [[Alexius I Comnenus|Alexius I]], and the [[Normans]] of Southern Italy under [[Robert Guiscard]], [[Duke of Apulia & Calabria]]. The battle was fought outside the city of [[Durrës|Dyrrhachium]], the Byzantine capital of [[Illyria]], and ended in a Norman victory.
Following the [[Norman conquest of southern Italy|Norman conquest of Byzantine Italy and Saracen Sicily]], the Byzantine Emperor, [[Michael VII]] betrothed his son to [[Robert Guiscard]]'s daughter. When Michael was deposed, Robert took this as an excuse to invade the Byzantine Empire in 1081. His army laid siege to Dyrrhachium but his fleet was defeated by the [[Venice|Venetians]]. On [[October 18]], the Normans engaged a Byzantine army under Alexius I Comnenus outside Dyrrhachium. The battle began with the Byzantine right wing routing the Norman left wing which broke and fled. [[Varangians]] mercenaries joined in the pursuit of the fleeing Normans but became separated from the main force and were massacred. Norman [[knights]] in the centre attacked the Byzantine centre and routed it, causing the Byzantines to flee.
After the capture of Dyrrhachium in February 1082, the Normans advanced inland capturing most of [[Macedonia (region)|Macedonia]] and [[Thessaly]]. However, Robert was forced to leave [[Greece]] following an attack on his ally, the [[Pope]] by the [[Holy Roman Empire|Holy Roman Emperor]], [[Henry IV, Holy Roman Emperor|Henry IV]]. Robert left his son [[Bohemond of Taranto|Bohemond]] in charge of the army in Greece. Bohemond was initially successful defeating Alexius in several battles. However, he was defeated by Alexius outside [[Larissa]] and was forced to retreat to Italy losing all the Norman conquests.
==Background==
[[Image:Italy and Illyria 1084 v2.svg|thumb|160px|left|The Duchy of Apulia and Calabria around the time of the battle.]]
The [[Normans]] first arrived in Southern Italy in 1015 from northern [[France]] and served local [[Lombards|Lombard]] [[lords]] as [[mercenaries]] against the [[Byzantine Empire]].<ref name="Brown85">Brown, ''The Normans'', p. 85.</ref> As they were paid with lands, soon they were powerful enough to challenge Papal authority; in 1054, they defeated the [[Pope]] at the [[Battle of Civitate]], forcing him to acknowledge their authority.<ref name="N13-J">John Norwich, ''Byzantium: Decline and Fall'', p. 13.<br>* Holmes, ''The World Atlas of Warfare: Military Innovations That Changed the Course of History'', 33<br>*Brown, ''The Normans'', p. 93.</ref> In 1059, the Pope made [[Robert Guiscard]], of the [[Hauteville family]], [[Duke]] of [[Apulia]], [[Calabria]] and [[Sicily]]. However, most of Apulia and Calabria were in Byzantine hands, and Sicily was in [[Saracen]] hands.<ref name="Norwich14">Norwich, ''Byzantium: Decline and Fall'', p. 14.</ref>
By 1071, Robert, together with his brother [[Roger I|Roger]], had taken over the last Byzantine stronghold in Italy, [[Bari]]. By the next year, they conquered all of Sicily ending the Islamic [[Emirate of Sicily]]. In 1073, the Byzantine Emperor [[Michael VII]] sent an envoy to Robert offering the hand of his son [[Constantine Doukas|Constantine]] to Robert's daughter [[Helena]].<ref name="N14-J">John Norwich, ''Byzantium: Decline and Fall'', p. 14.<br>* Anna Comnena, ''The Alexiad'', 1.12</ref> Guiscard accepted the offer and sent his daughter to [[Constantinople]]. However, in 1078, Michael was overthrown by [[Nicephorus Botaneiates]], an event that destroyed any chances Helena had for the throne.<ref>Anna Comnena, ''The Alexiad'', 1.12<br>* Warren Treadgold, ''A History of Byzantine State and Society'', p. 614.</ref> This gave Robert a motive to invade the empire claiming his daughter had been mistreated; however, his intervention was delayed by a revolt in Italy.<ref>Norwich, ''Byzantium: Decline and Fall'', p. 15.<br>* Warren Treadgold, ''A History of Byzantine State and Society'', p. 614.</ref>
Robert conscripted all men of a fighting age into the army, which he refitted.<ref>Norwich, ''Byzantium: Decline and Fall'', p. 16.</ref> Meanwhile, he sent an ambassador to the Byzantine court with orders to demand proper treatment for Helena and to win over the [[Byzantine aristocracy and bureaucracy|Domestic of the Schools]], [[Alexius I Comnenus]].<ref>Anna Comnena, ''The Alexiad'', 1.15</ref> The results of these attempts remain unknown, but the ambassador fell under Alexios' charm and as he was returning to Italy, he heard of Alexios' successful coup against Botaneiates.<ref>Norwich, ''Byzantium: Decline and Fall'', p. 16.</ref>
When the ambassador returned, he urged Robert to make peace, claiming that Alexius wanted nothing but friendship with the Normans. Robert had no intentions for peace; he sent his son [[Bohemond I of Antioch|Bohemond]] with an advance force towards Greece and Bohemond landed at [[Aulon]], with Robert following shortly after.<ref name="N17-J">John Norwich, ''Byzantium: Decline and Fall'', p. 17.<br>* Anna Comnena, ''The Alexiad'', 1.15<br>* Gravett and Nicolle, ''The Normans: Warrior Knights and their Castles'', p. 108.<br>* Warren Treadgold, ''A History of Byzantine State and Society'', p. 614.</ref>
==Prelude==
{{Quote box2
|width= 30em |border= 1px |margin= 2px |align= right |bgcolor= #c6dbf7 |halign= left
|quote= "Not being satisfied with the men who had served in his army from the beginning and had experience in battle, he formed a new army, made up of recruits without any consideration of age. From all quarters of [[Lombardy]] and Apulia he gathered them, over age and under age, pitiable objects who had never seen armour in their dreams, but then clad in breastplates and carrying shields, awkwardly drawing bows to which they were completely unused and following flat on the ground when they were allowed to march."
|source= Anna Comnena describing Robert Guiscard's conscription.<ref name="Anna Comnena1.13">quoted from Anna Comnena, ''The Alexiad'', 1.13</ref>}}
The Norman fleet of 150 ships including 60 [[Horse transports in the Middle Ages|horse transports]] set off towards the Byzantine Empire at the end of May 1081. The army numbered 30,000 men, backed up by 1,300 Norman knights.<ref name="N17-J">John Norwich, ''Byzantium: Decline and Fall'', p. 17.<br>* Anna Comnena, ''The Alexiad'', 1.17<br>* Nicholas Hooper and Matthew Bennett, ''Cambridge Illustrated Atlas of Warfare: The Middle Ages 768-1487'', p. 83.</ref> The fleet sailed to [[Vlorë|Avalona]] in Byzantine territory; they were joined by several ships from [[Republic of Ragusa|Ragusa]], a republic in the [[Balkans]] who hated the Byzantines.<ref name="Norwich17">Norwich, ''Byzantium: Decline and Fall'', p. 17.</ref>
Robert soon left Avalona and sailed to the island of [[Corfu]], which surrendered due to a small garrison. Having won a bridgehead and a clear path for reinforcements from Italy, he advanced on the city of [[Durrës|Dyrrhachium]], the capital and chief port of [[Illyria]].<ref name="Gravett and Nicolle108">Gravett and Nicolle, ''The Normans: Warrior Knights and their Castles'', p. 108.</ref> The city was well defended, on a long, narrow peninsula running parallel to the coast but separated by marshlands. Guiscard brought his army onto the peninsula and pitched camp outside the city walls.<ref name="Haldon133">Haldon, ''Byzantine Wars'', p. 133.</ref> However, as Robert's fleet sailed to Dyrrhachium, it was hit by a storm and lost several ships.<ref name="Norwich17">Norwich, ''Byzantium: Decline and Fall'', p. 17.</ref>
Meanwhile, when Alexius heard that the Normans were preparing to invade Byzantine territory, he sent an ambassador to the [[Doge of Venice|Doge]] of [[Republic of Venice|Venice]], [[Domenico Selvo]], requesting aid and offering trading rights in return.<ref name="Norwich17">Norwich, ''Byzantium: Decline and Fall'', p. 17.</ref> The Doge, alarmed by Norman control of the [[Strait of Otranto]], took command of the Venetian fleet and sailed at once, surprising the Norman fleet under the command of Bohemond as night was falling. The Normans counter-attacked tenaciously, but their inexperience in naval combat betrayed them. The experienced Venetian navy attacked in a close [[formation]] known as "sea harbour" and together with their use of [[Greek fire]] "bombs", the Norman line scattered, and the Venetian fleet sailed into Dyrrhachium's harbour.<ref name="N18-J">John Norwich, ''Byzantium: Decline and Fall'', p. 18.<br>* Nicholas Hooper and Matthew Bennett, ''Cambridge Illustrated Atlas of Warfare: The Middle Ages 768-1487'', p. 83.</ref>
== Siege of Dyrrhachium ==
[[Image:Robert Guiscard.jpg|200px|thumb|left|[[Numismatics|Coin]] of Robert Guiscard.]]
Robert was not discouraged by this naval defeat, and began his siege of Dyrrhachium. In command of the garrison at Dyrrhachium was the experienced general [[George Palaeologus]], sent by Alexius with orders to hold out at all costs while Alexius himself mustered an army to relieve the city.<ref name="Norwich18">Norwich, ''Byzantium: Decline and Fall'', p. 18.</ref>
Meanwhile, a Byzantine fleet arrived and – after joining with the Venetian fleet – attacked the Norman fleet, which was again routed. The garrison at Dyrrhachium managed to hold out all summer, despite Robert's [[catapults]], [[ballistae]] and [[siege tower]]. The garrison made continuous sallies from the city; on one occasion, Palaeologus fought all day with an arrowhead in his skull. Another sally succeeded in destroying Robert's siege tower.<ref name="Norwich18">Norwich, ''Byzantium: Decline and Fall'', p. 18.</ref>
Robert's camp was struck by disease; according to contemporary historian [[Anna Comnena]] up to 10,000 men died, including 500 knights.<ref name="Anna Comnena4.3">Anna Comnena, ''The Alexiad'', 4.3</ref> Even so, the situation of the Dyrrhachium garrison grew desperate due to the effects of Norman siege weapons. Alexius learned of this while he was in [[Salonica]] with his army so he advanced in full force against the Normans. According to Comnena, Alexius had about 20,000 men; historian John Haldon puts the army's size between 18,000 to 20,000 men. It consisted of [[Thrace|Thracian]] and [[Macedonia (region)|Macedonian]] [[tagma]]ta, which numbered about 5,000 men; the elite [[excubitors]] and [[vestiaritae]] units, which numbered around 1,000 men; a force of so-called Manichaeans ([[Bogomil]] heretics organized into military units), which comprised 2,800 men, [[Thessaly|Thessalian]] [[cavalry]], Balkan [[conscription|conscripts]], [[Armenia]]n [[infantry]] and other light troops. As well as the native troops, the Byzantines were joined by 2,000 [[Seljuk Turks|Turkish]] and 1,000 Frankish [[mercenary|mercenaries]], about 1,000 [[Varangian]]s and 7,000 Turkish [[auxiliary|auxiliaries]] sent by the [[Seljuk Sultanate of Rûm|Seljuk Sultan of Rum]]. Alexius also withdrew the tagmas from [[Heraclea Pontica]] and the remaining Byzantine holdings in [[Asia Minor]] and by doing so, he effectively left them to be over run by the Turks.<ref name="N18-J">John Norwich, ''Byzantium: Decline and Fall'', p. 18.<br>* Anna Comnena, ''The Alexiad'', 4.4<br>* Warren Treadgold, ''A History of Byzantine State and Society'', p. 614.</ref>
==Battle==
===Initial moves===
[[Image:Alexius I.jpg|right|upright|thumb|A manuscript depicting Alexius.]]
Alexius advanced from Salonica and pitched camp on the river [[Charzanes]] near Dyrrhachium on [[October 15]].<ref>Norwich, ''Byzantium:Decline and Fall'', p. 18.<br> Anna Comnena, ''The Alexiad'', 4.5</ref> He held a war council there and sought advice from his senior officers; among them was George Palaeologus, who had managed to sneak out of the city.<ref name="Haldon134">Haldon, ''The Byzantine Wars'', p. 134.</ref> A majority of the senior officers, including Palaeologus, urged caution, noting that time was with the Emperor. Alexius, however, favoured an immediate assault, hoping to catch Guiscard's army from the rear, while they were still besieging the city. Alexius moved his army to the hills opposite the city, planning to attack the Normans the next day.<ref name="H134-J">John Haldon, ''Byzantine Wars'', 134<br>* Anna Comnena, ''The Alexiad'', 4.5</ref>
Guiscard, however, had been informed of Alexius' arrival by his scouts and on the night of the [[October 17]], he moved his army from the peninsula to the mainland. Upon learning of Guiscard's move, Alexius revised his battle plan. He split his army into three divisions, with the left wing under the command of [[Gregorios Pakourianios]], the right wing under the command of [[Nikephoros Melissenos|Nicephorus Melissenus]], and himself in command of the centre. Guiscard formed his battle line opposite Alexius', with the right wing under the command of the [[Count of Giovinazzo]], the left under Bohemond and Guiscard facing Alexius in the centre.<ref name="H134-J">John Haldon, ''Byzantine Wars'', p. 134.<br>* Anna Comnena, ''The Alexiad'', 4.5</ref>
The Varangians had been ordered to march just in front of the main line with a strong division of archers a little behind them.<ref name="Haldon134">Haldon, ''The Byzantine Wars'', p. 134.</ref> The archers had been commanded to move in front of the Varangians and fire a [[volley]] before retreating behind them. The archers continued this tactic until the army neared contact.<ref name="H134-J">John Haldon, ''Byzantine Wars'', p. 134.<br>* Anna Comnena, ''The Alexiad'', 4.6</ref>
As the opposing armies closed in, Guiscard sent a detachment of cavalry positioned in the centre to feint an attack on the Byzantine positions. Guiscard hoped the feint would draw up the Varangians; however, this plan failed when the cavalry was forced back by the archers. The Norman right wing suddenly charged forward to the point where the Byzantine left and centre met, directing its attack against the Varangian left flank. The Varangians stood their ground while the Byzantine left, including some of Alexius' elite troops, attacked the Normans. The Norman formation disintegrated and the routed Normans fled towards the beach. There, according to Comnena, they were rallied by Guiscard's wife, [[Sikelgaita]], described as "like another [[Pallas]], if not a second [[Athena]]".<ref name="H134-J">John Haldon, ''Byzantine Wars'', p. 134.<br>* Anna Comnena, ''The Alexiad'', 4.6<br>* Norwich, ''Byzantium: Decline and Fall'', p. 19.</ref>
===Byzantine collapse===
[[Image:Skylitzis Chronicle VARANGIAN GUARD.jpg|right|thumb|The Varangian guard.]]
In the meantime, the Byzantine right and centre had been engaging in [[skirmish]]es with the Normans opposite them. However, with the collapse of the Norman right, the knights were danger of being outflanked. At this point, the Varangians (mainly [[Anglo-Saxons]] who had left [[England]] after the [[Norman Conquest]]) joined in the pursuit of the Norman right. With their massive [[battle axe]]s, the Varangians attacked the Norman knights, who were driven away after their horses panicked. The Varangians soon became separated from the main force and exhausted so they were in no position to resist an assault. Guiscard sent a strong force of [[spearman|spearmen]] and [[crossbowmen]] against the Varangian flank and inflicted heavy casualties on them. The few remaining Varangians fled into the church of the [[Archangel Michael]]. The Normans immediately set the church on fire, and all Varangians perished in the blaze.<ref name="H135-J">John Haldon, ''Byzantine Wars'', 135<br>* Anna Comnena, ''The Alexiad'', 4.6<br>* Norwich, ''Byzantium: Decline and Fall'', p. 19.<br>* Holmes, ''The World Atlas of Warfare: Military Innovations That Changed the Course of History'', p. 33.</ref>
Meanwhile, George Palaeologus [[sortie]]d out of Dyrrhachium but failed to save the situation. Worse, Alexius' [[vassal]], King [[Constantine Bodin]] of [[Zeta]], betrayed him. The Turks who had been lent to him by the Seljuk Sultan [[Suleyman I of Rûm|Suleyman I]] followed Constantine's example and deserted.<ref>Norwich, ''Byzantium: Decline and Fall'', p. 20.<br>* Warren Treadgold, ''A History of Byzantine State and Society'', p. 614.</ref>
Deprived of his left wing (still in pursuit of the Norman right), Alexius was exposed in the centre. Guiscard sent his heavy cavalry against the Byzantine centre. They first routed the Byzantine skirmishers before breaking into small detachments and smashing into various points of the Byzantine line. This charge broke the Byzantine lines and caused them to rout. The imperial camp, which had been left unguarded, fell to the Normans.<ref name="H135-J">John Haldon, ''Byzantine Wars'', p. 135.<br>* Anna Comnena, ''The Alexiad'', 4.7</ref>
Alexius and his guards resisted as long as they could before retreating. As they retreated, Alexius was separated from his guard and was attacked by Norman soldiers. While escaping he was wounded in his forehead and lost a lot of blood, but eventually made it back to [[Ochrid]], where he regrouped his army.<ref name="H135-J">John Haldon, ''Byzantine Wars'', p. 135.<br>* Anna Comnena, ''The Alexiad'', 4.7<br>* Norwich, ''Byzantium: Decline and Fall'', p. 20.</ref>
== Aftermath ==
{{Quote box2 |width= 30em |border= 1px |margin= 2px |align= right |bgcolor= #c6dbf7 |halign= left
|quote= "Alexius was undoubtedly a good tactician, but he was badly let down by the indisciplined rush to pursue the beaten enemy wings, a cardinal sin in the Byzantine tactical manuals. He failed to take adequate account of the effectiveness of the Norman heavy cavalry charge, which punched through his lines with little resistance."
|source= John Haldon's assessment of the battle.<ref>Quoted from Haldon, ''The Byzantine Wars'', 136–7</ref>}}
The battle was a serious defeat for Alexius. Historian Jonathan Harris states that the defeat was "every bit as severe as that at [[Battle of Manzikert|Manzikert]]."<ref name="Harris34">Harris, ''Byzantium and the Crusades'', p. 34.</ref> He lost about 5,000 of his men, including most of the Varangians. Norman losses are unknown but John Haldon claims they are substantial as both wings broke and fled.<ref name="Haldon137">Haldon, ''The Byzantine Wars'', p. 137.</ref> Historian Robert Holmes states: "The new knightly tactic of charging with the lance ''couched'' - tucked firmly under the arm to unite the impact of man and horse - proved a battle-winner."<ref name="Holmes34">Holmes, ''The World Atlas of Warfare: Military Innovations That Changed the Course of History'', p. 34.</ref>
George Palaeologus had not been able to re-enter the city after the battle and left with the main force. The defence of the [[citadel]] was left to the Venetians, while the city itself was left to an [[Albanian]], [[Komiskortes]].<ref name="Anna Comnena4.8">Anna Comnena, ''The Alexiad'', 4.8</ref>
In February 1082, Dyrrhachium fell after a Venetian or [[Amalfi]]an citizen opened the gates to the Normans.<ref name="Anna Comnena5.1">Anna Comnena, ''The Alexiad'', 5.1</ref> The Norman army proceeded to take most of northern Greece without facing much resistance. While Guiscard was in [[Kastoria]], messengers arrived from Italy, bearing news that [[Apulia]], [[Calabria]] and [[Campania]] were in revolt. He also learned that the [[Holy Roman Emperor]], [[Henry IV, Holy Roman Emperor|Henry IV]], was at the gates of [[Rome]] and besieging [[Pope Gregory VII]], a Norman ally.<ref name="Norwich20">Norwich, ''Byzantium: Decline and Fall'', 20* Warren Treadgold, ''A History of Byzantine State and Society'', p. 615.</ref> Alexius had negotiated with Henry and given him 360,000 gold pieces in return for an alliance. Henry responded by invading Italy and attacking the Pope. Guiscard rushed to Italy, leaving Bohemond in command of the army in Greece.<ref name="N21-J">John Norwich, ''Byzantium: Decline and Fall'', p. 21.<br>* Anna Comnena, ''The Alexiad'', 5.3<br>* Gravett and Nicolle, ''The Normans: Warrior Knights and their Castles'', p. 108.<br>* Warren Treadgold, ''A History of Byzantine State and Society'', p. 615.</ref>
Alexius desperate for money, ordered the confiscation of all the church's treasure.<ref name="Norwich21">Norwich, ''Byzantium: Decline and Fall'', p. 21.<br>* Warren Treadgold, ''A History of Byzantine State and Society'', p. 615.</ref> With this money, Alexius mustered an army near Thessalonica and went to fight Bohemond. However, Bohemond defeated Alexius in two battles: one near [[Arta]] and the other near [[Ioannina]]. This left Bohemond in control of [[Macedonia (region)|Macedonia]] and nearly all of [[Thessaly]].<ref name="Anna Comnena5.4">Anna Comnena, ''The Alexiad'', 5.4<br>* Warren Treadgold, ''A History of Byzantine State and Society'', p. 615.</ref> Bohemond advanced with his army against the city of [[Larissa]]. Meanwhile, Alexius had mustered a new army and with 7,000 Seljuk Turks sent by the Sultan, he advanced on the Normans at Larissa and defeated them.<ref name="C5.5-6-A">Anna Comnena, ''The Alexiad'', 5.5-6<br>* Gravett and Nicolle, ''The Normans: Warrior Knights and their Castles'', p. 108.<br>* Warren Treadgold, ''A History of Byzantine State and Society'', p. 615.</ref> The demoralised and unpaid Norman army returned to the coast and sailed back to Italy.<ref name="C5.7-A">Anna Comnena, ''The Alexiad'', 5.7<br>* Gravett and Nicolle, ''The Normans: Warrior Knights and their Castles'', p. 108.</ref> Meanwhile, Alexius granted the Venetians a commercial colony in Constantinople as well as exemption from trading duties in return for their renewed aid. They responded by recaptured Dyrrhachium and Corfu and returning them to the empire. These victories returned the Empire to its previous [[status quo]] and marked the beginning of the [[Komnenian restoration|Comnenian restoration]].<ref name="Norwich22">Norwich, ''Byzantium: Decline and Fall'', p. 22.<br>* Warren Treadgold, ''A History of Byzantine State and Society'', p. 615.</ref>
== References ==
{{reflist|2}}
== Sources==
;Primary
* [[Anna Comnena]], translated by E.R.A Sewter (1969). ''The Alexiad''. London: Penguin Books. ISBN 0-14-044215-4.
;Secondary
* [[Matthew Bennett]] & [[Nicholas Hooper]], (1996). ''Cambridge Illustrated Atlas of Warfare: The Middle Ages 768-1487''. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-4409-1
* [[R Allen Brown]], (1984). ''The Normans''. Woodridge: Boydell Press. ISBN 0-85115-199-X
* [[Robin Cross]], (1991). ''The Guinness Encyclopedia of Warfare''. Enfield: Guinness Publishing. ISBN 0-85112-985-4
* [[Christopher Gravett]] and [[David Nicolle]], (2006). ''The Normans: Warrior Knights and their Castles''. Oxford: Osprey. ISBN 1-84603-088-9.
* [[John Haldon]], (2000). ''The Byzantine Wars''. The Mill: Tempest. ISBN 0-7524-1795-9.
* [[Jonathan Harris]], (2003). ''Byzantium and the Crusades''. London: Hambledon & London.
* [[Richard Holmes]], (1988). ''The World Atlas of Warfare: Military Innovations That Changed the Course of History''. Middlesex: Penguin. ISBN 0-670-81967-0.
* [[John Julius Norwich]], (1995). ''Byzantium: The Decline and Fall''. London: Viking. ISBN 0-670-82377-5.
* [[Warren Treadgold]], (1997). A History of Byzantine State and Society. Stanford: Stanford University Press. ISBN 0-8047-2421-0
{{featured article}}
[[Category:1081]]
[[Category:Battles involving the Byzantine Empire|Dyrrhachium 1081]]
[[Category:Battles involving the Normans|Dyrrhachium 1081]]
[[Category:Military history of Albania]]
[[it:Battaglia di Durazzo (1081)]]
[[sl:Bitka pri Draču (1081)]]