Beauty
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{{two other uses||beauty as a characteristic of a person's appearance|Physical attractiveness}}
[[Image:Nymph with morning glory flowers.jpg|thumb| Beauty is a dominant theme in western [[art]], as evidenced in ''Nymph with morning glory flowers'' by Jules Joseph Lefebvre.]]
'''Beauty''' is a characteristic of a [[person]], [[Location (geography)|place]], [[Object (philosophy)|object]] or [[idea]] that provides a [[perception|perceptual]] experience of [[pleasure]], [[Value (personal and cultural)|meaning]] or [[satisfaction]]. Beauty is studied as part of [[aesthetics]], [[sociology]], [[social psychology]] and [[culture]]. As a cultural creation, beauty has been extremely [[Commercialism|commercialized]]. An "ideal beauty" is a person who is admired, or possesses features widely attributed to beauty in a particular culture. A number of historical individuals have become icons of beauty, including [[Cleopatra VII]], [[Helen of Troy]], and [[Marilyn Monroe]].
The [[subjective]] experience of "beauty" often involves the interpretation of some entity as being in balance and [[harmony]] with [[nature]], which may lead to feelings of attraction and emotional well-being. "Beauty is in the eye of the beholder" is a common phrase that expresses this concept.<ref name="phrase">{{Cite web|url=http://www.phrases.org.uk/meanings/59100.html|title=Beauty is in the eye of the beholder|accessyear=2007|accessmonthday=December 4|publisher=The Phrase Finder|year=2007|author=Gary Martin}}</ref> In its most profound sense, beauty may engender a [[salience (neuroscience)|salient]] experience of positive reflection about the meaning of one's own [[being|existence]]. An "[[object (philosophy)|object]] of beauty" is anything that reveals or resonates with personal meaning.
The classical Greek adjective beautiful was καλλός. The [[Koine Greek]] word for beautiful was "ὡραῖος",<ref>Matthew 23:27, Acts Ap. 3:10, Flavius Josephus, 12.65</ref> an adjective etymologically coming from the word "ὥρα" meaning hour. In Koine Greek, beauty was thus associated with "being of one's hour". A ripe fruit (of its time) was considered beautiful, whereas a young woman trying to appear older or an older woman trying to appear younger would not be considered beautiful. ὡραῖος in Attic Greek had many meanings, including youthful and ripe old age.<ref>Euripides, ''Alcestis'' 515.</ref>
== History of beauty ==
[[Image:Taj Mahal black and white illustration.svg|200px|right|thumb|The [[Taj Mahal]], considered by many to be one of the most beautiful buildings in the world {{Fact|date=June 2008}}, is an example of symmetry in [[architecture]].]]
The earliest Western theory of beauty can be found in the works of early Greek philosophers from the pre-Socratic period, such as [[Pythagoras]]. The Pythagorean school saw a strong connection between [[mathematics]] and beauty. In particular, they noted that objects proportioned according to the [[golden ratio]] seemed more attractive. Ancient [[Ancient Greece|Greek]] architecture is based on this view of symmetry and proportion. Modern research also suggests that people whose facial features are symmetric and proportioned according to the golden ratio are considered more attractive than those whose faces are not.
[[Image:David von Michelangelo.jpg|left|thumb|A famous depiction of male beauty {{fact}} in Michelangelo's [[David (Michelangelo)|''David'']].]]
[[symmetry (physical attractiveness)|Symmetry]] is also important because it suggests the absence of genetic or acquired defects. Although style and fashion vary widely, cross-cultural research has found a variety of commonalities in people's perception of beauty. Large eyes and a clear complexion, for example, are considered beautiful in both men and women in all cultures. [[Neonatal]] features are inherently attractive and [[youthfulness]] in general is associated with beauty.
There is evidence that a preference for beautiful faces emerges early in child development, and that the standards of attractiveness are similar across different genders and cultures. <ref>Rhodes, G. (2006). The evolutionary psychology of facial beauty. ''Annual Review of Psychology'', ''57'', 199-226.</ref>
The foundations laid by Greek and Roman artists have also supplied the standard for male beauty in western civilization. The ideal Roman was defined as tall, muscular, long-legged, with a full head of thick hair, a high and wide forehead – a sign of intelligence – wide-set eyes, a strong browline, a strong perfect nose and profile, a smaller mouth, and a strong jaw line. This combination of factors would, as it does today, produce an impressive "grand" look of handsome masculinity.
Beauty ideals may contribute to racial oppression. For example, a prevailing idea in [[American culture]] has been that black features are less attractive or desirable than white features. The idea that blackness was ugly was highly damaging to the psyche of African Americans, manifesting itself as [[internalized racism]].<ref name="gf">{{Cite web|url=http://www.genderforum.uni-koeln.de/genderealisations/weedon.html|title=Key Issues in Postcolonial Feminism: A Western Perspective|accessyear=2007|accessmonthday=December 4|publisher=Gender Forum Electronic Journal|author=Chris Weedon, Cardiff University}}</ref> The [[black is beautiful]] cultural movement sought to dispel this notion.<ref name="notes">{{Cite web|url=http://www.bucks.edu/~docarmos/BCMnotes.html|title=Dr. DoCarmo's Notes on the Black Cultural Movement|accessyear=2007|accessmonthday=December 4|publisher=Bucks County Community College|year=2007|author=Dr. DoCarmo}}</ref> Conversely, beauty ideals may also promote racial unity. Mixed race children are often perceived to be more attractive than their parents because their genetic diversity protects them from the inherited errors of their individual parents. <ref>Leroi, A. (2003). Mutants: On Genetic Variety and the Human Body. Viking books</ref>
==Human beauty==
The characterization of a person as “beautiful”, whether on an individual basis or by community consensus, is often based on some combination of ''inner beauty'', which includes psychological factors such as [[Wiktionary:personality|personality]], [[intelligence]], [[grace]], [[charisma|charm]] and [[elegance]], and ''outer beauty'', which includes physical factors, such as [[health]], [[youthfulness]], [[Symmetry (physical attractiveness)|symmetry]], [[averageness]], and [[complexion]].
A common way to measure outer beauty, as based on community consensus, or general opinion, is to stage a [[beauty pageant]], such as [[Miss Universe]]. Inner beauty, however, is more difficult to quantify, though beauty pageants often claim to take this into consideration as well.
A strong indicator of physical beauty is "[[averageness]]", or "[[koinophilia]]". When images of human faces are averaged together to form a composite image, they become progressively closer to the "ideal" image and are perceived as more attractive. This was first noticed in 1883, when [[Francis Galton]], cousin of [[Charles Darwin]], overlayed photographic composite images of the faces of [[vegetarian]]s and [[criminal]]s to see if there was a typical facial appearance for each. When doing this, he noticed that the composite images were more attractive compared to any of the individual images. Researchers have replicated the result under more controlled conditions and found that the computer generated, mathematical average of a series of faces is rated more favorably than individual faces.<ref>Langlois, J. H., Roggman, L. A., & Musselman, L. (1994). What is average and what is not average about attractive faces? ''Psychological Science'', ''5'', 214-220.</ref> Evolutionarily it makes logical sense that sexual creatures should be attracted to mates who possess predominantly common or average features.<ref name= "Koeslag, 1990">KOESLAG, J.H. (1990). Koinophilia groups sexual creatures into species, promotes stasis, and stabilizes social behaviour. ''J. theor. Biol.'' '''144''', 15-35</ref> [[Natural selection]] results, over the course of generations, in beneficial (or [[Fitness (biology)|"fit"]]) features replacing their disadvantageous counterparts. This is the fundamental force which drives [[evolution]], and is the major insight into Biology which immortalized [[Charles Darwin]]. Thus, natural selection causes beneficial features to become increasingly more common with each generation, while the disadvantageous features become increasingly rare. A sexual creature, therefore, wishing to mate with a fit partner, would be expected to avoid individuals sporting unusual features, while being especially attracted to those individuals displaying a predominance of common or [[Averageness|average features]]. This is termed "[[koinophilia]]".
Another feature of beautiful women that has been explored by researchers is a waist-to-hip ratio of approximately 0.70 for women. The concept of [[Waist-hip ratio|waist-to-hip ratio]] (WHR) was developed by psychologist Devendra Singh of the University of Texas at Austin. Physiologists have shown that this ratio accurately indicates most women's fertility. Traditionally, in premodern ages when food was more scarce, overweight people were judged more attractive than slender.
Beauty is not solely limited to the female [[gender]]. More often defined as '[[bishōnen]],' the concept of beauty in men has been particularly established throughout history in [[East Asia]], and most notably, in [[Japan]]. This is distinct from the idea of being [[metrosexual]], which focuses mainly on the behavior of men in traditionally feminine ways. Bishōnen refers to males with distinctly [[Femininity|feminine]] features, physical characteristics establishing the standard of beauty in Japan and typically exhibited in their [[pop culture]] [[idols]]. The [[origin]] of such a preference is uncertain but it clearly exists even today.
=== Inner beauty ===
'''Inner beauty''' is a concept used to describe the positive aspects of something that is not physically observable.
While most species use physical traits and pheromones to attract mates, humans claim to rely on the inner beauty of their choices. Qualities including kindness, sensitivity, tenderness or compassion, creativity and intelligence have been said to be desirable since antiquity. However new research comparing what humans claim to find attractive to their actual mating habits underlines the superficiality of "inner beauty," underlining the fact that the human animal relies on physical traits and pheromones just like every other animal to find a mate. That said, whether "inner beauty" does or does not measurably affect humans' mating habits, some traits classified as "inner beauty" do give an evolutionary survival advantage to either the individual or mating couple or group or all three.
==Effects on society==
Beauty presents a standard of [[social comparison theory|comparison]], and it can cause resentment and dissatisfaction when not achieved. People who do not fit the "beauty ideal" may be ostracized within their communities. The television sitcom ''[[Ugly Betty]]'' documents the life of a girl faced with hardships due to society's unwelcoming attitudes toward those they deem unattractive. However, a person may also be targeted for harassment because of their beauty. In [[Malèna]], a strikingly beautiful Italian woman is forced into poverty by the women of the community who refuse to give her work in fear that she may "woo" their husbands.
[[Image:Jade ornament with grape design.jpg|thumb|Chinese [[Jade]] ornament with flower design, [[Jin Dynasty, 1115–1234|Jin Dynasty]] (1115-1234 AD), [[Shanghai Museum]].]]
Researchers have found that good looking students get higher grades from their teachers than students with an ordinary appearance. Furthermore, attractive patients receive more personalized care from their doctors. Studies have even shown that handsome criminals receive lighter sentences than less attractive convicts. How much money a person earns may also be influenced by physical beauty. One study found that people low in physical attractiveness earn 5 to 10 percent less than ordinary looking people, who in turn earn 3 to 8 percent less than those who are considered good looking.<ref>Lorenz, K. (2005). "[http://www.cnn.com/2005/US/Careers/07/08/looks/ Do pretty people earn more?]" ''CNN News'', Time Warner.</ref> Discrimination against others based on their appearance is known as [[lookism]].{{Fact|date=September 2007}}
In a different context, the term "beautiful people" is used to refer to those who closely follow trends in [[fashion design|fashion]], physical appearance, food, wine, automobiles, and real estate, often at a considerable financial cost. Such people often mirror in appearance and consumer choices the characteristics and purchases of wealthy actors and actresses, [[model (person)|models]], or other celebrities. The term "beautiful people" originally referred to the [[musicians]], actors and celebrities of the [[California]] "[[hippie|Flower Power]]" generation of the 1960s. With the close of the 1960s, the concept of beautiful people gradually came to encompass [[fashionista]]s and the "[[hip (slang)|hip]]" people of [[New York City]], expanding to its modern definition.
==See also==
*[[Aesthetics]]
*[[Human physical appearance]]
*[[Nature (philosophy)|Beauty in Nature]]
*[[Mathematical beauty]]
*[[Sexual attraction]]
==References==
{{reflist|2}}
==External links==
{{Commonscat|Beauty}}
{{wikiquotepar|Beauty}}
{{Wiktionarypar|beauty|pretty}}
* [http://www.bbc.co.uk/radio4/history/inourtime/inourtime_20050519.shtml BBC Radio 4's In Our Time programme on Beauty] (requires [[RealAudio]])
* [http://etext.lib.virginia.edu/cgi-local/DHI/dhi.cgi?id=dv1-28 ''Dictionary of the History of Ideas'':] Theories of Beauty to the Mid-Nineteenth Century
* [http://www.uni-regensburg.de/Fakultaeten/phil_Fak_II/Psychologie/Psy_II/beautycheck/english/prototypen/prototypen.htm beautycheck.de/english] Regensburg University - Characteristics of beautiful faces
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[[Category:Aesthetics]]
[[Category:Beauty| ]]
[[Category:Design]]
[[Category:Perception]]
[[Category:Physical attractiveness]]
[[Category:Social psychology]]
[[Category:Sociology]]
[[als:Schönheit]]
[[ar:جمال]]
[[az:Gözəllik]]
[[ca:Bellesa]]
[[da:Skønhed]]
[[de:Schönheit]]
[[et:Ilu]]
[[es:Belleza]]
[[eo:Belo]]
[[fa:زیبایی]]
[[fr:Beau]]
[[is:Fegurð]]
[[it:Bellezza]]
[[he:יופי]]
[[la:Pulchritudo]]
[[mk:Убавина]]
[[nl:Schoonheid]]
[[ja:美]]
[[no:Skjønnhet]]
[[pl:Piękno]]
[[pt:Beleza]]
[[ro:Frumuseţe]]
[[ru:Красота]]
[[simple:Beauty]]
[[sr:Лепота]]
[[fi:Kauneus]]
[[sv:Skönhet]]
[[th:ความสวยงาม]]
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[[zh-yue:靚]]
[[zh:美]]