Beer 3363 225838533 2008-07-15T17:11:53Z 64.236.202.64 {{otheruses}} [[Image:Leffe 900px.jpg|thumb|upright|[[Leffe]], a [[Belgian beer]], served in branded glasses]] [[Image:GravityTap.jpg|thumb|upright|[[Schlenkerla]] [[Rauchbier]] straight from the [[cask]]]] [[Image:800px-Kriek Beer.jpg|thumb|upright|[[Kriek]], a beer brewed with cherries]] '''Beer''' is an [[alcoholic beverage]] produced by the [[Fermentation (food)|fermentation]] of [[sugar]]s derived from [[starch]]-based material. It is the world's oldest<ref>{{cite book|title=Origin and History of Beer and Brewing: From Prehistoric Times to the Beginning of Brewing Science and Technology|first=John P|last=Arnold|ISBN=0966208412}}</ref> and most popular<ref>{{cite web| title=Volume of World Beer Production | work=European Beer Guide | url=http://www.europeanbeerguide.net/eustats.htm#production | accessdate=2006-10-17}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|url=http://www.amazon.co.uk/gp/reader/0415311217?p=S00H&checkSum=ha%2FMenougrV%2FCPWZg6P4td6OJoeMeVfRptT8FuSLUrk%3D|title=The Barbarian's Beverage: A History of Beer in Ancient Europe}}</ref> alcoholic beverage. Some of the earliest known writings refer to the production and distribution of beer.<ref>{{cite web|title=Beer Before Bread | work=Alaska Science Forum #1039, Carla Helfferich | url=http://www.gi.alaska.edu/ScienceForum/ASF10/1039.html | accessdate=2008-05-13}}and {{cite web| title=Nin-kasi: Mesopotamian Goddes of Beer | work=Matrifocus 2006, Johanna Stuckey | url=http://www.matrifocus.com/SAM06/spotlight.htm | accessdate=2008-05-13}}</ref> The most common starch source for beer is [[malt]]ed [[barley]]; however, [[wheat]], [[maize|corn]], and [[rice]] are also widely used, usually in conjunction with barley. The starch source is [[mashing|mashed]], [[Steeping|steeped]] in [[water]] while enzymes in the malt break down the starch molecules, producing a sugary liquid known as [[Wort (brewing)|wort]], which is then flavoured with [[hops]], which acts as a natural [[preservative]]. Other ingredients such as [[herbs]] or [[fruit]] may be added. [[Saccharomyces cerevisiae|Yeast]] is then used to cause [[Fermentation (food)|fermentation]], which produces alcohol and other waste products from [[anaerobic respiration]] of the yeast as it consumes the sugars. The process of beer production is a branch of [[zymurgy]] called [[brewing]]. Beer uses many varying ingredients, production methods and traditions. Different types of yeast and production methods may be used to classify beer as [[ale]], [[lager]] or [[lambic|spontaneously fermented beer]]. Some beer writers and organisations differentiate and categorise beers by various factors into [[beer style]]s. Alcoholic beverages fermented from non-starch sources such as grape juice ([[wine]]) or honey ([[mead]]), as well as [[distilled beverages]], are not classified as beer. ==History== {{main|History of beer}} [[Image:EMS-89615-Rosecrucian-Egyptian-BeerMaking.jpg|thumb|300px|right|Egyptian wooden model of beer making in ancient Egypt, Rosicrucian Egyptian Museum, San Jose, California.]] Beer is one of the world's oldest beverages, possibly dating back to the 6th millennium BC, and is recorded in the written history of [[ancient Egypt]] and [[Mesopotamia]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-66615/beer|title=Beer|publisher=Britannica.com}}</ref> The earliest Sumerian writings contain references to beer. A prayer to the goddess [[Ninkasi]] known as "The Hymn to Ninkasi" serves as both a prayer as well as a method of remembering the recipe for beer in a culture with few literate people.{{fact|date=January 2008}} The earliest known chemical evidence of beer dates to circa 3500&ndash;3100 BC from the site of Godin Tepe in the [[Zagros Mountains]] of western [[Iran]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.museum.upenn.edu/new/research/Exp_Rese_Disc/masca/beer.shtml|title=Earliest Known Chemical Evidence of Beer |publisher=[[University of Pennsylvania Museum of Archaeology and Anthropology]]|accessdate=2007-11-04}}</ref> As almost any substance containing [[carbohydrates]], mainly [[sugar]] or [[starch]], can naturally undergo fermentation, it is likely that beer-like beverages were independently invented among various cultures throughout the world. The invention of bread and beer has been argued to be responsible for humanity's ability to develop technology and build civilization.<ref>{{cite journal|url=http://www.sciam.com/article.cfm?chanID=sa006&articleID=E699E9C7-E7F2-99DF-38A7329520CF67D6&colID=15| journal=[[Scientific American]]|date=May 2007|title=Ale's Well with the World|first=Steve|last=Mirsky|accessdate=2007-11-04}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|first=Horst|last=Dornbusch|url=http://www.aina.org/ata/20060827151956.htm|title=Beer: The Midwife of Civilization|publisher=Assyrian International News Agency|date=[[2006-08-27]]|accessdate=2007-11-04}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.beer-pages.com/stories/complete-guide-beer.htm|first=Roger|last=Protz|authorlink=Roger Protz|title=The Complete Guide to World Beer|date=2004|quote=When people of the ancient world realised they could make bread and beer from grain, they stopped roaming and settled down to cultivate cereals in recognisable communities.}}</ref> As for the close link between bread- and beer-making, women produced most beer prior to the introduction of [[hops]] in the thirteenth century, selling the beverage from their homes as a means of supplementing the [[family income]].{{fact|date=January 2008}} However, by the 7th century AD beer was also being produced and sold by European [[monasteries]]. During the [[Industrial Revolution]], the production of beer moved from [[artisan]]al manufacture to [[Manufacturing|industrial manufacture]], and domestic manufacture ceased to be significant by the end of the 19th century.<ref name="sotp">{{cite book|first=Martyn|last=Cornell|title=Beer: The Story of the Pint|year=2003|ISBN=0755311655|publisher=Headline}}</ref> The development of [[hydrometer]]s and [[thermometer]]s changed brewing by allowing the brewer more control of the process, and greater knowledge of the results. Beer was also known by Slavic tribes in early 5th century. ==Brewing industry== Today, the brewing industry is a huge global business, consisting of several dominant [[Multinational corporation|multinational companies]] and many thousands of smaller producers ranging from [[brewpub]]s to [[regional brewery|regional breweries]].<ref name="market">{{cite web|url=http://biz.yahoo.com/p/bevalcmktd.html|title=Industry Browser - Consumer Non-Cyclical - Beverages (Alcoholic) - Company List|publisher=[[Yahoo!]] Finance|accessdate=2007-11-05}}</ref> More than 133 billion liters (35 billion gallons) are sold per year&mdash;producing total global revenues of $294.5 billion (£147.7 billion) in 2006.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.researchandmarkets.com/reports/53577/beer_global_industry_guide.htm|title=Beer: Global Industry Guide|publisher=Research and Markets|accessdate=2007-11-05}}</ref> [[SABMiller]] became the largest brewing company in the world when it acquired Royal Grolsch, Brewer of Dutch premium beer brand [[Grolsch]].<ref>{{cite news|url=http://archives.cnn.com/2002/BUSINESS/05/30/sab.miller/|title=Brewer to snap up Miller for $5.6B|work=[[CNN]]|date=[[2002-05-30]]|accessdate=2007-11-04}}</ref> [[InBev]] is the second-largest beer-producing company in the world,<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.nytimes.com/2004/11/12/business/worldbusiness/12beer.html?pagewanted=print&position=|title=A Beer Ban Fails, and Russians Hoist Bottles||first=Erin E|last=Arvedlund|work=[[New York Times]]|date=[[2004-11-12]]|accessdate=2007-11-05}}</ref>and [[Anheuser-Busch]] holds the third spot, but after the proposed [[merger]] (announced [[July 13]], [[2008]]), between [[InBev]] and [[Anheuser-Busch]], the new [[Anheuser-Busch InBev]] company will be the largest brewer in the world.<ref>[http://biz.yahoo.com/rb/080713/anheuser_inbev.html?.v=1 InBev agrees to buy Anheuser for $50 billion] - Reuters</ref><ref>[http://www.anheuserbusch.com/Press/PressImages/FINAL%20PRESS%20RELEASE.pdf AB/InBev Press Release]</ref> ==Brewing== {{Refimprovesect|date=November 2007}} {{Main|Brewing}} Beer is made by [[brewing]]. The essential stages of brewing are [[mashing]], [[sparging]], boiling, fermentation, and packaging. Most of these stages can be accomplished in several different ways, but the purpose of each stage is the same regardless of the method used to achieve it. [[Image:16thCenturyBrewer.jpg|right|thumb|260 px|left|A 16th century brewery]] '''Mashing''' manipulates the temperature of a mixture of water and a starch source (known as mash) in order to convert starches to fermentable sugars. The mash goes through one or more stages of being raised to a desired temperature and left at the temperature for a period of time. During each of these stages, [[enzymes]] (alpha and beta amylase primarily) break down the long dextrins that are present in the mash into simpler fermentable sugars, such as glucose. The number of stages required in mashing depends on the starch source used to produce the beer. Most malted barley used today requires only a single stage. '''Sparging''' (a.k.a. [[lautering]]) extracts the fermentable liquid, known as [[wort]], from the mash. During sparging the mash is contained in a [[Lauter Tun|lauter-tun]], which has a porous barrier through which wort but not grain can pass. The brewer allows the wort to flow past the porous barrier and collects the wort. The brewer also adds water to the lauter-tun and lets it flow through the mash and collects it as well. This rinses fermentable liquid from the grain in the mash and allows the brewer to gather as much of the fermentable liquid from the mash as possible. The leftover grain is not usually further used in making the beer. However, in some places second or even third mashes would be performed with the not quite spent grains. Each run would produce a weaker wort and thus a weaker beer. '''Boiling''' [[Sterilization (microbiology)|sterilises]] the wort and increases the concentration of sugar in the wort. The wort collected from sparging is put in a kettle and boiled, usually for about one hour. During boiling, water in the wort evaporates, but the sugars and other components of the wort remain; this allows more efficient use of the starch sources in the beer. Boiling also destroys any remaining enzymes left over from the mashing stage as well as coagulating proteins passing into the wort, especially from malted barley, which could otherwise cause protein 'hazes' in the finished beer. [[Hops]] are added during boiling in order to extract bitterness, flavour and aroma from them. Hops may be added at more than one point during the boil. As hops are boiled longer, they contribute more bitterness but less hop flavour and aroma to the beer. '''Fermentation''' uses [[yeast]] to turn the sugars in wort to [[ethanol|alcohol]] and [[carbon dioxide]]. During fermentation, the wort becomes beer. Once the boiled wort is cooled and in a fermenter, yeast is propagated in the wort and it is left to ferment, which requires a week to months depending on the type of yeast and strength of the beer. In addition to producing alcohol, fine [[Particulate|particulate matter]] suspended in the wort settles during fermentation. Once fermentation is complete, the yeast also settles, leaving the beer clear. Fermentation is sometimes carried out in two stages, primary and secondary. Once most of the alcohol has been produced during primary fermentation, the beer is transferred to a new vessel and allowed a period of [[secondary fermentation]]. Secondary fermentation is used when the beer requires long storage before packaging or greater clarity. '''Pasteurisation''' is an optional stage of the beer process in which the beer is slowly heated and cooled to kill off any existing bacteria in order to maintain longer shelf life. This is generally a stage not included in higher end beers, but is quite common in mass-produced beers such as American-Style lite beers, and other mass-produced lagers. It is less common in ales as pasteurization can change the many flavours. '''Packaging''', the fifth and final stage of the brewing process, prepares the beer for distribution and consumption. During packaging, beer is put into the vessel from which it will be served: a keg, cask, can or bottle. Beer is carbonated in its package, either by forcing [[carbon dioxide]] into the beer or by "natural carbonation". Naturally carbonated beers may have a small amount of fresh wort/sugar and/or yeast added to them during packaging. This causes a short period of fermentation which produces carbon dioxide. ==Ingredients== {{main|Malt|Barley}} [[Image:Sjb whiskey malt.jpg|right|thumb|Malted barley before roasting]] The basic ingredients of beer are [[water]]; a fermentable starch source, such as [[malt]]ed [[barley]]; and [[yeast]]. It is common for a flavouring to be added, the most popular being [[hops]]. A mixture of starch sources may be used, with the secondary starch source, such as [[maize|corn]], rice and sugar, often being termed an [[adjunct (beer)|adjunct]], especially when used as a lower cost substitute for malted barley. Less widely used starch sources include [[millet]], [[sorghum]] and [[cassava]] root in Africa, [[potato]] in Brazil, and [[agave]] in Mexico, among others. ===Water=== Beer is composed mostly of water, and the water used to make beer nearly always comes from a local source. The mineral components of water are important to beer because minerals in the water influence the character of beer made from it. Different regions have water with different mineral components. As a result, different regions are better suited to making certain types of beer. For example, [[Dublin]] has [[hard water]] well-suited to making [[stout]], such as [[Guinness]], and [[Pilzen]] has soft water well-suited to making [[pale lager]], such as [[Pilsner Urquell]].<ref name="geot">{{cite news|url=http://www.agiweb.org/geotimes/aug04/resources.html|title=Geology and Beer|work=Geotimes|date=2004-08|accessdate=2007-11-05}}</ref> As a result, it is argued that the mineral components of water have an influence on the character of regional beers.<ref name="geot"/> ===Starch source=== The starch source in a beer provides the fermentable material in a beer and is a key determinant of the character of the beer. The most common starch source used in beer is malted grain. Grain is malted by soaking it in water, allowing it to begin [[germination]], and then drying the partially germinated grain in a kiln. Malting grain produces enzymes that convert starches in the grain into fermentable sugars. Different roasting times and temperatures are used to produce different colours of malt from the same grain. Darker malts will produce darker beers. Nearly all beer includes barley malt as the majority of the starch. This is because of its fibrous husk, which is not only important in the sparging stage of brewing, but also a rich source of [[amylase]], a [[digestion|digestive]] [[enzyme]] which facilitates conversion of starch into sugars. Other malted and unmalted grains (including [[wheat]], [[rice]], [[oat]]s, and [[rye]], and less frequently, corn and [[sorghum]]) may be used. In recent years several American manufacturers have produced [[gluten-free beer]] made with sorghum with no barley malt for those who cannot consume [[gluten]]-containing grains like wheat, barley, and rye.{{fact|date=February 2008}} ===Hops=== {{main|Hops}} [[Image:Crushed hop.jpg|left|thumb|Crushed hops]] The flower of the [[Hop (plant)|hop vine]] is used as a flavouring and preservative agent in nearly all beer made today. The flowers themselves are often called "hops". The use of hops in beer was recorded by captive Jews in Babylon<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.coopsmaps.com/beer/hops.html|title=A Short History of Hops|publisher=Coop's Maps|accessdate=2007-11-05}}</ref> around 400 BC. Hops were used by monastery breweries, such as Corvey in Westphalia, Germany, from 822 AD,<ref name="sotp"/><!-- p62 --><ref name="bmar">{{cite book|first=Richard W|last=Unger|title=Beer in the Middle Ages and the Renaissance|pages=54–55|isbn=0812237951}}</ref> though the date normally given for widespread cultivation of hops for use in beer is the thirteenth century.<ref name="sotp"/><!-- p63 --><ref name="bmar"/> [[Hops]] contain several characteristics that brewers desire in beer: hops contribute a [[bitter (taste)|bitterness]] that balances the sweetness of the malt; hops also contribute floral, citrus, and herbal aromas and flavours to beer; hops have an [[antibiotic]] effect that favours the activity of [[brewer's yeast]] over less desirable microorganisms; and the use of hops aids in "[[Head (beer)|head]] retention",<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.brewwiki.com/index.php/Head_Retention|title=Head Retention|publisher=BrewWiki|accessdate=2007-11-05}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.hopsteiner.com/isopg1.htm|title=Hop Products: Iso-Extract|publisher=Hopsteiner|accessdate=2007-11-05}}</ref> the length of time that a foamy head created by carbonation will last. The acidity of hops acts as a preservative that&mdash;after its introduction&mdash;gave brewers the ability to transport their product over longer distances, thereby allowing for the rise to commercial breweries.{{fact|date=January 2008}} The bitterness of beers is measured on the [[International Bitterness Units scale]]. Beer is the sole major commercial use of hops. In the past, other plants have been used for similar purposes; for instance, ''[[Glechoma hederacea#Cultivation and uses|Glechoma hederacea]]''. Combinations of various aromatic herbs, berries, and even ingredients like [[Absinth Wormwood|wormwood]] would be combined into a mixture known as [[gruit]] and used as hops are now used. ===Yeast=== {{main|Brewer's yeast|Saccharomyces cerevisiae|Saccharomyces uvarum}} Yeast is the [[microorganism]] that is responsible for fermentation in beer. Yeast [[metabolism|metabolises]] the sugars extracted from grains, which produces [[Ethanol|alcohol]] and [[carbon dioxide]], and thereby turns wort into beer. In addition to fermenting the beer, yeast influences the character and flavour. The dominant types of yeast used to make beer are ale yeast (''[[Saccharomyces cerevisiae]]'') and lager yeast (''[[Saccharomyces uvarum]]''); their use distinguishes [[ale]] and [[Pale lager|lager]]. ''[[Brettanomyces]]'' ferments [[lambic]]s, and ''[[Torulaspora delbrueckii]]'' ferments Bavarian [[weissbier]]. Before the role of yeast in fermentation was understood, fermentation involved wild or airborne yeasts. A few styles such as [[lambics]] rely on this method today, but most modern fermentation adds pure yeast [[Microbiological culture|cultures]] directly to wort. ===Clarifying agent=== Some brewers add one or more [[clarity|clarifying]] agents to beer. Common examples of these include [[isinglass]] [[finings]], obtained from [[swimbladder]]s of [[fish]]; [[Chondrus crispus|Irish moss]], a seaweed; kappa [[carrageenan]], from the seaweed ''[[Kappaphycus cottonii]]''; [[Polyclar]] (artificial); and [[gelatin]]. Clarifying agents typically precipitate out of the beer along with protein solids, and are found only in trace amounts in the finished product. If a beer is marked 'suitable for Vegans' then it has either been clarified with seaweed or with artificial agents. ==Types and styles of beer== {{Refimprovesect|date=November 2007}} {{main|Beer style}} A great many beers are brewed across the globe. Local traditions will give beers different names, giving the impression of a multitude of different styles. However, the basics of brewing beer are shared across national and cultural boundaries. The late British beer writer [[Michael Jackson (writer)|Michael Jackson]] wrote about beers from around the world in his 1977 book ''The World Guide To Beer'' and organised them into local style groups based on local information. This book had an influence on [[homebrewer]]s in [[United States]] who developed an intricate system of categorising beers which is exemplified by the [[Beer Judge Certification Program]]. The traditional European brewing regions&mdash;[[Germany]], [[Belgian beer|Belgium]], the [[United Kingdom]], [[Ireland]], [[Poland]], the [[Czech Republic]], [[Denmark]], [[The Netherlands]] and [[Austria]]&mdash;have local varieties of beer. In some countries, notably the USA, Canada and Australia, brewers have adapted European styles to such an extent that they have effectively created their own indigenous types. ===Categorising by yeast=== {{main|Brewer's yeast}} The most common method of categorising beer is by the behaviour of the yeast used in the fermentation process. In this method of categorising, those beers which use a fast-acting yeast, which leaves behind residual sugars, are termed ales, while those beers which use a slower and longer acting yeast, which removes most of the sugars, leaving a clean and dry beer, are termed lagers. Differences between some ales and lagers can be difficult to categorise. [[Steam beer]], [[Kölsch (beer)|Kölsch]], [[Altbier|Alt]], and some modern British Golden Summer Beers use elements of both lager and ale production. [[Baltic porter|Baltic Porter]] and [[Bière de Garde]] may be produced by either lager or ale methods or a combination of both. However, lager production results in a cleaner tasting, drier and lighter beer than ale. ====Ale==== {{main|Ale}} [[Image:HandPumps.jpg|thumb|right|Cask ales]] A modern [[ale]] is commonly defined by the strain of yeast used and the fermenting temperature. Ales are normally brewed with [[top-fermenting yeast]]s (most commonly ''Saccharomyces cerevisiae''), though a number of British brewers, including [[Fullers]] and [[Weltons]], use ale yeast strains that have less pronounced top-fermentation characteristics. The important distinction for ales is that they are fermented at higher temperatures and thus ferment more quickly than lagers. Ale is typically fermented at temperatures between 15 and 24 [[Celsius|°C]] (60 and 75 [[fahrenheit|°F]]). At these temperatures, yeast produces significant amounts of [[ester]]s and other secondary flavour and aroma products, and the result is often a beer with slightly "fruity" compounds resembling [[apple]], [[pear]], [[pineapple]], [[banana]], [[plum]], or [[prune]], among others. Typical ales have a sweeter, fuller [[mouthfeel|body]] than lagers. A particularly well-known ale type is [[India Pale Ale]] (or "IPA"), developed by British brewers in the 19th century. The ale was light, and suited to a hot climate, but with a moderately high alcohol strength and strong hop content, intended to preserve it over a long ocean voyage. Some [[Mass production|mass-produced]] beers (e.g. Alexander Keith's, brewed in Halifax, Nova Scotia, Canada) use the term "India Pale Ale", but are not in any way true IPAs. Real ale is a natural product brewed using traditional ingredients and left to mature in the cask (container) from which it is served through a process called secondary fermentation where the beer slowly ferments in its cask producing its own natural CO2. This causes a build up of pressure in the cask which literally forces it out of the barrel when it is being poured. ====Lager==== {{main|Lager}} [[Image:Beer.jpg|thumb|left|upright|A [[beer stein|stein]] of [[lager]]]] [[Lager]] is the English name for bottom-fermenting beers of [[Central Europe]]an origin. They are the most commonly consumed beers in the world. The name comes from the [[German language|German]] ''lagern'' ("to store"). Lagers originated from European brewers storing beer in cool cellars and caves and noticing that the beers continued to ferment, and also to clear of sediment. Lager yeast is a [[bottom-fermenting yeast]] (e.g., ''Saccharomyces pastorianus''), and typically undergoes primary fermentation at 7&ndash;12 °C (45&ndash;55 °F) (the "fermentation phase"), and then is given a long secondary fermentation at 0&ndash;4 °C (32&ndash;40 °F) (the "lagering phase"). During the secondary stage, the lager clears and mellows. The cooler conditions also inhibit the natural production of [[ester]]s and other byproducts, resulting in a "cleaner" tasting beer. Modern methods of producing lager were pioneered by [[Gabriel Sedlmayr]] the Younger, who perfected dark brown lagers at the [[Spaten Brewery]] in [[Bavaria]], and [[Anton Dreher]], who began brewing a lager, probably of amber-red colour, in [[Vienna]] in 1840&ndash;1841. With improved modern yeast strains, most lager breweries use only short periods of cold storage, typically 1&ndash;3 weeks. ====Lambic beers: spontaneous fermentation==== {{main|Lambic}} Lambic beers, a speciality of [[Belgian beers]], use wild yeasts, rather than cultivated ones. Many of these are not strains of brewer's yeast (''Saccharomyces cerevisiae''), and may have significant differences in aroma and sourness. Yeast varieties such as ''[[Brettanomyces bruxellensis]]'' and ''[[Brettanomyces lambicus]]'' are quite common in lambics. In addition, other organisms such as [[Lactobacillus]] bacteria produce acids which contribute to the sourness. ===Pale and dark beer=== [[Image:Lemke dunkel beer in glass.jpg|thumb|upright|German [[dunkel]] beer served in a branded glass.]] The most common colour is a pale amber produced from using pale malts. ''Pale lager'' is a term used for beers made from [[malt]] dried with [[Coke (fuel)|coke]]. Coke had been first used for roasting malt in 1642, but it wasn't until around 1703 that the term ''pale ale'' was first used. In terms of sales volume, most of today's beer is based on the [[pale lager]] brewed in 1842 in the town of [[Pilsen]], in the [[Czech beer|Czech Republic]]. The modern pale lager is light in colour with a noticeable carbonation, and a typical [[alcohol by volume]] content of around 5%. The [[Pilsner Urquell]], [[Bitburger]], and [[Heineken Pilsener|Heineken]] brands of beer are typical examples of pale lager, as are the American brands [[Budweiser (Anheuser-Busch)|Budweiser]], [[Coors Brewing Company|Coors]], and [[Miller Brewing Company|Miller]]. Dark beers are usually brewed from a pale malt or lager malt base with a small proportion of darker malt added to achieve the desired shade. Other colourants&mdash;such as caramel&mdash;are also widely used to darken beers. Very dark beers, such as [[stout]] use dark or patent malts that have been roasted longer. [[Guinness]] and similar beers include roasted unmalted [[barley]]. ==Serving== ===Draught and keg=== {{main|Draught beer|Keg beer}} [[Image:Keg Fonts.jpg|right|thumb|Draught beer keg fonts at the Delirium Café in Brussels]] '''Draught beer''' from a pressurised [[keg]] is the most common method of dispensing in bars around the world. A metal keg is pressurised with [[carbon dioxide]] (CO<sub>2</sub>) gas which drives the beer to the dispensing [[beer tap|tap]] or faucet. Some beers, notably [[stout]]s, such as [[Guinness]] and "smooth" bitters, such as [[Boddingtons]], may be served with a nitrogen/carbon dioxide mixture. [[Nitrogen]] produces fine bubbles, resulting in a dense [[Froth|head]] and a creamy [[mouthfeel]]. Some types of beer can also be found in smaller, disposable kegs called [[beer ball]]s. In the 1980s, Guinness introduced the [[Widget (beer)|beer widget]], a nitrogen pressurised ball inside a can which creates a foamy head.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://recipes.howstuffworks.com/question446.htm|title=How does the widget in a beer can work?|publisher=[[HowStuffWorks]]|accessdate=2007-11-05}}</ref> The words "draft" and "draught" can be used as marketing terms to describe [[aluminum can|canned]] or [[beer bottle|bottle]]d beers containing a beer widget, or which are cold filtered rather than pasteurised. ===Cask-conditioned ales=== {{Main|Cask ale}} [[Image:Cask Ales.jpg|thumb|left|A selection of cask beers]] '''Cask-conditioned ales''' (or "cask ales") are unfiltered and unpasteurised beers. These beers are termed "[[Cask ale#Real ale|real ale]]" by the [[Camra]] organisation. Typically, when a cask arrives in a pub, it is placed horizontally on a [[stillage]] and allowed to cool to cellar temperature (typically around 13 °C/55 °F), before being tapped and vented&mdash;a tap is driven through a (usually rubber) bung at the bottom of one end, and a hard [[spile]] or other implement is used to open a hole in the side of the cask, which is now uppermost. The act of stillaging and then venting a beer in this manner typically disturbs all the sediment, so it must be left for a suitable period to "drop" (clear) again, as well as to fully condition&mdash;this period can take anywhere from several hours to several days. At this point the beer is ready to sell, either being pulled through a beer line with a hand pump, or simply being "gravity-fed" directly into the glass. ===Bottles=== {{main|Beer bottle}} Most beers are cleared of yeast by [[filtered beer|filtering]] when bottled. However, [[bottle conditioning|bottle conditioned]] beers retain some yeast&mdash;either by being unfiltered, or by being filtered and then reseeded with fresh yeast. It is usually recommended that the beer be poured slowly, leaving any yeast sediment at the bottom of the bottle. However, some drinkers prefer to pour in the yeast; this practice is, in fact, customary with [[wheat beer]]s. Typically, when serving a [[hefeweizen]], 90% of the contents are poured, and the remainder is swirled to suspend the sediment before pouring it into the glass. Alternatively, the bottle may be inverted prior to opening. ===Cans=== {{main|Beverage can}} [[Image:Kannenbeer-.jpg|right|thumb|Kannenbeer, 1900 advertisement for selling beer in sealed stone jugs]] Many beers are sold in [[beverage can]]s, though there is considerable variation in the proportion between different countries. In 2001, in Sweden 63.9% of beer was sold in cans.<ref>{{cite web | title = European Beer Statistics&mdash;beer sales by package type | publisher = European Beer Guide | url = http://www.europeanbeerguide.net/eustats.htm#package | accessdate =2007-04-05}}</ref> People either drink from the can or pour the beer into a glass. Cans protect the beer from light and have a seal less prone to leaking over time than bottles. Cans were initially viewed as a technological breakthrough for maintaining the quality of a beer, then became commonly associated with less-expensive, mass-produced beers, even though the quality of storage in cans is much like bottles.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.allaboutbeer.com/features/packaging.html|title=Beer Packaging Secrets|publisher=All About Beer Magazine|accessdate=2007-11-05|quote=From a quality point of view, cans are much like bottles.}}</ref> Glass [[beer bottles|bottles]] are always used for [[bottle conditioned]] beers, so are associated with higher-regarded beers. Plastic ([[Polyethylene terephthalate|PET]]) bottles are used by some breweries.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.packaging-technology.com/projects/holsten/|title=Holsten-Brauerei Pet Line for Bottled Beer, Brunswick, Germany|publisher=Packaging-Gateway.com|accessdate=2007-11-05}}</ref> === Serving temperature === [[Image:Manet, Edouard - La Serveuse de Bocks (The Waitress), 1879.jpg|upright|thumb|left|[[Édouard Manet|Édouard Manet]]'s painting ''The Waitress'' showing a woman serving beer]] The [[temperature]] of a beer has an influence on a drinker's experience. Colder temperatures allow fully attenuated beers such as [[pale lagers]] to be enjoyed for their crispness; while warmer temperatures allow the more rounded flavours of an ale or a [[stout]] to be perceived. Beer writer [[Michael Jackson (writer)|Michael Jackson]] proposed a five-level scale for serving temperatures: well chilled (7 °C/45 °F) for "light" beers (pale lagers), chilled (8 °C/47 °F) for [[Berliner Weisse]] and other wheat beers, lightly chilled (9 °C/48 °F) for all dark lagers, [[altbier]] and German wheat beers, cellar temperature (13 °C/55 °F) for regular British [[ale]], [[stout]] and most [[Belgian beer|Belgian specialities]] and room temperature (15.5 °C/60 °F) for strong dark ales (especially [[trappist beer]]) and [[barley wine]]. ===Vessels=== {{main|Beer glassware}} Beer is consumed out of a variety of vessels, such as a glass, a [[beer stein]], a mug, a [[pewter]] [[tankard]], a [[beer bottle]] or a [[Beverage can|can]]. Some drinkers consider that the type of vessel influences their enjoyment of the beer. In Europe, particularly [[Belgian beer|Belgium]], breweries offer [[branded]] glassware intended only for their own beers. The pouring process has an influence on a beer's presentation. The rate of flow from the [[beer tap|tap]] or other serving vessel, tilt of the glass, and position of the pour (in the centre or down the side) into the glass all influence the end result, such as the size and longevity of the head, lacing (the pattern left by the head as it moves down the glass as the beer is drunk), and [[turbulence]] of the beer and its release of [[carbonation]]. ==Beer and society== ===Social context=== {{see also|Category:Beer culture}} Various social traditions and activities are associated with beer drinking, such as [[bowling]], [[softball]], or other sports; [[Playing card|cards]], [[darts]], [[Cornhole (game)|bags]], or other [[pub games]]; attending [[beer festival]]s, or visiting a [[pub crawl|series of different pubs]] in one evening; joining an organisation such as [[CAMRA]]; or [[rating beer]]. Various [[drinking games]], such as [[beer pong]], [[flip cup]] and [[quarters]] are also very popular. ===International consumption=== <!-- [[Image:99bottlesbeerstore.jpg]] --> {{see also|Beers of the world|Beer consumption by country}} Beer is considered to be a social lubricant in many societies.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_m0BQE/is_5_12/ai_76964204| title=Beer Boss | first=Michael | last=Sherer | work=Cheers | publisher=findarticles.com | date=2001–06 | accessdate=2007-11-14}}</ref> Beer is consumed in countries all over the world. There are breweries in Middle Eastern countries such as Iraq and Syria as well as African countries (see [[African beer]]) and remote countries such as Mongolia. Sales of beer are four times that of wine, the second most popular alcoholic beverage.<ref>{{cite web | title=Beer Production Per Capita | work=European Beer Guide | url=http://www.europeanbeerguide.net/eustats.htm#consumption | accessdate=2006-10-17}}</ref><ref>{{cite news | first=Natasha | last=Cazin | title=Global wine market shows solid growth | date=2004-07-20 | publisher=Euromonitor International | url=http://www.euromonitor.com/articles.aspx?folder=Global_wine_market_shows_solid_growth&industryfolder=Articles }}</ref> ===Health effects=== {{main|Alcohol consumption and health}} [[Image:NA Beer Jupiler.JPG|thumb|right|150px|[[Low-alcohol beer|Light-beer]] contains marginally fewer calories and ethanol-content and thus is intended to reduce the effects of gaining weight and/or other alcoholic beverage-associated problems]] The moderate consumption of alcohol, including beer, is associated with a decreased risk of cardiac disease, stroke and cognitive decline.<ref>[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/sites/entrez?Db=pubmed&Cmd=ShowDetailView&TermToSearch=15659724 Effects of moderate alcohol consumption on cognitive function in women.]</ref><ref>[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/sites/entrez?Db=pubmed&Cmd=ShowDetailView&TermToSearch=11207350&ordinalpos=17&itool=EntrezSystem2.PEntrez.Pubmed.Pubmed_ResultsPanel.Pubmed_RVDocSum Genetic variation in alcohol dehydrogenase and the beneficial effect of moderate alcohol consumption on myocardial infarction.]</ref><ref>[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/sites/entrez?Db=pubmed&Cmd=ShowDetailView&TermToSearch=10564684 Light-to-moderate alcohol consumption and risk of stroke among U.S. male physicians.]</ref><ref>[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/sites/entrez?Db=pubmed&Cmd=ShowDetailView&TermToSearch=12519921 Roles of drinking pattern and type of alcohol consumed in coronary heart disease in men.]</ref> [[Brewer's yeast]] is known to be a rich source of nutrients; therefore, as expected, beer can contain significant amounts of nutrients, including [[magnesium]], [[selenium]], [[potassium]], [[phosphorus]], [[biotin]], and [[B vitamins]]. In fact, beer is sometimes referred to as "liquid bread".<ref> {{cite conference | first = C. W. | last = Bamforth | authorlink = | coauthors = | title = Beer as liquid bread: Overlapping science. | booktitle = World Grains Summit 2006: Foods and Beverages | pages = | publisher = |date=September 17&ndash;20, 2006 | location = San Francisco, California, USA | url = http://www.aaccnet.org/meetings/2006/abstracts/o-76.htm | doi = | id = | accessdate =2006-11-06 }}</ref> Some sources maintain that filtered beer loses much of its nutrition.<ref>{{cite paper| title=CXLVII. Investigation of barley, malt, and beer for vitamins B and C| date=July 21, 1924| format =pdf| author =Arthur Harden and Sylvester Solomon Zilva|url=http://www.pubmedcentral.nih.gov/picrender.fcgi?artid=1259493&blobtype=pdf/|| publisher =Biochemical department, Lister Institute|accessdate =2006-11-06 }}</ref><ref> {{cite web | last = | first = | authorlink = | coauthors = | title = Why our beer is special and, dare we say, better; No filtering | work = | publisher = Franconia Notch Brewing Company | date = | url = http://www.4front.com/brewery/beer%20-%20why%20ours%20is%20special.htm | format = | doi = | accessdate =2006-11-06}} </ref> A 2005 Japanese study found that [[low alcohol beer]] may possess strong anti-cancer properties.<ref>{{cite news | title=Non-alcoholic beer may help mice fight cancer | date=2005-01-21 | publisher=Reuters | url=http://www.msnbc.msn.com/id/6853732/ }}</ref> Another study found nonalcoholic beer to mirror the cardiovascular benefits associated with moderate consumption of alcoholic beverages.<ref>{{cite news | title=Double benefit from alcohol-free beer | date=2005-05-17 | publisher=Food Navigator | url=http://www.foodnavigator.com/news/ng.asp?id=52157-double-benefit-from }}</ref> However, much research suggests that the primary health benefit from alcoholic beverages comes from the alcohol they contain.<ref> Dean edell. Life, Liberty and the Pursuit of Happiness. NY: Harper Collins, 2004, pp. 191&ndash;192. </ref> It is considered that overeating and lack of muscle tone is the main cause of a [[beer belly]], rather than beer consumption. A recent study, however, found a link between [[binge drinking]] and a beer belly. But with most overconsumption it is more a problem of improper exercise and overconsumption of carbohydrates than the product itself.<ref>{{cite news | last = | first = | coauthors = | title =Drink binges 'cause beer belly' | work = | pages = | language = English | publisher = BBC News | date= [[28 November]] [[2004]] | url = http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/health/4048969.stm | accessdate =2006-11-06}}</ref> There is conclusive evidence that heavy and prolonged consumption of alcohol leads to liver disease including [[cirrhosis]] and malignancy. Heavy alcohol consumption has also been linked to [[pancreatitis]] and [[gout]].<ref>[http://menshealth.about.com/cs/diseases/a/beer_gout.htm Gout associated with Beer Drinking]</ref> Several diet books quote beer as having the same [[glycemic index]] as [[maltose]], a very high (and therefore undesirable) 110. Critics rejoin that beer consists mostly of water, hop oils and only trace amounts of sugars, including maltose.<ref>{{Citation | last =Skilnik | first =Bob | title =Is there maltose in your beer? | publisher =Realbeer | url =http://www.realbeer.com/edu/health/maltose.php | accessdate = 2007-12-23}}</ref> ==Alcoholic strength== Beer ranges from less than 3% [[alcohol by volume]] (abv) to almost 30% abv. The alcohol content of beer varies by local practice<ref>{{Citation | last =Pattinson | first =Ron | date =[[2007]] [[July 6]] | title =European Beer Statistics: Beer production by strength | publisher =European Beer Guide | url =http://www.europeanbeerguide.net/eustats.htm#gravity | accessdate =[[2007]] [[December 23]] }}.</ref> or beer style. The [[pale lager]]s that most consumers are familiar with fall in the range of 4&ndash;6%, with a typical abv of 5%.<ref>[http://bendbrewfest.com/index.php?page=glossary Fourth Annual Bend Brew Fest<!-- Bot generated title -->]</ref> The customary strength of British ales is quite low, with many [[Drinking culture#Session drinking|session beers]] being around 4% abv.<ref>{{Citation | date =[[2004]] [[January 6]] | title =Beer Facts 2003 | publisher =The Brewers of Europe | url =http://www.brewersofeurope.org/docs/publications/beerfacts2003.pdf | accessdate =[[2007]] [[December 23]] }}.</ref> Some beers, such as [[Belgian_beer#Table_beer|table beer]] are of such low alcohol content (1%~4%) that they are served instead of [[soft drink]]s in some schools.<ref>{{Citation | last =Osborn | first =Andrew | date =[[2001]] [[June 21]] | title =School dinner? Mine's a lager, please | publisher =Guardian Unlimited | url =http://www.guardian.co.uk/international/story/0,3604,510202,00.html | accessdate =[[2007]] [[December 23]] }}.</ref> The alcohol in beer comes primarily from the metabolism of sugars that are produced during fermentation. The quantity of fermentable sugars in the wort and the variety of yeast used to ferment the wort are the primary factors that determine the amount of alcohol in the final beer. Additional fermentable sugars are sometimes added to increase alcohol content, and enzymes are often added to the wort for certain styles of beer (primarily "light" beers) to convert more complex carbohydrates (starches) to fermentable sugars. Alcohol is a byproduct of yeast metabolism and is toxic to the yeast; typical brewing yeast cannot survive at alcohol concentrations above 12% by volume. Low temperatures and too little fermentation time decreases the effectiveness of yeasts, and consequently decreases the alcohol content. ===Exceptionally strong beers=== The strength of beers has climbed during the later years of the 20th century. Vetter 33 a 10.5% abv (33 [[Plato scale|degrees Plato]], hence Vetter "33") [[Bock#Doppelbock|doppelbock]] was listed in the 1994 [[Guinness World Records|Guinness Book of World Records]] as the strongest beer at that time,<ref>{{Citation | title =Vetter Brauhaus | publisher =Vetter Brauhaus | url =http://www.brauhaus-vetter.de/ | accessdate =[[2008]] [[January 22]] }}.</ref><ref>{{Citation | title =In 1994, the 33 Plato gave it the world's highest gravity. Though the beer can no longer make this claim, it is still one of the world's most renowned strong lagers. | publisher =Rate Beer | url =http://www.ratebeer.com/Ratings/Beer/Beer-Ratings.asp?BeerID=13030 | accessdate = 2008-02-14 }}</ref> though [[Samichlaus]], by the Swiss brewer Hürlimann, had also been listed by the Guinness Book of World Records as the strongest at 14% abv.<ref>[http://www.schloss-eggenberg.at/site/en_srt_samichlaus.asp?id=87 Schloss Eggenberg<!-- Bot generated title -->]</ref><ref>[http://www.beerhunter.com/documents/19133-000100.html Michael Jackson's Beer Hunter - Mine's a pint of Santa Claus<!-- Bot generated title -->]</ref><ref>[http://www.ratebeer.com/beer/hurlimann-samichlaus/2399/ Hurlimann Samichlaus from Hürlimann (Feldschlösschen), a Doppelbock style beer: An unofficial page for Hurlimann Samichlaus from Hürlimann (Feldschlösschen) in Zürich, , Switzerland<!-- Bot generated title -->]</ref> Since then some brewers have used [[Champagne (wine)|champagne]] yeasts to increase the alcohol content of their beers. [[Samuel Adams (beer)|Samuel Adams]] reached 20% abv with ''Millennium''<ref>{{Citation | date=[[2002]] [[February 13]] | title=The 48 proof beer | periodical=Beer Break | publisher=Realbeer | volume=2 | issue=19 | url=http://www.realbeer.com/library/beerbreak/archives/beerbreak20020214.php | accessdate=[[2007]] [[December 23]] }}.</ref> and then surpassed that amount to 25.6% abv with ''[[Utopias (beer)|Utopias]]''. The strongest beer sold in Britain was Delaware's [[Dogfish Head Brewery|Dogfish Head]]'s ''World Wide Stout'', a 21% abv [[stout]] which was available from UK [[Safeway (UK)|Safeways]] in 2003.<ref>{{Citation | last =Henegan | first =Nick | date =[[2003]] [[August 6]] | title =World's Strongest Beer .. at £10 a Pint | publisher =Sunday Mirror | url =http://www.sundaymirror.co.uk/news/page.cfm?method=full&objectid=13044414 | accessdate =[[2007]] [[December 23]] }}.</ref> In Japan in 2005, the Hakusekikan Beer Restaurant sold an [[Bock#Eisbock|eisbock]], strengthened through [[freeze distillation]], believed to be 28% abv.<ref>[http://www.ratebeer.com/beer/hakusekikan-eisbock-28/53512/ Hakusekikan Eisbock 28%]</ref> The beer that is considered to be the strongest yet made is [[Hair of the Dog Brewing Company|Hair of the Dog]]'s ''Dave''&mdash;a 29% abv [[barley wine]] made in 1994. The strength was achieved by freeze distilling a 10% ale twice.<ref>[http://www.ratebeer.com/Beer/hair-of-the-dog-dave/23897/ Hair of the Dog Dave (retired)]</ref> ==Related beverages== {{see also|Category:Types of beer}} There are a number of related beverages such as [[kvass]], [[sahti]] and [[chicha]]. *[[Africa]]: Hundreds of local drinks, such as [[banana beer]]<ref>[http://www.pinoynegosyo.blogspot.com/2007/11/how-to-make-banana-beer.html Banana beer and how to make it]</ref> (eg [[Mongozo]]), and [[millet beer]]. Thie first one is made from grain eg [[sorghum]] or [[millet]]) and bananas; and the second beer is made solely from millet, sorghum, or other available starch crops. *[[Andes]], [[South America]]: [[Chicha]], an Andean beverage made from germinated [[corn]]. *[[Bhutan]], [[Nepal]], [[Tibet]] and [[Sikkim]]: [[Chhaang]], a popular semi-fermented rice/millet drink in the eastern [[Himalaya]]. *[[Bouza]]: An ancient Egyptian beer made from bread which is still made in [[Sudan]]. *[[China]]: [[Huangjiu]], [[Choujiu]]. [[Chinese alcoholic beverage|Jiǔ]] refers to all alcoholic drinks, most of which are distilled liquors (báijiǔ), but there are traditional grain-based relatives of beer such as ''sulima'', made by the [[Mosuo]] people, and ''lijiang yinjiu'', made by the [[Nakhi]] people, both in the [[Lijiang]] region of [[Yunnan]]. *[[Finland]]: [[Sahti]], a traditional Finnish beer. *[[Kyrgyzstan]]: Bozo is a low alcohol, somewhat porridgey drink made from millet. The Kyrgyz also consume [[kumis|kymyz]] *[[Mexico]]: [[Pulque]], an alcoholic beverage made from the fermented sap of the [[agave]] plant. Though commonly believed to be a beer, the main carbohydrate is a complex form of fructose rather than starch. *[[Russia]]/[[Ukraine]]: [[Kvass]], a fermented nonalcoholic or mildly alcoholic beverage. ==See also== {{portal|Beer}} {{commons|Beer}} {{wikibooks|Brewing}} *[[Beer style]] *[http://www.belgianbeerboard.com Belgian Beer Board] *[[Brewery]] *[[Brewing]] *[[History of beer]] *[[Homebrewing]] *[[List of countries by beer consumption per capita]] *[http://blogs.zdnet.com/emergingtech/?p=942 The secret of fresh beer]: the [[Maillard reaction]].<ref>{{Cite journal | last = Bravo | first = Adriana | coauthors = Julio C. Herrera, Erika Scherer, Yon Ju-Nam, Heinrich Rübsam, Jorge Madrid, Carsten Zufall, Rafael Rangel-Aldao | title = Formation of α-dicarbonyl compounds in beer during storage of Pilsner | journal = Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry | volume = 56 | issue = 11 | pages = 4134–4144 | issn = 0021-8561 | accessdate = 2008-06-16 | date = 2008-06-11 | url = http://pubs3.acs.org/acs/journals/doilookup?in_doi=10.1021/jf703696p | doi = 10.1021/jf703696p }}</ref> <ref>{{Cite web | last = Matt Kaplan | title = Beer gets fresh approach | accessdate = 2008-06-16 | date = 2008-06-02 | journal = Nature | doi =10.1038/news.2008.869 | url = http://www.nature.com/news/2008/080602/full/news.2008.869.html }}</ref> ==References== {{reflist|2}} ===Bibliography=== <div class="references-small"> *''Archeological Parameters For the Origins of Beer.'' Thomas W. Kavanagh. [http://www.brewingtechniques.com/library/backissues/issue2.5/kavanagh.html] *''The Complete Guide to World Beer'', Roger Protz. ISBN 1-84442-865-6. *''The Barbarian's Beverage: a history of beer in ancient Europe'', Max Nelson. ISBN 0-415-31121-7. *''The World Guide to Beer'', Michael Jackson. ISBN 1-85076-000-4 *''The New World Guide to Beer'', Michael Jackson. ISBN 0-89471-884-3 *''Beer: The Story of the Pint'', Martyn Cornell. ISBN 0-7553-1165-5 *''Beer and Britannia: An Inebriated History of Britain'', Peter Haydon. ISBN 0-7509-2748-8 *''The Book of Beer Knowledge: Essential Wisdom for the Discerning Drinker, a Useful Miscellany'', Jeff Evans. ISBN 1-85249-198-1 *''Country House Brewing in England, 1500&ndash;1900'', Pamela Sambrook. ISBN 1-85285-127-9 *''Ale, Beer and Brewsters in England: Women's Work in a Changing World, 1300&ndash;1600 '', Judith M. Bennett. ISBN 0-19-512650-5 *''A History of Beer and Brewing'', I. Hornsey. ISBN 0-85404-630-5 *''Beer: an Illustrated History'', Brian Glover. ISBN 1-84038-597-9 *''Beer in America: The Early Years 1587&ndash;1840&mdash;Beer's Role in the Settling of America and the Birth of a Nation'', Gregg Smith. ISBN 0-937381-65-9 *''Big Book of Beer'', Adrian Tierney-Jones. ISBN 1-85249-212-0 *''Gone for a Burton: Memories from a Great British Heritage'', Bob Ricketts. ISBN 1-905203-69-1 *''Farmhouse Ales: Culture and Craftsmanship in the Belgian Tradition'', Phil Marowski. ISBN 0-937381-84-5 *''The World Encyclopedia of Beer'', Brian Glover. ISBN 0-7548-0933-1 *''The Complete Joy of Homebrewing'', Charlie Papazian ISBN 0-380-77287-6 (This is the seminal work on home brewing that is almost universally suggested to new hobbyist) *''The Brewmaster's Table'', Garrett Oliver. ISBN 0-06-000571-8 *{{cite book |last= Vaughan|first= J. G.|coauthors= C. A. Geissler |title= The New Oxford Book of Food Plants |publisher= [[Oxford University Press]] |year= 1997 |isbn= 0-19-854825-7 }} *''Bacchus and Civic Order: The Culture of Drink in Early Modern Germany'', Ann Tlusty. ISBN 0-813920-45-0 </div> {{Beer Styles}} {{Beers of the world}} {{Alcoholic beverages2|type=fermented}} <!-- Other languages --> [[Category:Beer| ]] {{Link FA|es}} {{Link FA|pl}} [[als:Bier]] [[ang:Bēor]] [[ar:بيرة (مشروب كحولي)]] [[an:Biera]] [[ast:Cerveza]] [[bn:বিয়ার]] [[be:Піва]] [[be-x-old:Піва]] [[bar:Bia]] [[bs:Pivo]] [[br:Bier]] [[bg:Бира]] [[ca:Cervesa]] [[cv:Сăра]] [[cs:Pivo]] [[cy:Cwrw]] [[da:Øl]] [[de:Bier]] [[et:Õlu]] [[el:Μπίρα]] [[es:Cerveza]] [[eo:Biero]] [[eu:Garagardo]] [[fa:آبجو]] [[fr:Bière]] [[fur:Bire]] [[ga:Beoir]] [[gl:Cervexa]] [[ko:맥주]] [[hr:Pivo]] [[io:Biro]] [[id:Bir]] [[is:Bjór (öl)]] [[it:Birra]] [[he:בירה]] [[jv:Bir]] [[csb:Piwò]] [[rw:Ikyeri]] [[sw:Bia]] [[ku:Bîra]] [[la:Cervisia]] [[lv:Alus]] [[lb:Béier (Gedrénks)]] [[lt:Alus]] [[lij:Bïra]] [[li:Beer]] [[jbo:birje]] [[hu:Sör]] [[mk:Пиво]] [[ml:ബിയര്‍]] [[ms:Bir]] [[nah:Teixhuinotl]] [[nl:Bier]] [[ja:ビール]] [[no:Øl]] [[nn:Øl]] [[nrm:Biéthe]] [[oc:Bièrra]] [[uz:Pivo]] [[pl:Piwo]] [[pt:Cerveja]] [[ksh:Bier (för ze drinke)]] [[ro:Bere]] [[qu:Sirwisa]] [[ru:Пиво]] [[sco:Beer]] [[sq:Birra]] [[scn:Birra]] [[simple:Beer]] [[sk:Pivo]] [[sl:Pivo]] [[szl:Bjyr]] [[sr:Пиво]] [[sh:Pivo]] [[fi:Olut]] [[sv:Öl]] [[th:เบียร์]] [[vi:Bia (đồ uống)]] [[tg:Пиво]] [[tr:Bira]] [[uk:Пиво]] [[vec:Bira]] [[vo:Bir]] [[wa:Bire]] [[vls:Bier]] [[yi:ביר]] [[zh-yue:啤酒]] [[bat-smg:Alus]] [[zh:啤酒]]