Benito Mussolini 3706 226164559 2008-07-17T03:01:41Z Onorem 622881 Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/24.211.73.99|24.211.73.99]] ([[User talk:24.211.73.99|talk]]) to last version by Onorem {{redirect|Mussolini}} {{Infobox President | name = Benito Mussolini | Height = 5' 6½" (1.69 m) | nationality = Italian | image = Mussolini young.jpg | order = 40th <br> [[Prime Minister of Italy]] | monarch = [[Victor Emmanuel III of Italy|Victor Emmanuel III]] | term_start = [[October 31]] [[1922]] | term_end = [[July 25]] [[1943]] | predecessor = [[Luigi Facta]] | successor = [[Pietro Badoglio]] ''(Provisional Military Government)'' | birth_date = {{birth date|1883|7|29}} | birth_place = [[Predappio]], [[Kingdom of Italy (1861–1946)|Italy]] | death_date = {{death date and age|1945|4|28|1883|7|29}} | death_place = [[Giulino di Mezzegra]], [[Kingdom of Italy (1861-1946)|Italy]] | party = [[Republican Fascist Party]]<br>(1943-1945)<br>[[National Fascist Party]]<br>(1921-1943)<br>[[Italian Socialist Party]]<br>(1901-1914) | spouse = [[Rachele Mussolini]] | profession = [[Politician]], [[Journalist]] | religion = Converted to [[Roman Catholicism]] in 1927, irreligious in earlier life. | order2 = [[Italian Social Republic|Duce of the Italian Social Republic]] | term_start2 = [[September 23]], [[1943]] | term_end2 = [[April 26]], [[1945]] | president = | predecessor2 = | successor2 = |}} '''Benito Amilcare Andrea Mussolini''' ([[July 29]], [[1883]] &ndash; [[April 28]], [[1945]]) was an [[Italy|Italian]] [[politician]] who led the [[National Fascist Party]] and is credited with being one of the key figures in the creation of [[Fascism]]. He became the [[Prime Minister of Italy]] in 1922 and began using the title ''[[Duce|Il Duce]]'' by 1925. Mussolini continued on in this role until he was replaced in 1943; for a short period after this until his death Mussolini was the leader of the [[Italian Social Republic]]. Mussolini was among the founders of [[Italian fascism]], which included elements of [[nationalism]], [[corporatism|corporativism]], [[national syndicalism]], [[expansionism]], [[social progress]] and [[anti-communism]] in combination with [[censorship]] of [[subversives]] and state [[propaganda]]. In the years following his creation of the fascist ideology, Mussolini influenced, or achieved admiration from, a wide variety of political figures.<ref>{{cite book | last = Hakim | first = Joy | authorlink = | coauthors = | title = A History of Us: War, Peace and all that Jazz | publisher = Oxford University Press | date = 1995 | location = New York | pages = | url = | doi = | id = | isbn = 0-19-509514-6 }}</ref> Among the domestic achievements of Mussolini from the years 1924&ndash;1939 were: his [[public works]] programmes such as the taming of the [[Pontine Marshes]], the improvement of job opportunities, and [[public transport]]. Mussolini also solved the [[Roman Question]] by concluding the [[Lateran Treaty]] between the [[Kingdom of Italy (1861–1946)|Kingdom of Italy]] and the [[Holy See]]. He is also credited with securing economic success in [[Italian Empire|Italy's colonies and commercial dependencies]].<ref>{{cite book | last = Warwick Palmer | first = Alan |title =Who's Who in World Politics: From 1860 to the Present Day| publisher = Routledge| url =http://books.google.com/books?id=YdMWTvXhVlUC&pg=PA259&lpg=PA259&dq=mussolini's+achievements&source=web&ots=ZIUrvUaAs2&sig=fkqzJNT_g6GFZIm3ILbn43_HDhI | isbn = 0415131618}}</ref> Although he initially favoured siding with [[France]] against [[Germany]] in the early [[1930s]], Mussolini became one of the main figures of the [[Axis powers]] and, on [[10 June]] [[1940]], Mussolini led Italy into [[World War II]] on the side of Axis. Three years later, Mussolini was deposed at the [[Grand Council of Fascism]], prompted by the [[Allied invasion of Italy|Allied invasion]]. Soon after his incarceration began, Mussolini was rescued from prison in the daring [[Gran Sasso raid]] by [[Nazi Germany|German]] [[special forces]]. Following his rescue, Mussolini headed the [[Italian Social Republic]] in parts of Italy that were not occupied by Allied forces. In late April, 1945, with total defeat looming, Mussolini attempted to escape to [[Switzerland]], only to be captured and [[Summary execution|summarily]] [[Execution by firing squad| executed]] near [[Lake Como]] by [[Communist]] [[Italian partisans]]. His body was taken to [[Milan]] where it was hung upside down at a petrol station for public viewing and to provide confirmation of his demise. == Early life == [[Image:Casa Natale Benito Mussolini.jpg|thumb|190px|right|Birthplace of Benito Mussolini, today used as a museum.]] Mussolini was born in [[Predappio|Dovia di Predappio]], a humble [[rural]] town in the province of [[Forlì]] in [[Emilia-Romagna]]. Mussolini was born into a [[working class]] background; his father Alessandro Mussolini was a [[blacksmith]] and a socialist activist, while his mother Rosa Mussolini (''née'' Maltoni) was a [[school teacher]]; unlike her husband, she was a devout Catholic.<ref name="Grolier encyclopedia">{{cite news|url=http://www.grolier.com/wwii/wwii_mussolini.html|publisher=Grolier.com|title=Benito Mussolini|date=[[8 January]] [[2008]]}}</ref> Owing to his father's political leanings Mussolini was named ''Benito'' after [[Mexico|Mexican]] reformist President [[Benito Juárez]]; while his middle names ''Andrea'' and ''Amilcare'' were from Italian [[socialist]]s [[Andrea Costa]] and [[Amilcare Cipriani]].<ref name="Living History 2">Living History 2; Chapter 2: ''Italy under Fascism'' - ISBN 1-84536-028-1</ref> Benito was the eldest of his parent's three children. His siblings Arnaldo and Edvige followed.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.geneall.net/I/per_page.php?id=283037|publisher=GeneAll.net|title=Alessandro Mussolini|date=[[8 January]] [[2008]]}}</ref> As a young boy, Mussolini would spend time helping his father in his blacksmithing.<ref name="historylearning">{{cite news|url=http://www.historylearningsite.co.uk/benito_mussolini.htm|publisher=HistoryLearningSite.co.uk|title=Benito Mussolini|date=[[8 January]] [[2008]]}}</ref> It was likely here that he was exposed to his father's significant political beliefs. Alessandro was a socialist and a [[republicanism|republican]], but also held some [[nationalist]]ic views, especially in regards to some of the Italians who were living under the rule of the [[Austro-Hungarian Empire]].<ref name="historylearning">{{cite news|url=http://www.historylearningsite.co.uk/benito_mussolini.htm|publisher=HistoryLearningSite.co.uk|title=Benito Mussolini|date=[[8 January]] [[2008]]}}</ref>, which were not consistent with the internationalist socialism of the time. The conflict between his parents about religion meant that, unlike most Italians, Mussolini was not baptised at birth and would not be until much later in life. However, as a compromise with his mother, Mussolini was sent to a [[boarding school]] run by monks. Mussolini was rebelious and was [[Expulsion (academia)|expelled]] after a series of behaviour related incidents, including throwing stones at the congregation after [[mass (liturgy)|Mass]], stabbing a fellow student in the hand and throwing an [[inkpot]] at a teacher.<ref name="historylearning">{{cite news|url=http://www.historylearningsite.co.uk/benito_mussolini.htm|publisher=HistoryLearningSite.co.uk|title=Benito Mussolini|date=[[8 January]] [[2008]]}}</ref> After joining a new school, Mussolini achieved good grades, and qualified as an elementary schoolmaster in 1901.<ref name="Grolier encyclopedia"/><ref name="Living History 2"/> ===Political journalist and soldier=== In 1902, Mussolini [[emigration|emigrated]] to [[Switzerland]] to find work and to expand his political horizons. During a period when he was unable to find a permanent job there, he was arrested for [[vagrancy]] and jailed for one night. Later, after becoming involved in the socialist movement, he was [[Deportation|deported]] to Italy and volunteered for military service. Mussolini found a job in February 1908 in the city of [[Trento]], which was ethnically Italian but then under the control of [[Austria-Hungary]]. He did office work for the local socialist party and edited its newspaper ''L'Avvenire del Lavoratore'' ("The Future of the Worker"). It did not take him long to make contact with [[irredentism|irredentist]] politician and journalist [[Cesare Battisti]], and to agree to write for and edit his newspaper ''Il Popolo'' ("The People") in addition to the work he did for the party. [[Image:Benito Mussolini 1917.jpg|thumb|130px|left|Mussolini as an [[allies of World War I|allied]] [[soldier]], during 1917.]] In 1915, he had a son with [[Ida Dalser]], a woman born in Sopramonte, a village near Trento. <ref>[http://www.fpp.co.uk/History/Mussolini/first_wife.html Real History and Benito Mussolini<!-- Bot generated title -->]</ref><ref name="Grolier encyclopedia"/><ref name="Living History 2"/> By the time Mussolini's novel was printed in ''Il Popolo'', Mussolini was already back in Italy. His growing defiance of Royal authority and [[anti-clericalism]] got him in trouble with the authorities until he was finally deported at the end of September. He was prompted to return to Italy once again when his mother became ill. He became a journalist for the socialist newspaper, ''[[Avanti! (Italian newspaper)|Avanti!]]'' (''Forward!'').<ref name="Grolier encyclopedia"/><ref name="Living History 2"/> After initially writing on numerous occasions against the war in the socialist paper Avanti, Mussolini relented and he and his class were called up in August of 1915 for active duty.<ref name="kirkpatrick">Mussolini: A Study In Power, Ivone Kirkpatrick, Hawthorne Books, 1964. ISBN 0-837-18400-2</ref> Although his military record was unremarkable, it was without blemish and it has been suggested that he may have been prevented from moving further along in the ranks due to his ongoing political agitation in various periodicals.<ref name="kirkpatrick" /> Mussolini's military experience is told in his work ''Diario Di Guerra.'' Overall he totalled about 9 months of active, front-line trench warfare. During this time he contracted paratyphoid fever.<ref name="kirkpatrick" /> His military exploits ended in 1917 when he was wounded accidentally by the explosion of a mortar bomb in his trench. He was left with at least 40 shards of metal in his body<ref name="kirkpatrick" /> He was discharged from the hospital in August 1917 and resumed his editor-in-chief position at his new paper, ''Il Popolo d'Italia''. ==Creation of Fascism== {{main|Fascism}} By the time Mussolini returned from [[Allies of World War I|Allied]] service in the [[First World War]], he had decided that socialism as a doctrine had largely been a failure, although he still called his paper socialist.{{Fact|date=June 2008}} In early 1918, Mussolini called for the emergence of a man "ruthless and energetic enough to make a clean sweep" to revive the Italian nation.<ref name="ww2timeline">{{cite web| url=http://history.sandiego.edu/gen/ww2timeline/Prelude05.html| title=The Rise of Benito Mussolini|date=[[8 January]] [[2008]]}}</ref> Much later in life Mussolini said he felt by 1919 "Socialism as a doctrine was already dead; it continued to exist only as a grudge".<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.salon.com/news/feature/2008/01/11/goldberg/print.html|publisher=Salon.com|title="We're all fascists now"|date=[[8 January]] [[2008]]}}</ref> On [[March 23]], [[1919]], Mussolini reformed the Milan ''fascio'' as the ''Fasci Italiani di Combattimento'' (Italian Combat Squad), consisting of 200 members.<ref name="ww2timeline">{{cite web| url=http://history.sandiego.edu/gen/ww2timeline/Prelude05.html| title=The Rise of Benito Mussolini}}</ref> [[Image:Czarne koszule.png|thumb|250px|left|Blackshirts and Mussolini 1922]] An important factor in fascism gaining support in its earliest stages was the fact that it opposed discrimination based on [[social class]] and was strongly opposed to all forms of [[class conflict|class war]].<ref name="maifestoofstruggle">{{cite news|url=http://www.wnd.com/news/article.asp?ARTICLE_ID=39164|publisher=WND.com|title=Flunking Fascism 101|date=[[8 January]] [[2008]]}}</ref> Fascism instead supported [[nationalist]] sentiments such as a strong unity, regardless of class, in the hopes of raising Italy up to the levels of its great [[Ancient Rome|Roman]] past. This side of fascism endeared itself to the [[aristocracy]] and the [[bourgeois]], as it promised to protect their existence; after the [[Russian Revolution (1917)|Russian Revolution]], they had greatly feared the prospect of a bloody class war coming to Italy by the hand of the communists and the socialists. Mussolini did not ignore the plight of the [[working class]], however, and he gained their support with stances such as those in ''[[The Manifesto of the Fascist Struggle]]'', published in June 1919.<ref name="maifestoofstruggle">{{cite news|url=http://www.wnd.com/news/article.asp?ARTICLE_ID=39164|publisher=WND.com|title=Flunking Fascism 101|date=[[8 January]] [[2008]]}}</ref> In the manifesto he demanded, amongst other things, creation of a [[minimum wage]], showing the same confidence in [[labor unions]] (which prove to be technically and morally worthy) as was given to industry executives or public servants, voting rights for women, and the systemisation of public transport such as [[railways]].<ref name="maifestoofstruggle">{{cite news|url=http://www.wnd.com/news/article.asp?ARTICLE_ID=39164|publisher=WND.com|title=Flunking Fascism 101|date=[[8 January]] [[2008]]}}</ref> Mussolini and the fascists managed to be simultaneously [[revolutionary]] and [[traditionalist]];<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.jstor.org/pss/1852268|publisher=Roland Sarti|title=Fascist Modernization in Italy: Traditional or Revolutionary|date=[[8 January]] [[2008]]}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.appstate.edu/~brantzrw/history3134/mussolini.html|publisher=Appstate.edu|title=Mussolini's Italy|date=[[8 January]] [[2008]]}}</ref> because this was vastly different to anything else in the political climate of the time, it is sometimes described as "The Third Way".<ref>{{cite book | last =Macdonald| first =Hamish | title =Mussolini and Italian Fascism| publisher =Nelson Thornes| url =http://books.google.com/books?id=221W9vKkWrcC&pg=PT17&lpg=PT17&dq=%22third+way%22+mussolini&source=web&ots=YG16x28rgN&sig=u7p19AE4Zlv483mg003WWDKP8S4&hl=en| isbn =0748733868}}</ref> The Fascisti, led by one of Mussolini's close confidants, [[Dino Grandi]], formed armed squads of war veterans called [[Blackshirts]] (or ''squadristi'') with the goal of restoring order to the streets of Italy with a strong hand. The blackshirts clashed with [[Communism|communists]], socialists and [[Anarchism|anarchists]] at parades and demonstrations; all of these factions were also involved in clashes against each other. The government rarely interfered with the blackshirts' actions, due in part to a looming threat and widespread fear of a communist revolution. The Fascisti grew so rapidly that within two years, it transformed itself into the [[National Fascist Party]] at a congress in [[Rome]]. Also in 1921, Mussolini was elected to the [[Italian Chamber of Deputies|Chamber of Deputies]] for the first time.<ref name="Living History 2"/> ==March on Rome and early years in power== {{see|March on Rome}} The March on Rome was a [[coup d'état]] by which Mussolini's [[National Fascist Party]] came to power in [[History of Italy|Italy]] and ousted [[Prime Minister]] [[Luigi Facta]]. The "march" took place in 1922 between [[October 27]] and [[October 29]]. On [[October 28]], [[Victor Emmanuel III of Italy|King Victor Emmanuel III]] refused his support to Facta and handed over power to Mussolini. Mussolini was supported by the military, the business class, and the liberal right-wing. As [[Prime Minister]], the first years of Mussolini's rule were characterized by a right-wing coalition government composed of Fascists, nationalists, liberals and even two Catholic ministers from the [[Italian People's Party (1919-1926)|Popular Party]]. The Fascists made up a small minority in his original governments. Mussolini's domestic goal, however, was the eventual establishment of a [[totalitarianism|totalitarian]] state with himself as supreme leader (''[[Il Duce]]'') a message that was articulated by the Fascist newspaper ''Il Popolo'', which was now edited by Mussolini's brother, Arnaldo. To that end, Mussolini obtained dictatorial powers for one year. He favored the complete restoration of state authority, with the integration of the ''Fasci di Combattimento'' into the armed forces (the foundation in January 1923 of the ''Milizia Volontaria per la Sicurezza Nazionale'') and the progressive identification of the party with the state. In political and social economy, he passed legislation that favored the wealthy industrial and agrarian classes (privatisations, liberalisations of rent laws and dismantlement of the unions).<ref name="Living History 2"/> In 1923, Mussolini sent Italian forces to invade [[Corfu]] during the "[[Corfu incident|Corfu Incident]]." In the end, the [[League of Nations]] proved powerless and [[Greece]] was forced to comply with Italian demands. ===Acerbo Law=== In June 1923, the government passed the [[Acerbo Law]], which transformed Italy into a single national constituency. It also granted a two-thirds majority of the seats in Parliament to the party or group of parties which had obtained at least 25 percent of the votes. This law was punctually applied in the elections of [[April 6]], [[1924]]. The "national alliance", consisting of Fascists, most of the old Liberals and others, won 64 percent of the vote largely by means of violence and voter intimidation. These tactics were especially prevalent in the south. ===Squadristi violence=== The [[assassination]] of the socialist deputy [[Giacomo Matteotti]], who had requested the [[annulment]] of the elections because of the irregularities committed, provoked a momentary crisis of the Mussolini government. The murderer, a squadrista named [[Amerigo Dumini]], reported to Mussolini soon after the murder. Mussolini ordered a cover-up, but witnesses saw the car used to transport Matteotti's body parked outside Matteotti's residence, which linked Dumini to the murder. The Matteotti crisis provoked cries for justice against the murder of an outspoken critic of Fascist violence. The government was shocked into paralysis for a few days, and Mussolini later confessed that a few resolute men could have alerted public opinion and started a [[coup]] that would have swept fascism away. Dumini was imprisoned for two years. On release he told others that Mussolini was responsible, for which he served further prison time. For the next 15 years, Dumini received an income from Mussolini, the Fascist Party, and other sources. This may have been [[hush money]], for he left a dossier full of incriminating evidence to a [[Texas]] lawyer in case of his own death. The opposition parties responded weakly or were generally unresponsive. Many of the socialists, [[Liberalism|liberal]]s and [[moderate]]s boycotted Parliament in the [[Aventine Secession (20th century)|Aventine Secession]], hoping to force Victor Emmanuel to dismiss Mussolini. Despite the leadership of communists such as [[Antonio Gramsci]], socialists such as [[Pietro Nenni]] and liberals such as [[Piero Gobetti]] and [[Giovanni Amendola]], a mass [[antifascist]] movement never caught fire. The king, fearful of violence from the Fascist squadristi, kept Mussolini in office. Because of the boycott of Parliament, Mussolini could pass any legislation unopposed. The political violence of the squadristi had worked, for there was no popular demonstration against the murder of Matteotti. Within his own party, Mussolini faced doubts and dissension during these critical weeks. The militant members of the party were angry that only a few dozen had been killed and a bloodbath ensued, causing thousands of casualties. On [[December 31]], 1924, 31 MVSN consuls met with Mussolini and gave him an ultimatum--crush the opposition or they would do so without him. Fearing a revolt by his own militants, Mussolini decided to drop all trappings of democracy.<ref name="Paxton">{{cite book |title=The Anatomy of Fascism |last=Paxton |first=Robert |authorlink=Robert Paxton |coauthors= |year=2004 |publisher=[[Alfred A. Knopf]] |location=New York City |isbn=1-4000-4094-9}}</ref> On [[January 3]], [[1925]], Mussolini made a truculent speech before the Chamber in which he took responsibility for squadristi violence (though he did not mention the assassination of Matteotti). He also promised a crackdown on dissenters. Before his speech, MVSN detachments beat up the opposition and prevented opposition newspapers from publishing. Mussolini correctly predicted that as soon as public opinion saw him firmly in control the "fence-sitters", the silent majority and the "place-hunters" would all place themselves behind him. This is considered the onset of Mussolini's dictatorship. From late 1925 until the mid-1930s, fascism experienced little and isolated opposition, although that which it did was memorable. While failing to outline a coherent program, Fascism evolved into a new political and economic system that combined [[totalitarianism]], [[nationalism]], [[anti-communism]], [[anti-capitalism]] and anti-liberalism into a state designed to bind all classes together under a [[Corporatism|corporatist]] system (the "Third Way"). This was a new system in which the state seized control of the organisation of vital industries. Under the banners of nationalism and state power, Fascism seemed to synthesise the glorious [[Roman empire|Roman past]] with a futuristic [[utopia]]. ==Building a dictatorship== [[Image:Flag of Prime Minister of Italy (1927-1943).svg|right|thumb|220px|Standard of the Prime Minister of Italy under Fascism from 1927 until 1943, effectively Mussolini's personal standard.]] ===Assassination attempts=== Mussolini's influence in propaganda was such that he had surprisingly little opposition to suppress. Nonetheless, he was "slightly wounded in the nose" when he was shot on [[April 7]] [[1926]] by [[Violet Gibson]], an [[Irish people|Irish]] woman and sister of [[Baron Ashbourne]].<ref name=thetimesapr081926>The Times, Thursday, [[April 8]] [[1926]]; pg. 12; Issue 44240; col A </ref> In January 1927, 15 year old Anteo Zamboni attempted to shoot Mussolini in Bologna. Zamboni was lynched on the spot.<ref>The Reader's Digest February 1927</ref> Mussolini also survived a failed assassination attempt in Rome by [[Anarchism|anarchist]] [[Gino Lucetti]],<ref>[http://libcom.org/history/1926-attempted-assassination-mussolini The attempted assassination of Mussolini in Rome]</ref> and a planned attempt by [[United States|American]] anarchist Michael Schirru, which ended with Schirru's capture and execution.<ref>[http://www.libcom.org/history/articles/murder-michael-schirru 1931: The murder of Michael Schirru]</ref> ===Police state=== {{POV|date=July 2008}} At various times after 1922, Mussolini personally took over the ministries of the interior, foreign affairs, colonies, corporations, defense, and public works. Sometimes he held as many as seven departments simultaneously, as well as the premiership. He was also head of the all-powerful Fascist Party and the armed local fascist militia, the [[Blackshirts|MVSN]] or "Blackshirts," who terrorised incipient resistances in the cities and provinces. He would later form the [[OVRA]], an institutionalised [[secret police]] that carried official state support. In this way he succeeded in keeping power in his own hands and preventing the emergence of any rival. Over the next two years, Mussolini progressively dismantled virtually all constitutional and conventional restraints on his power, thereby building a [[police state]]. A law passed on [[Christmas Eve]] 1925 changed Mussolini's formal title from "president of the Council of Ministers" to "head of the government." He was no longer responsible to Parliament and could only be removed by the king. While the [[Statuto Albertino|Italian constitution]] stated that ministers were only responsible to the sovereign, in practice it had become all but impossible to govern against the express will of Parliament. The Christmas Eve law ended this practice, and also made Mussolini the only person competent to determine the body's agenda. Local autonomy was abolished, and [[podesta]]s appointed by the [[Italian Senate]] replaced elected mayors and councils. All other parties were outlawed in 1928, though in practice Italy had been a one-party state since Mussolini's 1925 speech. In the same year, an electoral law abolished parliamentary elections. Instead, the [[Grand Council of Fascism]] selected a single list of candidates to be approved by plebiscite. The Grand Council had been created five years earlier as a party body but was "constitutionalised" and became the highest constitutional authority in the state. The Grand Council also had the power to recommend Mussolini's removal from office, and was thus theoretically the only check on his power. However, only Mussolini could summon the Grand Council and determine its agenda. ===Economic policy=== [[Image:Mussolini all'Alfa Romeo.JPG|thumb|right|200px| Benito Mussolini visiting [[Alfa Romeo]] factories. ]] {{main|Economy of Italy under Fascism, 1922-1943}} Mussolini launched several public construction programs and government initiatives throughout Italy to combat economic setbacks or [[unemployment]] levels. His earliest, and one of the best known, was Italy's equivalent of the [[Green Revolution]], known as the "Battle for Grain", in which 5,000 new farms were established and five new agricultural towns on land reclaimed by draining the [[Pontine Marshes]]. This plan diverted valuable resources to grain production, away from other less economically viable crops. The huge [[tariff]]s associated with the project promoted widespread inefficiencies, and the government [[subsidy|subsidies]] given to farmers pushed the country further into debt. Mussolini also initiated the "Battle for Land", a policy based on [[land reclamation]] outlined in 1928. The initiative had a mixed success; while projects such as the draining of the Pontine Marsh in 1935 for [[agriculture]] were good for propaganda purposes, provided work for the [[unemployment|unemployed]] and allowed for great land owners to control subsidies, other areas in the Battle for Land were not very successful. This program was inconsistent with the Battle for Grain (small plots of land were inappropriately allocated for large-scale wheat production), and the Pontine Marsh was lost during [[World War II]]. Fewer than 10,000 [[peasant]]s resettled on the redistributed land, and peasant poverty remained high. The Battle for Land initiative was abandoned in 1940. He also combated an [[economic recession]] by introducing the "Gold for the Fatherland" initiative, by encouraging the public to voluntarily donate [[gold]] [[jewellery]] such as [[necklace]]s and [[wedding ring]]s to government officials in exchange for [[steel]] [[wristband]]s bearing the words "Gold for the Fatherland". Even [[Rachele Mussolini]] donated her own wedding ring. The collected gold was then melted down and turned into gold bars, which were then distributed to the [[national bank]]s. Mussolini pushed for government control of business: by 1935, Mussolini claimed that three quarters of Italian businesses were under state control. That same year, he issued several edicts to further control the economy, including forcing all banks, businesses, and private citizens to give up all their foreign-issued stocks and bonds to the Bank of Italy. In 1938, he also instituted wage and [[price control]]s.<ref>[http://www.mises.org/story/1935 The Vampire Economy: Italy, Germany, and the US], Jeffrey Herbener, Mises Institute, [[October 13]], [[2005]]</ref> He also attempted to turn Italy into a self-sufficient [[autarky]], instituting high barriers on trade with most countries except [[Germany]]. ===Government by propaganda=== [[Image:Mussoliniposter.jpg|thumb|right|A [[Fascism|fascist]] propaganda poster]] As dictator of Italy, Mussolini's foremost priority was the subjugation of the minds of the Italian people and the use of [[propaganda]] to do so; whether at home or abroad, and here his training as a journalist was invaluable. Press, radio, education, films&mdash;all were carefully supervised to create the illusion that fascism was ''the'' doctrine of the twentieth century, replacing liberalism and democracy. The principles of this doctrine were laid down in the article on fascism, written by [[Giovanni Gentile]] and signed by Mussolini that appeared in 1932 in the ''[[Enciclopedia Italiana]]''. In 1929, a concordat with the [[Holy See|Vatican]] was signed, the [[Lateran treaties]], by which the Italian state was at last recognised by the [[Roman Catholic Church]], and the independence of [[Vatican City]] was recognised by the Italian state. In 1927, Mussolini was [[baptism|baptised]] by a Roman Catholic [[priest]] in order to take away certain Catholic opposition, who were still very critical of a regime which had taken away papal property and virtually [[blackmail]]ed the Vatican. However, Mussolini was never known to be a practicing Catholic, and was privately very hostile to the church. Since 1927, and more even after 1929, Mussolini, with his anti-Communist doctrines, convinced many Catholics to actively support him. In the encyclical ''Non abbiamo bisogno'', [[Pope Pius XI]] attacked the Fascist regime for its policy against the [[Catholic Action]] and certain tendencies to overrule Catholic education morals. The law codes of the [[parliamentary system]] were rewritten under Mussolini. All teachers in schools and universities had to swear an oath to defend the fascist regime. Newspaper editors were all personally chosen by Mussolini and no one who did not possess a certificate of approval from the fascist party could practice journalism. These certificates were issued in secret; Mussolini thus skillfully created the illusion of a "free press". The trade unions were also deprived of any independence and were integrated into what was called the [[corporate state|"corporative" system]]. The aim (never completely achieved), inspired by medieval guilds, was to place all Italians in various professional organizations or "corporations", all of which were under clandestine governmental control. Large sums of money were spent on highly visible public works, and on international prestige projects such as the ''[[SS Rex]]'' [[Blue Riband]] ocean liner and aeronautical achievements such as the world's fastest [[seaplane]] the [[Macchi M.C.72]] and the transatlantic flying boat cruise of [[Italo Balbo]], who was greeted with much fanfare in the [[United States]] when he landed in [[Chicago]]. ===Foreign policy=== In [[foreign policy]], Mussolini soon shifted from the [[pacifism|pacifist]] anti-[[imperialism]] of his lead-up to power to an extreme form of aggressive nationalism. He dreamt of making Italy a nation that was "great, respected and feared" throughout Europe, and indeed the world. An early example was his bombardment of [[Corfu]] in 1923. Soon after he succeeded in setting up a [[puppet state|puppet regime]] in [[Albania]] and in ruthlessly consolidating Italian power in [[Libya]], which had been loosely a colony since 1912. It was his dream to make the [[Mediterranean Sea|Mediterranean]] ''mare nostrum'' ("our sea" in [[Latin]]), and he established a large naval base on the Greek island of [[Leros]] to enforce a strategic hold on the eastern Mediterranean. However, his first 'baby steps' into foreign policy seemed to portray him as a 'statesman', for he participated in the [[Locarno]] Treaties of 1925 and the attempted [[Four Power Pact]] of 1933 was Mussolini's brainchild. Following the [[Stresa Front]] against Germany in 1935, however, Mussolini's policy took a dramatic turning point and revealed itself once again to be that of an [[aggressive]] nature. This domino-effect of war began with the [[Second Italo-Abyssinian War]]. ===Conquest of Ethiopia=== {{main|Second Italo-Abyssinian War}} [[Image:Mussolini standing on a tank.jpg|right|thumb|200px|''Il Duce'' standing on top of a tank]] In an effort to realise an [[Italian Empire]] or the [[New Roman Empire]] as supporters called it,<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.lifeinitaly.com/history/|publisher=LifeinItaly.com|title=A Brief History of Italy: From the Etruscans to today|date=[[8 January]] [[2008]]}}</ref> Italy set its sights on [[Ethiopian Empire|Ethiopia]] with an invasion that was carried out rapidly. Italy's forces were far superior to the Abyssinian forces, especially in regards to air power and were soon [[Second Italo-Abyssinian War|declared victors]]. Emperor [[Haile Selassie]] was forced to flee the country, with Italy entering the capital [[Addis Ababa]] to proclaim an Empire by May 1936, making Ethiopia part of [[Italian East Africa]].<ref name="Red">{{cite news|url=http://www.icrc.org/Web/eng/siteeng0.nsf/htmlall/5RUHGM?OpenDocument&View=defaultBody&style=custo_print|publisher=icrc.org|title=Ethiopia 1935-36|date=[[8 January]] [[2008]]}}</ref> Despite the fact that all of the major European powers of the time had also colonised parts of Africa, including some who maintained power by particularly brutal means such as the [[France|French]]<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.acdis.uiuc.edu/Research/OPs/Pederson/html/contents/sect3.html|publisher=acdis.uiuc.edu|title=French Colonialism in Africa|date=[[8 January]] [[2008]]}}</ref> and [[United Kingdom|British]],<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.countercurrents.org/uk-khan220905.htm|publisher=CounterCurrents.org|title=British, Masters Of Colonialism|date=[[8 January]] [[2008]]}}</ref> detractors of Mussolini commonly choose to single out Italy's actions. Retroactively, Italy was criticised for its use of [[mustard gas]] and [[phosgene]] against its enemies and also for its zero tolerance approach to enemy guerrillas, allegedly authorised by Mussolini.<ref name="Red">{{cite news|url=http://www.icrc.org/Web/eng/siteeng0.nsf/htmlall/5RUHGM?OpenDocument&View=defaultBody&style=custo_print|publisher=icrc.org|title=Ethiopia 1935-36|date=[[8 January]] [[2008]]}}</ref> When [[Rodolfo Graziani]] the [[viceroy]] of Ethiopia was nearly assassinated at an official ceremony, with the guerrilla bomb actually exploding among the people there, a very stronghanded reaction followed against the guerrillas, including those who were prisoners according to the [[International Red Cross]].<ref name="Red">{{cite news|url=http://www.icrc.org/Web/eng/siteeng0.nsf/htmlall/5RUHGM?OpenDocument&View=defaultBody&style=custo_print|publisher=icrc.org|title=Ethiopia 1935-36|date=[[8 January]] [[2008]]}}</ref> The IRC also alleged that Italy bombed their tents in areas of guerrillas military encampment; though Italy denied it had intended to, insisting that the rebels were targeted.<ref name="Red">{{cite news|url=http://www.icrc.org/Web/eng/siteeng0.nsf/htmlall/5RUHGM?OpenDocument&View=defaultBody&style=custo_print|publisher=icrc.org|title=Ethiopia 1935-36|date=[[8 January]] [[2008]]}}</ref> It wasn't until the [[East African Campaign (World War II)|East African Campaign]]'s conclusion in 1941 that Italy lost its East African territories, after taking on a fourteen nation allied force. ===Spanish Civil War=== {{main|Spanish Civil War and Foreign Involvement|Corpo Truppe Volontarie}} His active intervention in 1936–1939 on the side of [[Francisco Franco|Franco]] in the [[Spanish Civil War]] ended any possibility of reconciliation with [[France]] and [[United Kingdom|Britain]]. As a result, his relationship with [[Adolf Hitler]] became closer, and he chose to accept the German [[annexation]] of [[Austria]] in 1938 and the dismemberment of [[Czechoslovakia]] in 1939. At the [[Munich Conference]] in September 1938, he posed as a moderate working for European peace, helping [[Nazi Germany]] seize control of the [[Sudetenland]]. His "axis" with Germany was confirmed when he made the "[[Pact of Steel]]" with Hitler in May 1939, as the previous "[[Rome-Berlin Axis]]" of 1936 had been unofficial. Members of [[TIGR]], a Slovene anti-fascist group, plotted to kill Mussolini in [[Kobarid]] in 1938, but their attempt was unsuccessful. ==Axis power== ===Rome-Berlin relations=== {{main|Rome-Berlin Axis|Pact of Steel}} The relationship between Mussolini and Adolf Hitler was a contentious one early on. While Hitler cited Mussolini as an influence, Mussolini had gone as far as deriding Hitler as "a [[barbarian]], a criminal and a [[pederast]]"<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.frontpagemag.com/Articles/Read.aspx?GUID=4F727F1C-01F2-44AA-93B1-ECCB922B38C3|publisher=FrontPageMag.com|title=Left-wing Fascism: An Intellectual Disorder|date=[[8 January]] [[2008]]}}</ref>{{Verify credibility|date=June 2008}} after the Nazis had assassinated his friend and ally, [[Engelbert Dollfuss]] the [[Austrofascist]] dictator of [[Austria]] in 1933. Both movements focused heavily on [[the state]] and [[conquest]], though there was some conflicting views of ideology: while Hitler lauded [[racialism]] and [[anti-semitism]], Mussolini and the Italian fascists did not. Mussolini viewed himself as a modern day [[Roman Emperor]], a [[cultural]] [[elite]] and wished to "[[Italianisation|Italianise]]" the parts of the [[Italian Empire]] he had desired to build.<ref name="cultural">{{cite news|url=http://jch.sagepub.com/cgi/reprint/7/3/115|publisher=jch.sagepub.com|title=Mussolini's Cultural Revolution: Fascist or Nationalist?|date=[[8 January]] [[2008]]}}</ref> A cultural superiority, rather than a view of racialism.<ref name="cultural">{{cite news|url=http://jch.sagepub.com/cgi/reprint/7/3/115|publisher=jch.sagepub.com|title=Mussolini's Cultural Revolution: Fascist or Nationalist?|date=[[8 January]] [[2008]]}}</ref> The difference was that a culture can be learned, while a race cannot. {{cquote|''"[[Race (classification of human beings)|Race]]! It is a feeling, not a reality: ninety-five percent, at least, is a feeling. Nothing will ever make me believe that biologically pure races can be shown to exist today. [...] [[National pride]] has no need of the delirium of race."''|20px|20px|Benito Mussolini, 1933.<ref>{{cite book | last = Montagu | first =Ashley | title =Man's Most Dangerous Myth: The Fallacy of Race| publisher = Rowman Altamira| url =http://books.google.com/books?id=tkHqP3vgYi4C&pg=PA187&lpg=PA187&dq=%22+Nothing+will+ever+make+me+believe+that+biologically+pure+races+can+be+shown+to+exist+today%22&source=web&ots=ao7O_J0vr8&sig=22zZBSKlbcxbrBF1PXP3_PJygj0&hl=en | isbn =0803946481}}</ref>}} Incidentally, the British would question even the Germans' claims of "racial purity" by commonly deriding the Nazis as "[[Huns]]",<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,823488,00.html|publisher=Time.com|title="Guns for the Huns"|date=[[8 January]] [[2008]]}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.firstworldwar.com/atoz/hun.htm|publisher=FirstWorldWar.com|title=Hun|date=[[8 January]] [[2008]]}}</ref> a reference to the fact that Germany was once conquered and made part of the [[Hunnic Empire]], a [[mongoloid]] people.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.allempires.com/article/index.php?q=huns|publisher=AllEmpires.com|title=The Huns|date=[[8 January]] [[2008]]}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.greatkat.com/03/attilathehun.html|publisher=GreatKat.com|title=Attila the Hun: Biography|date=[[8 January]] [[2008]]}}</ref> Regardless of some differences in ideology, Hitler's [[Nazi Germany]] had clearly established itself as a formidable power that was rising quickly in prominence by the mid-1930s and in November 1936, Mussolini had coined the term [[Axis Powers]] to refer to the Rome-Berlin relationship between the states.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.historyworld.net/wrldhis/PlainTextHistories.asp?historyid=ac31|publisher=HistoryWorld.net|title=History of World War II|date=[[8 January]] [[2008]]}}</ref> Ideologically Italian fascism did not discriminate against the [[Italian Jew]]ish community: Mussolini recognised that a small contingent had lived there "since the days of the [[Kings of Rome]]" and should "remain undisturbed".<ref>{{cite book | last = Hollander | first =Ethan J| title =Italian Fascism and the Jews| publisher = University of California| url =http://weber.ucsd.edu/~ejhollan/Haaretz%20-%20Ital%20fascism%20-%20English.PDF | isbn =0803946481}}</ref> There was even some Jews in the [[National Fascist Party]], such as Ettore Ovazza who in 1935 founded the Jewish Fascist paper ''La Nostra Bandiera''<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.acjna.org/acjna/articles_detail.aspx?id=300|publisher=ACJNA.org|title=The Italian Holocaust: The Story of an Assimilated Jewish Community|date=[[8 January]] [[2008]]}}</ref> ("Our Flag"). However by 1938, the enormous influence Hitler now had over Mussolini became clear with the introduction of the ''[[Manifesto of Race]]''. The Manifesto, which was closely modeled on the Nazi [[Nuremberg laws]]<ref name="Paxton"/>, stripped Jews of their [[Italian citizenship]] and with it any position in the government or professions. The German influence on Italian policy upset the established balance in Fascist Italy and proved highly unpopular to most Italians, to the extent that [[Pope Pius XII]] sent a letter to Mussolini protesting against the new laws.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.historylearningsite.co.uk/mussolini_roman_catholic.htm|publisher=HistoryLearningSite.co.uk|title=Mussolini and the Roman Catholic Church|date=[[8 January]] [[2008]]}}</ref> ===Munich Conference, war looming=== {{main|Munich Agreement|Italian invasion of Albania}} [[Image:Chamberlain, Mussolini, Halifax, Ciano.png|right|thumb|240px|[[Neville Chamberlain|Chamberlain]], Mussolini, [[E. F. L. Wood, 1st Earl of Halifax|Viscount Halifax]] and [[Galeazzo Ciano|Ciano]], at the [[Rome Opera House]] in 1939.]] The [[Allies of World War II#Original Allies|Allies]] still regarded Mussolini as approachable at this point and ''Il Duce'' acted as the go-between at the [[Munich Agreement]]. This was an effort to avoid all-out warfare between the powers, which was signed by [[Neville Chamberlain]] of Britain, [[Édouard Daladier]] of France, as well as Mussolini and Hitler.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.orange-papers.org/orange-rroot300.html|publisher=orange-papers.org|title=The Years Before the War|date=[[8 January]] [[2008]]}}</ref> However the ''[[Italia irredenta]]'' stance, desired the returning of lands which previous belonged to older states now incorporated inside of Italy, to complete the [[Italian unification]].<ref name="unification">{{cite book | last = Lowe | first =CJ| title =Italian Foreign Policy 1870-1940| publisher = Routledge| url =http://books.google.com/books?id=5Cfuax6XHF0C&pg=PA11&lpg=PA11&dq=irredentism&source=web&ots=Kg9o1ECiRf&sig=9LHnE17Ryi3BqmFRgGuCgT0sNKc&hl=en| isbn =0415265975}}</ref> This included [[County of Nice|Nice]] which was part of the [[Kingdom of Sardinia]] until 1860 as well as [[Duchy of Savoy|Savoy]],<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.britannica.com/eb/topic-524132/Sardinia|publisher=Britannica.com|title=Kingdom of Sardinia|date=[[8 January]] [[2008]]}}</ref> [[Corsica]] which was part of the [[Republic of Genoa]] until 1768,<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.age-of-the-sage.org/historical/biography/paoli_corsica.html|publisher=Age-of-the-Sage.org|title=Pasquale Paoli & Corsican Independence from Genoa|date=[[8 January]] [[2008]]}}</ref> [[Dalmatia]] which was part of the [[Republic of Venice]] until 1797 and [[Malta]] which was part of the [[Kingdom of Sicily]] until 1530.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.regalis.com/malta/maltasicily.htm|publisher=Regalis.com|title=The Order of Saint John and the Kingdom of Sicily|date=[[8 January]] [[2008]]}}</ref> Mussolini had imperial designs on [[Tunisia]] which had some [[Tunisian Italians|support in that country]].<ref name="unification">{{cite book | last = Lowe | first =CJ| title =Italian Foreign Policy 1870-1940| publisher = Routledge| url =http://books.google.com/books?id=5Cfuax6XHF0C&pg=PA11&lpg=PA11&dq=irredentism&source=web&ots=Kg9o1ECiRf&sig=9LHnE17Ryi3BqmFRgGuCgT0sNKc&hl=en| isbn =0415265975}}</ref> In April 1939 with world focus on Hitler's invasion of [[Czechoslovakia]], looking to restore honour from a much older defeat [[Italian invasion of Albania|Italy invaded Albania]]. Italy defeated [[Albanian Kingdom|Albania]] within just five days forcing king [[Zog of Albania|Zog]] to flee, setting up a period of [[Albania under Italy]]. Until May 1939, the Axis had not been entirely official, however during that month the [[Pact of Steel]] treaty was made outlining the "[[friendship]] and [[alliance]]" between Germany and Italy, signed by each of its foreign ministers.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://astro.temple.edu/~rimmerma/Italo_German_alliance_1939.htm|publisher=astro.temple.edu|title=The Italo-German Alliance, May 22, 1939|date=[[8 January]] [[2008]]}}</ref> Italy's king [[Victor Emanuel III]] was also wary of the pact, favouring the more [[Allies of World War I|traditional Italian allies]] of Britain and France.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.questia.com/library/encyclopedia/victor_emmanuel_iii.jsp|publisher=Questia.com|title=Victor Emanuel III|date=[[8 January]] [[2008]]}}</ref> Hitler was intent on invading [[Poland]], though [[Galeazzo Ciano]] warned this would likely lead to war with the Allies. Hitler dismissed Ciano's comment, predicting that instead the West would back down like with Czechoslovakia and suggested that Italy should invade [[Kingdom of Yugoslavia|Yugoslavia]].<ref name="knox">{{cite book | last = Knox | first =MacGregor | title =Mussolini Unleashed, 1939-1941: Politics and Strategy in Fascist Italy's Last War | publisher =Cambridge University Press| url =http://books.google.com/books?id=_PwCu_D-HiUC&pg=PA44&lpg=PA44&dq=mussolini+non-belligerent&source=web&ots=bmSFcKswo2&sig=mTYUuX-71ql_DH8Xwlg_bX_mvzs&hl=en#PPA43,M1| isbn =0521338352}}</ref> The offer was tempting to Mussolini, but at that stage world war would be a disaster for Italy as the [[armament]]s situation from building the [[Italian Empire]] thus-far was lean. Most significantly, Victor Emmanuel had demanded neutrality in the dispute.<ref name="knox">{{cite book | last = Knox | first =MacGregor | title =Mussolini Unleashed, 1939-1941: Politics and Strategy in Fascist Italy's Last War | publisher =Cambridge University Press| url = http://books.google.com/books?id=_PwCu_D-HiUC&pg=PA44&lpg=PA44&dq=mussolini+non-belligerent&source=web&ots=bmSFcKswo2&sig=mTYUuX-71ql_DH8Xwlg_bX_mvzs&hl=en#PPA43,M1| isbn =0521338352}}</ref> Thus when [[World War II]] in [[Europe]] began on [[September 1]], [[1939]] with the [[Invasion of Poland (1939)|German invasion of Poland]] eliciting the response of the [[United Kingdom]] and [[France]] declaring war on Germany, Italy remained [[non-belligerent]] in the conflict.<ref name="knox">{{cite book | last = Knox | first =MacGregor | title =Mussolini Unleashed, 1939-1941: Politics and Strategy in Fascist Italy's Last War | publisher =Cambridge University Press| url = http://books.google.com/books?id=_PwCu_D-HiUC&pg=PA44&lpg=PA44&dq=mussolini+non-belligerent&source=web&ots=bmSFcKswo2&sig=mTYUuX-71ql_DH8Xwlg_bX_mvzs&hl=en#PPA43,M1| isbn =0521338352}}</ref> ===War declared=== {{main|Military history of Italy during World War II}} As World War II began, Ciano and [[E. F. L. Wood, 1st Earl of Halifax|Viscount Halifax]] were holding secret phone conversations. The British wanted Italy on their side against Germany as it had been in [[World War I]].<ref name="knox">{{cite book | last = Knox | first =MacGregor | title =Mussolini Unleashed, 1939-1941: Politics and Strategy in Fascist Italy's Last War | publisher =Cambridge University Press| url = http://books.google.com/books?id=_PwCu_D-HiUC&pg=PA44&lpg=PA44&dq=mussolini+non-belligerent&source=web&ots=bmSFcKswo2&sig=mTYUuX-71ql_DH8Xwlg_bX_mvzs&hl=en#PPA43,M1| isbn =0521338352}}</ref> French government opinion was more geared towards action against Italy, they were itching to attack Italy in [[Libya]]. Though in September 1939, France swung to the opposite extreme, offering to discuss issues with Italy, but as the French were unwilling to discuss Corsica, Nice and Savoy, Mussolini did not answer.<ref name="knox">{{cite book | last = Knox | first =MacGregor | title =Mussolini Unleashed, 1939-1941: Politics and Strategy in Fascist Italy's Last War | publisher =Cambridge University Press| url = http://books.google.com/books?id=_PwCu_D-HiUC&pg=PA44&lpg=PA44&dq=mussolini+non-belligerent&source=web&ots=bmSFcKswo2&sig=mTYUuX-71ql_DH8Xwlg_bX_mvzs&hl=en#PPA43,M1| isbn =0521338352}}</ref> {{cquote|''"So long as the Duce lives, one can rest assured that Italy will seize every opportunity to achieve its imperialistic aims."''|20px|20px|[[Adolf Hitler]], late November 1939.<ref name="knox">{{cite book | last = Knox | first =MacGregor | title =Mussolini Unleashed, 1939-1941: Politics and Strategy in Fascist Italy's Last War | publisher =Cambridge University Press| url = http://books.google.com/books?id=_PwCu_D-HiUC&pg=PA44&lpg=PA44&dq=mussolini+non-belligerent&source=web&ots=bmSFcKswo2&sig=mTYUuX-71ql_DH8Xwlg_bX_mvzs&hl=en#PPA43,M1| isbn =0521338352}}</ref>}} [[Image:Italian empire 1940.PNG|200px|thumb|The [[Italian Empire]] in 1940.]] Convinced that the war would soon be over, with a German victory looking likely at that point, Mussolini decided to enter the war on the Axis side. Accordingly, Italy declared war on Britain and France on [[June 10]] [[1940]].<ref name="wartwo">{{cite news|url=http://library.thinkquest.org/CR0212881/italdewa.html|publisher=ThinkQuest.org|title=Italy Declares War|date=[[8 January]] [[2008]]}}</ref> Italy joined the Germans in the [[Battle of France]], fighting the fortified [[Alpine Line]] at the border: just eleven days later France surrendered to the [[Axis powers]], included in [[Italian-occupied France|Italian controlled France]] was most of [[County of Nice|Nice]] and other south-eastern counties.<ref name="wartwo">{{cite news|url=http://library.thinkquest.org/CR0212881/italdewa.html|publisher=ThinkQuest.org|title=Italy Declares War|date=[[8 January]] [[2008]]}}</ref> Meanwhile in Africa, Mussolini's [[Italian East Africa]] forces attacked the British in their [[Anglo-Egyptian Sudan|Sudan]], [[British East Africa|Kenya]] and [[British Somaliland]] colonies, in what would become known as the [[East African Campaign (World War II)|East African Campaign]].<ref>{{cite book | last = Samson | first =Anne | title =Britain, South Africa and East African Campaign: International Library of Colonial History| publisher = I B Tauris & Co Ltd| url =http://www.amazon.co.uk/Britain-African-Campaign-International-Colonial/dp/1845110404| isbn =0415265975}}</ref> British Somaliland was conquered and became part of Italian East Africa on [[August 3]], [[1940]], there were Italian advances in Sudan and Kenya.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.worldwariihistory.info/1940.html|publisher=WorldWarIIHistory.info|title=1940 World War II Timeline|date=[[8 January]] [[2008]]}}</ref> [[Image:Benito Mussolini and Adolf Hitler.jpg|thumb|left|150px|Benito Mussolini and Adolf Hitler, together in Yugoslavia.]] Just over a month later, the [[Tenth Army (Italy)|Italian Tenth Army]] commanded by General [[Rodolfo Graziani]] crossed from [[Italian Libya]] into [[Military history of Egypt during World War II|Egypt]] where British forces were located; this would become the [[Western Desert Campaign]]. Advances were successful, but the Italians stopped at [[Sidi Barrani]] waiting for [[Military logistics|logistic]] supplies to catch up. During [[October 25]], [[1940]], Mussolini sent the [[Italian Air Corps]] to [[Belgium]], where the airforce took part in the [[Battle of Britain]] for around two months.<ref>{{cite book | last = Mollo| first = Andrew | title =The Armed Forces of World War II| publisher = I B Tauris & Co Ltd| url =http://www.amazon.com/Armed-Forces-World-War-Organization/dp/0517544784| isbn =978-0517544785}}</ref> In October, Mussolini also sent Italian forces into [[Kingdom of Greece|Greece]] starting the [[Greco-Italian War]], after initial success this backfired, as the Greek counterattack proved relentless, resulting in Italy losing one quarter of Albania. Germany soon committed forces to the [[Balkan Peninsula|Balkans]] to fight the gathering [[Allies of World War II|Allies]].<ref name="spartacus">{{cite news|url=http://www.spartacus.schoolnet.co.uk/2WWchron.htm|publisher=Spartacus.SchoolNet.co.uk|title=Chronology of the Second World War|date=[[8 January]] [[2008]]}}</ref> Events in Africa had changed by early 1941, [[Operation Compass]] had forced the Italians back into Libya, with some additional losses.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://militaryhistory.about.com/od/worldwarii/p/compass.htm|publisher=About.com|title=World War II: Operation Compass|date=[[8 January]] [[2008]]}}</ref> Also in the [[East African Campaign]], a three pronged Allied invasion against Italian East Africa took place, though the Italians fought back hard, the mulitple-nation force they faced was too much and after the [[Battle of Keren]] defense started to crumble. However, when addressing the Italian public on the events, he was completely open about the situation saying "We call bread bread and wine wine, and when the enemy wins a battle it is useless and ridiculous to seek, as the English do in their incomparable hypocrisy, to deny or diminish it."<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.ibiblio.org/pha/policy/1941/410223a.html|publisher=IlBiblio.org|title=Speech Delivered by Premier Benito Mussolini|date=[[8 January]] [[2008]]}}</ref> Part of his comment was in relation to earlier success the Italians had in Africa, before being defeated by an Allied force later. Germany finally supported Italy with the [[Afrika Korps]], with fighting continuing on long into 1941 when [[Battle of Gondar|Gondar was lost]] in November.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.probertencyclopaedia.com/F_BATTLE_OF_GONDAR.HTM|publisher=The Probert Encyclopaedia|title=Battle of Gondar|date=[[8 January]] [[2008]]}}</ref> Italy was part of the Axis [[invasion of Yugoslavia]], which was greatly successful, the same month the [[Battle of Greece]] ended in Italian victory with Axis support.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.feldgrau.com/greecewar.html|publisher=Feldgrau.com|title=The Invasion and Battle for Greece (Operation Marita)|date=2008-01-08}}</ref> With the [[Operation Barbarossa|Axis invasion of the Soviet Union]], Mussolini declared war on the [[Soviet Union]] in June 1941 and sent an [[Italian war in Soviet Union, 1941-1943|army to fight there]]. After the [[Japan]]ese [[attack on Pearl Harbor]], he declared war on the [[United States]].<ref name="spartacus">{{cite news|url=http://www.spartacus.schoolnet.co.uk/2WWchron.htm|publisher=Spartacus.SchoolNet.co.uk|title=Chronology of the Second World War|date=[[8 January]] [[2008]]}}</ref> ===Dismissed and arrested=== Italy's position had become untenable by the summer of 1943. The Allies had defeated the Axis in the [[Tunisia Campaign]], there were setbacks on the [[Eastern Front (World War II)|Eastern Front]] and the war had come to the nation's very doorstep with the [[Allied invasion of Sicily]]. <ref name="lastdays">{{cite book | last = Moseley | first = Ray |title =Mussolini: The Last 600 Days of Il Duce| publisher =Taylor Trade| url =http://books.google.com/books?id=UmxaWvOL_IgC&pg=PA7&lpg=PA7&dq=Campo+Imperatore+abruzzo+mussolini&source=web&ots=LhKonN8yB9&sig=Z2HGLGJ_ldFqh6r8ElzmuqUs7c4&hl=en | isbn = 1589790952}}</ref> The home front was also in bad shape as the Allied bombings were taking their toll. The factories were ground to a virtual standstill due to a lack of [[raw materials]], coal and oil. Additionally, there was a chronic shortage of food, and what food was available was being sold at nearly confiscatory prices. Some Italians began to lose trust in governmental reports and turned to [[Vatican Radio]] or [[BBC World Service|Radio London]] for more accurate news coverage. Discontent came to a head in March with a wave of strikes in the industrial north--the first large-scale strikes since 1925.<ref name="fital">{{cite book | last =Whittam| first = John |title =Fascist Italy| publisher =Manchester University Press| url =http://books.google.com/books?id=hHgMm6APG_0C&dq=%22Vatican+Radio%22+%22Radio+London%22+fascist&source=gbs_summary_s&cad=0 | isbn = 0719040043}}</ref> Also in March, some of the major factories in [[Milan]] and [[Turin]] stopped production to secure evacuation allowances for workers' families. The physical German presence in Italy had sharply turned public opinion against Mussolini; for example, when the Allies took Sicily, the public welcomed them as liberators.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.bestofsicily.com/history3.htm|publisher=BestofSicily.com|title=Modern era|date=[[8 January]] [[2008]]}}</ref> [[Image:Grandi.jpg|130px|thumb|left|Fascist [[Dino Grandi|Grandi]] moved to replace Mussolini.]] [[Image:Victor Emmanuel III of Italy - Project Gutenberg eText 13955.jpg|thumb|right|135px|King [[Victor Emmanuel III of Italy|Victor Emmanuel III]] dismissed Mussolini.]] Some prominent members of the [[Italian Fascist]] government had turned against Mussolini by this point. Among them were Grandi and Mussolini's son-in-law Ciano. With several of his colleagues close to revolt, ''il Duce'' was forced to summon the [[Grand Council of Fascism]] on [[July 24]]. When he announced that the Germans were thinking of evacuating the south, Grandi launched a blistering attack on him.<ref name="lastdays">{{cite book | last = Moseley | first = Ray |title =Mussolini: The Last 600 Days of Il Duce| publisher =Taylor Trade| url =http://books.google.com/books?id=UmxaWvOL_IgC&pg=PA7&lpg=PA7&dq=Campo+Imperatore+abruzzo+mussolini&source=web&ots=LhKonN8yB9&sig=Z2HGLGJ_ldFqh6r8ElzmuqUs7c4&hl=en | isbn = 1589790952}}</ref> Grandi moved a resolution asking the king to resume his full constitutional powers--a [[vote of no confidence]] in Mussolini. This motion carried by a 19-7 margin. Despite this sharp rebuke, Mussolini showed up for work the next day as usual. He allegedly viewed the Grand Council as merely an advisory body and didn't think the vote would have any substantive effect.<ref name="fital"/> That afternoon, he was summoned to the royal palace by King [[Victor Emmanuel III of Italy|Victor Emmanuel III]], who had been planning to oust Mussolini earlier. When Mussolini tried to tell the king about the meeting, Victor Emmanuel cut him off and told him that he was being replaced by Marshal [[Pietro Badoglio]].<ref name="fital"/> After Mussolini left the palace, he was arrested on the king's orders.<ref name="prisonrescue">{{cite book |last=Annussek |first=Greg |title=Hitler's Raid to Save Mussolini |publisher=Da Capo Press |url =http://www.amazon.com/Hitlers-Raid-Save-Mussolini-Operation/dp/0306813963|isbn=978-0-306-81396-2}}</ref> By this time, discontent with Mussolini was such that when the news of his ouster was announced on the radio, there was no resistance.<ref name="fital"/> In an effort to conceal his location from the Germans, Mussolini was moved around before being sent to [[Campo Imperatore]], a mountain resort in [[Abruzzo]] where he was completely isolated.<ref name="lastdays">{{cite book | last = Moseley | first = Ray |title =Mussolini: The Last 600 Days of Il Duce| publisher =Taylor Trade| url =http://books.google.com/books?id=UmxaWvOL_IgC&pg=PA7&lpg=PA7&dq=Campo+Imperatore+abruzzo+mussolini&source=web&ots=LhKonN8yB9&sig=Z2HGLGJ_ldFqh6r8ElzmuqUs7c4&hl=en | isbn = 1589790952}}</ref> Due to the large Nazi presence in Italy, Badoglio announced that "the war continues at the side of our Germanic ally" in the hopes that chaos and Nazi retaliation against civilians could be avoided.<ref name="lastdays">{{cite book | last = Moseley | first = Ray |title =Mussolini: The Last 600 Days of Il Duce| publisher =Taylor Trade| url =http://books.google.com/books?id=UmxaWvOL_IgC&pg=PA7&lpg=PA7&dq=Campo+Imperatore+abruzzo+mussolini&source=web&ots=LhKonN8yB9&sig=Z2HGLGJ_ldFqh6r8ElzmuqUs7c4&hl=en | isbn = 1589790952}}</ref> Even as Badolglio was keeping up the appearance of loyalty to the Axis, he dissolved the Fascist Party two days after taking over. Also, his government was negotiating an [[armistice]] with the Allies, which was signed on [[September 3]], [[1943]]. Its announcement five days later threw Italy into chaos, a [[civil war]] of sorts. Badoglio and the king fled [[Rome]], leaving the [[Italian Army]] without orders. After a period of anarchy, Italy finally declared war on [[Nazi Germany]] on October 13 from [[Malta]]; thousands of troops were supplied to fight against the Germans, others refused to switch sides and had joined the Germans. The Badoglio government held a social truce with the [[Italian resistance movement|leftist partisans]] for the sake of Italy and to rid the land of the Nazis.<ref name="lastdays">{{cite book | last = Moseley | first = Ray |title =Mussolini: The Last 600 Days of Il Duce| publisher =Taylor Trade| url =http://books.google.com/books?id=UmxaWvOL_IgC&pg=PA7&lpg=PA7&dq=Campo+Imperatore+abruzzo+mussolini&source=web&ots=LhKonN8yB9&sig=Z2HGLGJ_ldFqh6r8ElzmuqUs7c4&hl=en | isbn = 1589790952}}</ref> ===Italian Social Republic=== {{main|Italian Social Republic}} [[Image:Flag of RSI.svg|thumb|right|180px|War flag of the [[Italian Social Republic|RSI]].]] Meanwhile, only two months after Mussolini had been dismissed and arrested, he was rescued from prison in the [[Gran Sasso raid]] by [[Nazi Germany|German]] [[special forces]] on [[September 12]], [[1943]]; this was carried out by [[Otto Skorzeny]].<ref name="prisonrescue">{{cite book |last=Annussek |first=Greg |title=Hitler's Raid to Save Mussolini |publisher=Da Capo Press |url =http://www.amazon.com/Hitlers-Raid-Save-Mussolini-Operation/dp/0306813963|isbn=978-0-306-81396-2}}</ref> The rescue saved Mussolini from being turned over to the Allies, as per the armistice.<ref name="lastdays"/> Hitler had made plans to arrest the king, [[Umberto II of Italy|Crown Prince Umberto]], Badoglio and the rest of the government and restore Mussolini to power in Rome, but the government's escape south likely foiled those plans.<ref name="RiseFall">{{cite book |title=[[The Rise and Fall of the Third Reich]] |last=Shirer |first=William |authorlink=William L. Shirer |coauthors= |year=1960 |publisher=[[Simon & Schuster]] |location=[[New York City]] |isbn= 0-671-72868-7}}</ref> By this time, Mussolini was in very poor health and wanted to retire. However, he was immediately taken to Germany for an audience with Hitler in his [[East Prussia]] hideaway. There, Hitler told him that unless he agreed to return to Italy and set up a new fascist state, the Germans would destroy Milan, Genoa and Turin. Feeling that he had to do what he could to blunt the edges of Nazi repression, Mussolini agreed to set up a new regime, the [[Italian Social Republic]].<ref name="lastdays"/> informally known as the ''Salò Republic'' because of its administration from the town of [[Salò]]. Mussolini lived in [[Gargnano]] on [[Lake Garda]] in [[Lombardy]] during this period, but he was little more than a [[puppet state|puppet ruler]] under the protection of his German liberators. After yielding to pressures from Hitler and the remaining loyal fascists who formed the government of the Republic of Salo, Mussolini helped orchestrate a series of executions of some of the fascist leaders who had betrayed him at the last meeting of the Fascist Grand Council. One of those executed included his son-in-law, [[Galeazzo Ciano]]. As Head of State and Minister of Foreign Affairs for the Italian Social Republic, Mussolini used much of his time to write his memoirs. Along with his autobiographical writings of 1928, these writings would be combined and published by [[Da Capo Press]] as ''My Rise and Fall.'' ==Death== [[Image:Cross mezzegra.jpg|thumb|175px|Cross marking the place in Mezzegra where Mussolini was shot]] {{Unreferenced|date=March 2008}} [[Image:Execution of Mussolini (1945).ogg|thumb|Universal news coverage of the death of Mussolini in 1945]] Mussolini and his [[mistress]] [[Clara Petacci]] were stopped by communist partisans and identified by the [[Political Commissar]] of the partisans' 52nd ''Garibaldi'' Brigade, [[Urbano Lazzaro]], on [[April 27]], [[1945]], near the village of [[Dongo (CO)|Dongo]] ([[Lake Como]]), as they headed for [[Switzerland]] to board a plane to escape to [[Spain]]. Mussolini had been traveling with retreating German forces and was apprehended while attempting to escape recognition by wearing a German military uniform. After several unsuccessful attempts to take them to [[Como]] they were brought to [[Mezzegra]]. They spent their last night in the house of the De Maria family. The next day, Mussolini and his [[mistress]] were both summarily executed, along with most of the members of their 15-man train, primarily ministers and officials of the Italian Social Republic. The shootings took place in the small village of [[Giulino di Mezzegra]]. According to the official version of events, the shootings were conducted by "Colonel Valerio" (''Colonnello Valerio''). Valerio's real name was [[Walter Audisio]]. Audisio was the communist partisan commander who was reportedly given the order to kill Mussolini by the National Liberation Committee. When Audisio entered the room where Mussolini and the other fascists were being held, he reportedly announced: "I have come to rescue you!... Do you have any weapons?", He then had them loaded into transports, driven a short distance, Audisio ordered "get down", Petacci hugged Mussolini and refused to move away from him when they were taken to an empty space. Shots were fired and Petacci fell down, just then Mussolini opened his Jacket and screamed "Shoot me in the chest!". Audisio shot him in the chest, Mussolini fell down but he didn't die, he was breathing heavily, Audisio went near and he shot one more bullet in his chest. Mussolini's face looked as if it he had significant pain, Audisio said to his driver "Look at his face, the emotions on his face don't suit him". The other members were also lined up before a firing squad later the same night.<ref>[http://www.celebritymorgue.com/benito-mussolini/ Benito Mussolini<!-- Bot generated title -->]</ref>{{Fact|date=December 2007}} === Mussolini's body === On [[April 29]][[1945]], the bodies of Mussolini and his mistress were taken to the Piazzale Loreto (in [[Milan]]) and hung upside down on meathooks from the roof of a gas station, then stoned by civilians from below. This was done both to discourage any fascists from continuing the fight and as an act of revenge for the hanging of many partisans in the same place by Axis authorities. The corpse of the deposed leader became subject to ridicule and abuse. After his death, and the display of his corpse in Milan, Mussolini was buried in an unmarked grave in [[Musocco]], the municipal cemetery to the north of the city. On [[Easter Sunday]] 1946 his body was located and dug up by [[Domenico Leccisi]] and two other [[neo-fascism|neo-Fascists]]. Making off with their hero, they left a message on the open grave: "Finally, O Duce, you are with us. We will cover you with roses, but the smell of your virtue will overpower the smell of those roses." On the loose for months&mdash;and a cause of great anxiety to the new Italian democracy&mdash;the Duce's body was finally 'recaptured' in August, hidden in a small trunk at the [[Certosa di Pavia]], just outside Milan. Two [[Franciscan Order|Fransciscan]] brothers were subsequently charged with concealing the corpse, though it was discovered on further investigation that he had been constantly on the move. Unsure what to do, the authorities held the remains in a kind of political limbo for 10 years, before agreeing to allow them to be re-interred at [[Predappio]] in [[Romagna]], his birth place, after a campaign headed by Leccisi and the Movimento Sociale Italiano. Leccisi, now a fascist deputy, went on to write his autobiography, ''With Mussolini Before and After Piazzale Loreto.'' [[Adone Zoli]], the Prime Minister of the day, contacted [[Rachele Mussolini|Donna Rachele]], the former dictator's widow, to tell her he was returning the remains, as he needed the support of the far-right in parliament, including Leccisi himself. In Predappio the dictator was buried in a [[crypt]] (the only posthumous honour granted to Mussolini). His tomb is flanked by [[marble]] [[fasces]] and a large idealised marble [[bust (sculpture)|bust]] of himself sits above the [[tomb]]. ==Legacy== Mussolini was survived by his wife, [[Donna Rachele Mussolini]], two sons, [[Vittorio Mussolini|Vittorio]] and [[Romano Mussolini]], and his daughter [[Edda Mussolini|Edda]], the widow of Count Ciano and Anna Maria. A third son, [[Bruno Mussolini|Bruno]], was killed in an air accident while flying a P108 bomber on a test mission, on [[August 7]], [[1941]].<ref>[http://www.comandosupremo.com/1941.html ''Commando Supremo: Events of 1941]</ref> [[Sophia Loren]]'s sister, Anna Maria Scicolone, was formerly married to Romano Mussolini, Mussolini's son. Mussolini's granddaughter [[Alessandra Mussolini]] is currently a member of the [[European Parliament]] for the extreme [[right-wing]] party [[Alternativa Sociale]]; other relatives of Edda (Castrianni) moved to [[England]] after World War II. Mussolini's [[National Fascist Party]] was banned in the postwar [[Constitution of Italy]], but a number of successor neo-fascist parties emerged to carry on its legacy. Alessandra Mussolini runs one of the primary neo-fascist parties in modern Italy, [[Azione Sociale]]. Historically, the strongest neo-fascist party was [[Italian Social Movement-National Right|MSI]] (''Movimento Sociale Italiano''), which was declared dissolved in 1995 and replaced by the [[National Alliance (Italy)|National Alliance]], which distanced itself from Fascism (its leader [[Gianfranco Fini]] once declared that Fascism was "an absolute evil"). These parties were united under [[Silvio Berlusconi]]'s [[House of Freedoms]] coalition and the leader of the National Alliance, [[Gianfranco Fini]], was one of Berlusconi's most trusted advisors. In 2006, the [[House of Freedoms]] coalition was narrowly defeated by [[Romano Prodi]]'s coalition, [[L'Unione]]. ==In popular culture== [[Charlie Chaplin]]'s 1940 film ''[[The Great Dictator]]'' satirizes Mussolini as "Benzino Napaloni", portrayed by [[Jack Oakie]]. More serious biographical depictions include a look at at the last few days of Mussolini's life in [[Carlo Lizzani]]'s movie [http://www.imdb.com/title/tt0071880/ ''Mussolini: Ultimo atto''] (''Mussolini: The last act'', 1974) and [[George C. Scott]]'s portrayal in the 1985 television mini-series ''Mussolini: The Untold Story''. Actor [[Antonio Banderas]] also played the title role in ''[[Benito - The Rise and Fall of Mussolini]]'' in 1993, which covered his life from his school teacher days to the beginning of World War I, prior to his rise as dictator. Mussolini is also depicted in the films ''[[Tea with Mussolini]]'' and ''[[Lion of the Desert]]''. Also in [[The Time Tunnel]] , in the Episode called "The Ghost of Nero". When the Protagonists Doug and Tony were rescued by some Italian Soldiers during the the First World War. The "Ghost" of Nero inhabits a soldier, which is revealed to be Mussolini. Mussolini has been referenced less seriously in television episodes of ''[[The Simpsons]]'' and ''[[The Young Ones (TV series)|The Young Ones]]'', as well as in the song '[[Cult of Personality]]' by the rock band [[Living Colour]]. *[[Larry Niven]] and [[Jerry Pournelle]]'s ''[[Inferno (novel)|Inferno]]'', a 1976 modern take on ''[[Divine Comedy|Dante's Inferno]]'', has the protagonist being guided by an analog of [[Virgil]] who is ultimately revealed to be Mussolini. ==See also== * [[Faisceau]] * [[Claretta Petacci]] * [[Margherita Sarfatti]] * [[Squadrismo]] ==References== {{reflist|2}} ==Bibliography== {{Refbegin|2}} * ''Mussolini''. Bosworth, R.J.B., London, Hodder, 2002 (hardback ISBN 0340731443); (paperback ISBN 0340809884). * "''Mussolini's Italy: Life Under the Dictatorship 1915-1945''". Bosworth, R.J.B., London, Allen Lane, 2006 (hardback ISBN 0713996978, paperback 2006 ISBN 0141012919). * ''The Birth of Fascist Ideology, From Cultural Rebellion to Political Revolution'', [[Zeev Sternhell]], with Mario Sznajder and Maia Asheri, trans. by David Maisel, Princeton University Press, NJ, 1994. pg 214. * ''Mussolini's Cities: Internal Colonialism in Italy, 1930-1939'', Cambria Press: 2007 * ''Mussolini's Rome: rebuilding the Eternal City'', Borden W. Painter, Jr., 2005 * ''Mussolini: A biography'', Denis Mack Smith ,New York: Random House 1982 * ''Mussolini'', [[Renzo De Felice]], Torino : Einaudi, 1995. * ''Mussolini: A New Life'', Nicholas Farrell, London: Phoenix Press, 2003, ISBN 1842121235. * ''Mussolini: The Last 600 Days of Il Duce'', Ray Moseley, Dallas: Taylor Trade Publishing, 2004. * ''Mussolini in the First World War: The Journalist, the Soldier, the Fascist''. O'Brien, Paul. Oxford: Berg Publishers, 2004 (hardback, ISBN 1-84520-051-9; (paperback, ISBN 1-84520-052-7). * ''Mastering Modern World History'' by Norman Lowe "Italy, 1918-1945: the first appearance of fascism. * ''Europe 1870-1991'' by Terry Morris and Derrick Murphy * ''Il Duce'' - Christopher Hibbert * ''The Last Centurion'' by Rudolph S.Daldin www.benito-mussolini.com ISBN 0-921447-34-5 *''Hitler and Mussolini. The Secret Meetings'' by Santi Corvaja translated by Robert L. Miller Enigma 2001 ISBN1-929631-00-6 *''Mussolini. The Secrets of his Death'' by Luciano Garibaldi Enigma 2004 ISBN1-929631-23-5 {{Refend}} ===Writings of Mussolini=== {{Refbegin|2}} *''Giovanni Hus ([[Jan Hus]]), il veridico'' Rome (1913) Published in America under ''John Hus'' (New York: Albert and Charles Boni, 1929) Republished by the Italian Book Co., NY (1939) under ''John Hus, the Veracious''. *''The Cardinal's Mistress'' (trans. Hiram Motherwell, New York: Albert and Charles Boni, 1928) *There is an essay on "The Doctrine of Fascism" credited to Benito Mussolini but ghost written by [[Giovanni Gentile]] that appeared in the 1932 edition of the [[Enciclopedia Italiana]], and excerpts can be read at [[Doctrine of Fascism]]. There are also links to the complete text. * ''La Mia Vita'' ("My Life"), Mussolini's autobiography written upon request of the American Ambassador in Rome (Child). Mussolini, at first not interested, decided to dictate the story of his life to Arnaldo Mussolini, his brother. The story covers the period up to 1929, includes Mussolini's personal thoughts on Italian Politics and the reasons that motivated his new revolutionary idea. It covers the march on Rome and the beginning of the dictatorship and includes some of his most famous speeches in the Italian Parliament (Oct 1924, Jan 1925). *From 1951 to 1962 Edoardo and Duilio Susmel worked for "La Fenice" publisher in order to print opera omnia (all the works) of Mussolini in 35 volumes. {{Refend}} ==External links== {{sisterlinks|Benito Mussolini}} * [http://home.comcast.net/~lowe9101/mussolini/ Mussolini In pictures] * [http://www.comandosupremo.com/Mussolini.html Commando Supremo: Benito Mussolini] * [http://www.snopes.com/history/govern/trains.htm Did Mussolini really make the trains run on time?] * [http://www.publiceye.org/fascist/corporatism.html Is Mussolini quote on corporatism accurate?] *[http://books.google.com/books?q=mussolini+%22my+autobiography%22& 2 Mussolini autobiographies in one book. English. Searchable.] Click on the result titled "My Rise and Fall" (usually the top result). Then use the search form in the left column titled "search within this book." *[http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=99690246 The 1928 autobiography of Benito Mussolini. Online.] ''My Autobiography''. Book by Benito Mussolini; Charles Scribner's Sons, 1928. *[http://www.libcom.org/history/articles/murder-michael-schirru Michael Schirru's failed attempt on Mussolini's life] *[http://www.haaretz.com/hasen/pages/ShArt.jhtml?itemNo=735492 The Jewish mother of Fascism] ''Haaretz'' article on Margherita Sarfatti by Saviona Mane *[http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/europe/3144984.stm ''Il Duce 'sought Hitler ban''', BBC News 27 September, 2003] {{start box}} {{s-off}} {{succession box|title=[[Prime Minister of Italy]]|before=[[Luigi Facta]]|after=[[Pietro Badoglio]]|years=1922 – 1943}} {{succession box|title=[[Italian Minister of Foreign Affairs]]|before=[[Carlo Schanzer]]|after=[[Dino Grandi]]|years=1922 – 1929}} {{succession box|title=[[Italian Minister of Foreign Affairs]]|before=[[Dino Grandi]]|after=[[Galeazzo Ciano]]|years=1932 – 1936}} {{succession box|title=[[Italian Minister of Foreign Affairs]]|before=[[Galeazzo Ciano]]|after=[[Raffaele Guariglia]]|years=1943}} {{succession box|title=[[Italian Minister of the Interior]]|before=[[Paolino Taddei]]|after=[[Luigi Federzoni]]|years=1922 – 1924}} {{succession box|title=[[Italian Minister of the Interior]]|before=[[Luigi Federzoni]]|after=[[Bruno Fornaciari]]|years=1926 – 1943}} {{succession box|title=Head of the [[Fascist Grand Council]]|before=New Title|after=[[Pietro Badoglio]]|years=1928 – 1944}} {{succession box|title=[[Head of State]] of the [[Italian Social Republic]]|before=New Title|after=End Title|years=1943 – 1945}} {{succession box|title=[[Minister of Foreign Affairs]] of the [[Italian Social Republic]]|before=New Title|after=End Title|years=1943 – 1945}} {{end box}} {{Prime ministers of Italy}} {{Italian Minister of Foreign Affairs}} {{lifetime|1883|1945 |Mussolini, Benito}} {{Persondata |NAME=Mussolini, Benito Amilcare Andrea |ALTERNATIVE NAMES=Mussolini, Benito |SHORT DESCRIPTION=Prime-Minister and [[fascism|fascist]] dictator of [[Italy]] |DATE OF BIRTH={{birth date|1883|7|29|mf=y}} |PLACE OF BIRTH=Dovia di [[Predappio]], [[Italy]] |DATE OF DEATH={{death date|1945|4|28|mf=y}} |PLACE OF DEATH=[[Giulino di Mezzegra]], [[Italy]] }} [[Category:Prime Ministers of Italy]] [[Category:World War II political leaders]] [[Category:Italian Ministers of the Interior]] [[Category:Italian Ministers of Foreign Affairs]] [[Category:Italian fascists]] [[Category:Members of the Italian Socialist Party]] [[Category:Italian people of World War II]] [[Category:Field Marshals of Italy]] [[Category:Italian newspaper founders]] [[Category:Italian anti-communists]] [[Category:Italian Roman Catholics]] [[Category:Converts to Roman Catholicism]] [[Category:People from the Province of Forlì-Cesena]] [[Category:Knights Grand Cross of the Order of the Bath]] [[Category:Knights of Malta]] [[Category:Fascist era scholars and writers]] [[Category:People executed by firing squad]] {{Link FA|uk}} [[af:Benito Mussolini]] [[ar:بينيتو موسوليني]] [[ast:Benito Mussolini]] [[az:Benito Mussolini]] [[bs:Benito Mussolini]] [[br:Benito Mussolini]] [[bg:Бенито Мусолини]] [[ca:Benito Mussolini]] [[cs:Benito Mussolini]] [[cy:Benito Mussolini]] [[da:Benito Mussolini]] [[de:Benito Mussolini]] [[et:Benito Mussolini]] [[el:Μπενίτο Μουσολίνι]] [[eml:Benito Mussolini]] [[es:Benito Mussolini]] [[eo:Benito Mussolini]] [[eu:Benito Mussolini]] [[fa:بنیتو موسولینی]] [[fr:Benito Mussolini]] [[fy:Benito Mussolini]] [[ga:Benito Mussolini]] [[gd:Benito Mussolini]] [[gl:Benito Mussolini]] [[ko:베니토 무솔리니]] [[hi:बेनिटो मुसोलिनी]] [[hr:Benito Mussolini]] [[io:Benito Mussolini]] [[id:Benito Mussolini]] [[is:Benito Mussolini]] [[it:Benito Mussolini]] [[he:בניטו מוסוליני]] [[jv:Benito Mussolini]] [[ka:ბენიტო მუსოლინი]] [[sw:Benito Mussolini]] [[ku:Benito Mussolini]] [[la:Benitus Mussolini]] [[lv:Benito Musolīni]] [[lb:Benito Mussolini]] [[lt:Benitas Musolinis]] [[hu:Benito Mussolini]] [[mk:Бенито Мусолини]] [[ml:മുസ്സോളിനി]] [[ms:Benito Mussolini]] [[nl:Benito Mussolini]] [[ja:ベニート・ムッソリーニ]] [[no:Benito Mussolini]] [[nn:Benito Mussolini]] [[oc:Benito Mussolini]] [[pms:Benito Mussolini]] [[pl:Benito Mussolini]] [[pt:Benito Mussolini]] [[ro:Benito Mussolini]] [[qu:Benito Mussolini]] [[ru:Муссолини, Бенито]] [[sq:Benito Mussolini]] [[scn:Benitu Mussolini]] [[simple:Benito Mussolini]] [[sk:Benito Mussolini]] [[sl:Benito Mussolini]] [[sr:Бенито Мусолини]] [[sh:Benito Mussolini]] [[fi:Benito Mussolini]] [[sv:Benito Mussolini]] [[ta:பெனிற்ரோ முசோலினி]] [[th:เบนิโต มุสโสลินี]] [[vi:Benito Mussolini]] [[tr:Benito Mussolini]] [[uk:Муссоліні Беніто]] [[ur:بینیتو موزولینی]] [[vec:Benito Mussolini]] [[zh:贝尼托·墨索里尼]]