Biblical archaeology 1480596 225977704 2008-07-16T08:28:14Z 77.245.7.103 /* External links */ {{BibleRelated}} '''Biblical archaeology''' is the archaeology that relates to, and sheds light upon, the Hebrew Scriptures and the New Testament. It was given its theoretical framework, and enjoyed its most influential period, in the early to mid 20th century through the influence of [[William F. Albright]]; the American "biblical archaeology" school which he founded had a profound influence on both biblical scholarship and [[Evangelism|evangelical]] theology of the time, cementing the view that archaeology had demonstrated the essential truth of the Old Testament narrative, especially that part relating to the [[Biblical Patriarchs]], [[the Exodus]], and the conquest of Canaan. This consensus was overturned in the 1970s, when Albrightian "biblical archaeology" was largely superseded by [[processual archaeology|processual]] and [[post-processual archaeology]], which sees archaeology as an anthropological rather than a historical discipline. Despite this, the reliance of American field excavation on denominational support has meant that the Albrightian paradigm continues to influence contemporary archaeology in the region. == Background == The foundations of biblical archaeology were laid in the 19th century with the work of scholars such as [[Johann Jahn]], whose manual of biblical antiquities, ''Biblische Archäologie'', (1802, translated into English 1839) was immensely influential in the middle years of the 19th century, and [[Edward Robinson (scholar)|Edward Robinson]], whose ''Biblical Researches in Palestine, the Sinai, Petrae and Adjacent Regions'' (1841) became a popular best-seller, demonstrating that scientific research could verify the accuracy and trustworthiness of the bible.<ref>[http://www.bsw.org/?l=71831&a=Comm01.html Ziony Zevit, "Three Debates about Bible and Archaeology", Biblica 83 (2002) 1–27]</ref><ref>[http://www.bibleinterp.com/articles/robinson.htm Jay Williams, "The Times and Life of Edward Robinson", Bible and Interpretation]</ref> In 1865 the [[Palestine Exploration Fund]] was established by a group of English clergymen and scholars "to promote research into the archaeology and history, manners and customs and culture, topography, geology and natural sciences of biblical Palestine and the Levant";<ref>[http://www.pef.org.uk/Pages/intro.htm Palestine Exploration Fund website, Introduction to the PEF]</ref> it was followed by the Deutscher Palästina-Verein (1877), the École Biblique (1890), the [[American School of Oriental Research]] in (1900), and the British School of Archaeology in (1919). The research these institutions sponsored, at least in these early days, was primarily geographic; it was not until the 1890s that [[Sir Flinders Petrie]] introduced the basic principles of scientific excavation, including [[stratigraphy]] and ceramic typology.<ref>[http://encarta.msn.com/encyclopedia_761554970/Biblical_Archaeology.html David Noel Freedman and Bruce E. Willoughby, "Biblical Archaeology", MSN Encarta]</ref> == William F. Albright and the Biblical Archaeology school == The dominant figure in 20th century biblical archaeology, defining its scope and creating the mid-century consensus on the relationship between archaeology, the bible, and the history of ancient Israel, was [[William F. Albright]]. An American with roots in the American [[Evangelicalism|Evangelical]] tradition (his parents were Baptist missionaries in Chile), Director of the [[American Schools of Oriental Research]] (ASOR), (now the W. F. Albright Institute of Archaeological Research) through the `1920s and 1930s, editor of ASOR's ''Bulletin'' until 1968, and author of over a thousand books and articles, Albright drew biblical archaeology into the contemporary debates over the origins and reliability of the bible. In the last decades of the 19th century [[Julius Wellhausen]] put forward the [[documentary hypothesis]], which explained the bible as the composite product of authors working between the 10th and 5th centuries BC. "This raised the question whether the Genesis through 2 Kings material could be regarded as a reliable source of information for Solomon’s period or earlier."<ref>[http://www.religion-online.org/showarticle.asp?title=2964 J. Maxwell Miller, "History or Legend", ''The Christian Century'', February 24, 2004, p. 42–47. From religion-online.org]</ref> Post-Wellhausen scholars such as [[Hermann Gunkel]], [[Albrecht Alt]] and [[Martin Noth]] were suggesting that the written texts studied by Wellhausen rested on a body of oral tradition which reflected genuine history, but which could not themselves be regarded as historically accurate accounts of events. Albright saw archaeology as the search for the physical evidence which would test these theories through the comparative study of ancient texts (notably those from [[Ebla]], [[Mari]], the [[Amarna Letters|Tel Amarna]] and [[Nuzi]]) and material finds. In his conception biblical archaeology embraced all the lands mentioned in the Bible, taking in any finds which could "throw some light, directly or indirectly, on the Bible."<ref>[http://books.google.com.kh/books?id=e1x9Rs_zdG8C&dq=&pg=PP1&ots=3o1l2HUOAt&sig=nfMz5JF3CDVKi9bFJu3ZyoLwQyE&prev=http://www.google.com.kh/search%3Fq%3Droger%2Bmoorey%2BA%2BCentury%2Bof%2BBiblical%2BArchaeology%2B%26ie%3Dutf-8%26oe%3Dutf-8%26aq%3Dt%26rls%3Dorg.mozilla:en-GB:official%26client%3Dfirefox-a&sa=X&oi=print&ct=title#PPA54,M1 Peter Moorey, "A Century of Biblical Archaeology", p.54ff]</ref> By the middle of the 20th century the work of Albright and his students, notably [[Nelson Glueck]], [[E. A. Speiser]], [[G. Ernest Wright]] and [[Cyrus Gordon]], had produced a consensus that biblical archaeology had provided physical evidence for the originating historical events behind the Old Testament narratives: in the words of Albright, "Discovery after discovery has established the accuracy of innumerable details of the Bible as a source of history."<ref>W.F.Albright, The Archaeology of Palestine, 1954 edition, p. 128, quoted in [http://www.gcts.edu/communications/contact/bibarch/archpdf/kaiser.pdf Walter F. Kaiser, "What Good is Biblical Archaeology to Bible Readers?", ''Contact'' magazine, Winter 05/06, at gctuedu.com]</ref> The consensus allowed the creation of authoritative textbooks such as [[John Bright (biblical scholar)|John Bright]]'s ''History of Israel'' (1959).<ref>[http://books.google.com.kh/books?id=0VG67yLs-LAC&dq=john+bright+history+of+israel&pg=PP1&ots=vZOieNvYF8&sig=61-N9CbmZ4e5XsymZu3ypNZNPLc&prev=http://www.google.com.kh/search%3Fq%3Djohn%2Bbright%2Bhistory%2Bof%2BIsrael%26ie%3Dutf-8%26oe%3Dutf-8%26aq%3Dt%26rls%3Dorg.mozilla:en-GB:official%26client%3Dfirefox-a&sa=X&oi=print&ct=title&cad=one-book-with-thumbnail#PPR12,M1 John Bright, ''A History of Israel'', 4th edition]</ref> Bright did not believe that the stories of Abraham, Isaac, Jacob and Joseph could be regarded as reliable sources of history, or that it was possible to reconstruct the origins of Israel from the biblical text alone; but he did believe that the stories in Genesis reflected the physical reality of the 20th–17th centuries BC, and that it was therefore possible to write a history of the origins of Israel by comparing the biblical accounts with what was known of the time from other sources.<ref>[http://links.jstor.org/sici?sici=0003-0279%28197504%2F06%2995%3A2%3C236%3ASCOJB%22%3E2.0.CO%3B2-L&size=LARGE&origin=JSTOR-enlargePage G. W. Ahlstrom, Journal of the American Oriental Society, Vol. 95, No. 2 (Apr. – Jun., 1975), review of John Bright's ''History of Israel'' (4th edition)]</ref> == Biblical archaeology today == The Albrightian consensus was overturned in the 1970s. Fieldwork, notably [[Kathleen Kenyon]]'s excavations at [[Jericho]], was not supporting the conclusions the biblical archaeologists had drawn, with the result that central theories squaring the biblical narrative with archaeological finds, such as Albright's reconstruction of Abraham as an [[Amorite]] donkey caravaneer, were being rejected by the archaeological community. The challenge reached its climax with the publication of two important studies: In 1974 [[Thomas L. Thompson]]'s ''[[The Historicity of the Patriarchal Narratives]]'' re-examined the record of biblical archaeology in relation to the Patriarchal narratives in Genesis and concluded that "not only has archaeology not proven a single event of the Patriarchal narratives to be historical, it has not shown any of the traditions to be likely." <ref>[http://links.jstor.org/sici?sici=0022-2968%28197707%2936%3A3%3C222%3ATHOTPN%3E2.0.CO%3B2-Y&size=LARGE&origin=JSTOR-enlargePage Thomas L. Thompson, "The Historicity of the Patriarchal Narratives: The Quest for the Historical Abraham", 1974, p.328, quoted in a review by Dennis Pardee, Journal of Near Eastern Studies, 1977]</ref> and in 1975 [[John Van Seters]]' ''[[Abraham in History and Tradition]]'' reached a similar conclusion about the usefulness of tradition history: "A vague presupposition about the antiquity of the tradition based upon a consensus approval of such arguments should no longer be used as a warrant for proposing a history of the tradition related to early premonarchic times."<ref>[http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=101592134# John Van Seters, "Abraham in History and Tradition", 1975, p.309]</ref> At the same time a new generation of archaeologists, notably [[William G. Dever]], was criticising the older generation for failing to take note of the revolution in archaeology known as [[processual archaeology|processualism]], which saw the discipline as a scientific one allied to anthropology, rather than a part of the corpus of the humanities linked to history and theology. Biblical archaeology, Dever said, remained "altogether too narrowly within a theological angle of vision,"<ref>[http://www.edwardtbabinski.us/biblical_archaeology/archaeological_history_method.html Joel Ng, "Introduction to Biblical Archaeology", 2003 (revised 2004), at Edwardtbabinski.com]</ref> and should be abandoned and replaced with a regional Syro-Palestinian archaeology operating within a processual framework.<ref>[http://www.doncbenjamin.com/Archaeology_&_the_Bible.pdf Don C. Benjamin, "Stones & Stories: an introduction to archaeology & the Bible", 2008, p.16]</ref> Dever was broadly successful: most archaeologists working in the world of the Bible today do so within a processual or [[post-processual archaeology|post-processual]] framework: yet few would describe themselves in these terms.<ref>[http://www.doncbenjamin.com/Archaeology_&_the_Bible.pdf Don C. Benjamin, "Stones & Stories: an introduction to archaeology & the Bible", 2008, p.7]</ref> The reasons for this attachment to the old nomenclature are complex, but are connected with the link between excavators (especially American ones) and the denominational institutions and benefactors who employ and support them, and with the unwillingness of biblical scholars, both conservative and liberal, to reject the link between the bible and archaeology.<ref>[http://www.bsw.org/?l=71831&a=Comm01.html Ziony Zevit, "Three Debates About Bible and Archaeology: The 'Biblical Archaeology' Debate", Biblica 83 (2002) pp.2–9]</ref> The result has been a blurring of the distinction between the theologically-based archaeology which interprets the archaeological record as "substantiating in general the theological message of a God who acts in history,"<ref>Specifically this was the view of Albright's student G. E. Wright and his "Biblical Theology" school which became popular in America in the 1950s. See [http://www.bookreviews.org/pdf/1619_3593.pdf Andrew G. Vaughn, review of William G. Dever, "What Did the Biblical Writers Know and When Did They Know It?: What Archaeology Can Tell Us About the Reality of Ancient Israel" (2001), RBL 2003]</ref> and Dever's vision of Syro-Palestinian archaeology as an "independent, secular discipline ... pursued by cultural historians for its own sake."<ref>William G. Dever, quoted in [http://shop.cwfa.org/cwfa/item.The-Future-of-Biblical-Archaeology-Reassessing-Methodologies.9780802821737.htm&ct=Chapter_Excerpt Ziony Zevit, "The Future of Biblical Archaeology: Reassessing Methodologies and Assumptions", 2001]</ref> Currently, the [http://www.bib-arch.org Biblical Archaeology Society], founded in 1974, remains the primary organization publishing and discussing discoveries and issues relating to Biblical Archaeology. ==Milestones prior to 1914== Biblical Archaeology began after publication by [[Edward Robinson (scholar)|Edward Robinson ]] (American professor of Biblical literature; 1794–1863) of his travels through [[Palestine]] during the first half of the 19th century (a time when the oldest complete [[Hebrew language|Hebrew]] scripture only dated to the [[Middle Ages]]), which highlighted similarities between modern Arabic place-names and Biblical city names. The [http://www.pef.org.uk/ Palestine Exploration Fund] sponsored detailed surveys led by [[Charles Warren (British soldier)|Charles Warren]] during the late 1860s (initially financed by [[Angela Georgina Burdett-Coutts]] in 1864 to improve [[Jerusalem]]'s sanitary conditions), which culminated with the formal publication of "The Survey of Western Palestine" from 1871–1877. The highlight of this period was Warren's work around the [[Temple Mount]] of [[Jerusalem]], where he discovered the foundation stones of [[Herod's Temple]], the first [[Israelite]] inscriptions on several jar handles with [[LMLK seal]]s, and water shafts under the [[City of David]]. * 1890 [[Flinders Petrie|Sir W.M.F. Petrie]] noticed strata exposed by waterflow adjacent to [[Tell el-Hesi]] (originally believed to be Biblical [[Lachish]], now probably [[Eglon]]) and popularized details of pottery groups excavated therefrom. [[Frederick Jones Bliss|F.J. Bliss]] continued digging there in 1891–2. Subsequent highlights of major sites mentioned in the Bible where excavations spanned more than one season: * 1898–1900 [[Frederick Jones Bliss|Frederick J. Bliss]] and [[Robert Alexander Stewart Macalister|R.A.S. Macalister]] excavated 4 major sites in the [[Shephelah]] region of [[Israel]]: ** [[Tell es-Safi]] (probably Biblical [[Gath (city)|Gath]]) ** [[Tell Zakariya]] (probably Biblical [[Azekah]]) ** [[Tell ej-Judeideh]] (possibly Biblical [[Moresheth-Gath]] or [[Libnah]]) ** [[Tell Sandahannah]] (probably Biblical [[Mareshah]]) * 1902–3, 1907–9 [[Robert Alexander Stewart Macalister|R.A.S. Macalister]] excavated [[Gezer]], where the oldest Hebrew inscription ([[Gezer Calendar]]) was found on the surface * 1902–4 [[Ernest Sellin]] excavated [[Taanach]] * 1903–5 [[Gottlieb Schumacher]] excavated [[Megiddo]] * 1905–7 [[Herman Kohl]], [[Ernest Sellin]], and [[Carl Watzinger]] surveyed ancient [[synagogue]]s in [[Galilee]] * 1907–9 [[Ernest Sellin]] and [[Carl Watzinger]] excavated [[Shechem]] * 1908, 1910–1 [[David Gordon Lyon|David G. Lyon]], [[Clarence Stanley Fisher|Clarence S. Fisher]], and [[George Andrew Reisner|George A. Reisner]] excavated [[Samaria]] * 1911–3 [[Duncan Mackenzie]] excavated [[Beth Shemesh]] ==Milestones during 1914–1945== Following [[World War I]], during the [[British Mandate of Palestine]], antiquities laws were established for Palestinian territory along with a Department of Antiquities (later to become the modern [[Israel Antiquities Authority]]) and the [[Rockefeller Museum|Palestine Archaeological Museum]] in [[Jerusalem]] (now named the [[Rockefeller Museum]]). [[John Garstang]] was instrumental in these accomplishments. [[William Foxwell Albright|W.F. Albright]] dominated the scholarship of this period and had long-lasting influence on Biblical historians based on his analysis of Bronze Age and Iron Age pottery. * 1921–3, 1925–8, 1930–3 [[Clarence Stanley Fisher|Clarence S. Fisher]], [[Alan Rowe]], and [[Gerald M. Fitzgerald]] excavated [[Beth Shean]] * 1922–3 [[William Foxwell Albright|William F. Albright]] excavated [[Tell el-Ful]] (probably Biblical [[Gibeah]]) * 1925–39 [[Clarence Stanley Fisher|Clarence S. Fisher]], [[P.L.O. Guy]], and [[Gordon Loud]] excavated [[Megiddo]] * 1926, 1928, 1930, 1932 [[William Foxwell Albright|William F. Albright]] excavated [[Tell Beit Mirsim]] (possibly Biblical [[Eglon]] or [[Debir]]–[[Kirjath Sepher]]) * 1926–7, 1929, 1932, 1935 [[William Frederic Bade|William F. Bade]] excavated [[Mizpah]] * 1928–33 [[Elihu Grant]] excavated [[Beth Shemesh]] * 1930–6 [[John Garstang]] excavated [[Jericho]] * 1931–3, 1935 [[John Winter Crowfoot|John W. Crowfoot]] excavated [[Samaria]] * 1932–38 [[James Llewellyn Starkey|James L. Starkey]] excavated [[Lachish]] (the excavation terminated when he was killed by bandits near [[Hebron]] while on his way to the opening ceremonies of the [[Rockefeller Museum|Palestine Archaeological Museum]]) * 1936–40 [[Benjamin Mazar]] excavated [[Beit She'arim National Park|Beit She'arim]]. ==Milestones during 1945–1967== * In 1945 the [[Nag Hammadi library]]—a collection of [[Early Christianity|early Christian]] [[Gnosticism|Gnostic]] [[Gnostic texts|texts]] also known as the "[[Gnostic Gospels]]"—was discovered near the town of [[Nag Hammadi]]. Twelve leather-bound [[papyrus]] [[codex|codices]] buried in a sealed jar were found by a local peasant. Some of these documents, such as the [[Gospel of Thomas]], were [[Biblical canon#Era of the Seven Ecumenical Councils|specifically rejected by Eusebius]] and others in the early [[Roman Catholic Church|Catholic Church]] from inclusion in the [[New Testament]]. * 1947 and later: The [[Dead Sea Scrolls]] are an important testimony to the antiquity of the texts. The first seven scrolls had initially appeared on the antiquities market, but when their enormous importance was recognized, archaeologists eventually found their source in a series of caves above the [[Dead Sea]], and subsequent searches located thousands of similar fragments. Following the discovery of the [[Dead Sea Scrolls]] in 1947 and the [[Declaration of the Establishment of the State of Israel|declaration of the state of Israel]] in 1948, Biblical Archaeology gained new momentum. The science of archaeology had been digested and refined by new excavators who conducted numerous surveys of smaller sites during the second half of the 20th century, and re-excavations at major sites using modernized techniques. * 1948–50, 1952–5 Jacob Kaplan excavated [[Jaffa]] * 1954, 1959–62 [[Yohanan Aharoni]] excavated [[Ramat Rachel|Ramat Rahel]] * 1955–8, 1968 [[Yigael Yadin]] excavated [[Hazor]] * 1956–7, 1959–60, 1962 [[James B. Pritchard]] excavated [[Gibeon]] * 1961–7 [[Kathleen Kenyon]] excavated [[Jerusalem]] ([[City of David]]) * 1962–7 [[Yohanan Aharoni]] and [[Ruth Amiran]] excavated [[Tel Arad|Arad]] * 1962–3, 1965–72 [[Moshe Dothan]] excavated [[Ashdod]] * 1963–5 [[Yigael Yadin]] excavated [[Masada]] * 1964–74 [[George Ernest Wright|G. Ernest Wright]], [[William G. Dever]], and [[Joe Seger]] excavated [[Gezer]] ** This was the first Palestinian excavation to operate as a school by granting academic/college credit. ==Milestones after 1967== Following the [[Six-day War]], archeologists conducted more extensive excavations within the city limits of modern [[Jerusalem]]. One highlight in particular came from [[Ketef Hinnom]] just southwest of the [[Old City]]: two small silver scrolls uniquely preserve Biblical texts older than the [[Dead Sea Scrolls]]. Both of these amulets contain the [[Priestly Blessing]] from the [[Book of Numbers]]; one also contains a quote found in parallel verses of [[Exodus]] (20:6) and [[Deuteronomy]] (5:10 and 7:9). The same verses appear again later in [[book of Daniel|Daniel]] (9:4) and [[book of Nehemiah|Nehemiah]] (1:5). A major development of [[Processual archaeology|Processual]] and [[Post-processual archaeology]] has been the development of settlement studies in the highlands, which suggest that a process of state development only occurred after 950 BCE, possibly with the development of Omride Israel <ref> Finkelstein, Israel; Mazar, Amihai; and Schmidt, Brian B. (Editor) (2007), "The Quest for the Historical Israel: Debating Archaeology and the History of Early Israel" (Society of Biblical Literature)</ref> * 1968–78 [[Benjamin Mazar]] excavated [[Jerusalem]] (southwest corner of the [[Temple Mount]]) * 1969–76 [[Yohanan Aharoni]] and [[Ze'ev Herzog]] excavated [[Beersheba]] * 1969–82 [[Nahman Avigad]] excavated [[Jerusalem]] ([[Jewish Quarter]]) * 1973–94 [[David Ussishkin]] excavated [[Lachish]] * 1975–82 [[Avraham Biran]] excavated [[Aroer]] * 1977–9, 1981–9 [[Amihai Mazar]] and [[George L. Kelm]] excavated [[Timnah]] * 1978–85 [[Yigal Shiloh]] excavated [[Jerusalem]] ([[City of David]]) * 1979–80 [[Gabriel Barkay]] excavated [[Ketef Hinnom]] * 1979, 1981–2, 1984–7, 1990–1, 1993–2000 [[David Livingston]] excavated [[Khirbet Nisya]] * 1981–2, 1984–8, 1990, 1992–6 [[Trude Dothan]] and [[Seymour Gitin]] excavated [[Ekron]] * 1989–96 [[Amihai Mazar]] excavated [[Tel Beit-Shean]] * 1994–2007 [[Israel Finkelstein]] and [[David Ussishkin]] excavated [[Megiddo]] (ongoing annually) * 1996–2002, 2004–2008 [[Aren Maeir]] excavates at [[Tell es-Safi]] (identified as Biblical [[Gath (city)|Gath]]) of the Philistines * 1997– [[Amihai Mazar]] excavated [[Tel Rehov]] * 1999–2001, 2005 [[Ron Tappy]] excavated [[Tel Zayit]] ([[Zeitah]]) * 2005 [[Oded Lipschits]] excavated [[Ramat Rachel|Ramat Rahel]] * 2005 [[Amir Gorzalczany]] and [[Gerald Finkielsztejn]] excavated [[Nahal Tut]] * 2007 [[Yosef Garfinkel]] and [[Saar Ganor]] excavated [[Khirbet Qeiyafa]] ==Confirmed Biblical structures== * [[Gibeon]] pool (at el-Jib) * [[Hezekiah]]'s [[Hezekiah tunnel|tunnel]] under [[Jerusalem]] * [[Jericho]]'s walls. [[John Garstang]] in the 1930s dated Jericho's destruction to around 1400 BC, but [[Kathleen Kenyon]]'s excavation in the 1950s redated it to around 1550 BC. [[Bryant Wood]]'s 1990 proposed redating of Kenyon's work to Garstang has not been supported by subsequent studies.(Radiocarbon Vol. 37, Number 2, 1995.). [http://www.biblicalchronologist.org/answers/bryantwood.php] [http://www.ebonmusings.org/atheism/otarch3.html] * [[Lachish]] siege ramp of [[Sennacherib]] * [[Pool of Siloam]] (unearthed in 2004) * Second Temple pre-Herodian Walls. The outline of the walls of the square platform that predates the Herodian expansion and, therefore, dates either form the reconstruciton in the Persian period under Ezra and Nehemiah or is a survival of the pre-exilic first Temple have been located on the surface of the present platform. The northwestern corner was visible (until it was concealed recently by a [[waqf]]) as the lowest step in a flight of stairs that parallets the eastern wall of the Mount, the north eastern corner as a protruding stone, the south eastern corner as a slight alteration in the angel of the eastern wall where the older platform joins the Herodian expansion. The courses of stone that form the center of the eastern wall are also pre-Herodian, and match the stone masonry of the north west corner of the original platform, now a concealed bottom step. (Leen and Kathleen Ritmeyer, Secrets of Jerusalem's Temple Mount,Biblical Archaeology Society, Washington D.C., 2006) * [[Second Temple]] (confirmed by Western/Wailing wall constructed by [[Herod the Great]]) * [[Shechem temple]] (spanning the late [[Bronze Age]] to the early [[Iron Age]]) corresponding to the "House of (the god) Baalberith" in [[Book of Judges|Judges]] 9 * 19 [[Tumulus|tumuli]] located west of [[Jerusalem]], undoubtedly dating to the Judean monarchy, but possibly representing sites of memorial ceremonies for the kings as mentioned in [[2 Chronicles]] 16:14, 21:19, 32:33, and the [[book of Jeremiah]] 34:5 * [[Gezer]] Walls and City Gate. Verification of the site comes from Hebrew inscriptions found engraved on rocks, several hundred meters from the [[Tell|tel]]. These inscriptions from the 1st century BCE read "boundary of Gezer." * [[Nehemiah]]'s wall. http://www.jpost.com/servlet/Satellite?cid=1195546753493&pagename=JPost%2FJPArticle%2FShowFull ==Artifacts from documented excavations== * [[Arad, Israel|Arad]] [[ostraca]] (#18 mentions the [[Temple in Jerusalem]]) * Azariah bulla (seal impression) found in 1978 during Yigal Shiloh’s excavation of old Jerusalem. The inscription consists of two lines of writing separated by two parallel lines. It reads “Belonging to Azaryahu, son of Hilkiyahu.” The impression does not mention the title of the owner. Yigal Shiloh, “A Group of Hebrew Bullae From the City of David,” Israel Exploration Journal 36 (1986), pp. 16–38 * [[Balaam]] texts (ink/paint on plaster found at [[Deir Alla]] in [[Jordan]] that parallels [[book of Numbers|Numbers]] chapters 22–24) * [[Black Obelisk]] of [[Shalmaneser III]], which depicts [[Jehu]], son of [[Omri]], and also mentions [[Hazael]] of Aram/Damascus/Syria ([[Books of Kings|2 Kings]] 8–10) * [[Caiaphas]] (Qafa) family ossuaries (discovered in 1990 at the [[Jerusalem]] Peace Forest) * [[Ebla]] (Tell Mardikh) cuneiform archives. These include a king of Ebla named Ebrum, who some identify as the Biblical patriarch [[Eber]] (or [[Heber]]), after whom the Hebrews were named.{{Fact|date=February 2007}} Also reported are references to people with Semitic names and gods similar to those in the Bible. They are also rumored{{Fact|date=February 2007}} to contain references to the same five cities mentioned in the [[book of Genesis]]: [[Sodom]], Gomorrah, Admah, Zeboim, and Bela/Zoar in the same order as in [[Genesis]] 14. The government of [[Syria]] continues to withhold complete publication of the texts, and this story remains a rumor.{{Fact|date=February 2007}} Quoting [[Paolo Matthiae]]: <blockquote> The tablets cover a thousand years before Abraham, and a thousand years, even in the fourth millennium before Christ, was a very, very long time. They tell us much, but what they don't tell us—what they can't tell us—is whether the Bible is true or not. They have nothing to do with the Bible, at least not directly, and what we have here is not a biblical expedition. If we have tablets with legends similar to those of the Bible it means only that such legends existed round here long before the Bible." ( C. Bermant and M. Weitzman, Ebla: A Revelation In Archaeology, Op. Cit., p. 2.) </blockquote> * [[Ekron]] inscription (discovered in 1993 at Tel Miqne) * [[Gath (city)|Gath]] ostracon ** Found by [[A. Maeir]] while excavating [[Tell es-Safi]] in 2005 ** Incised with nine letters representing two names (אלות ולת) etymologically related to [[Goliath]] (גלית) * ''GBON'' (גבען) jar handles recovered from the [[Gibeon]] pool ** Some inscribed "[[Hananiah]]" may have been associated with the person mentioned in [[book of Jeremiah|Jeremiah]] 28:1 ** Other incised names on [[Gibeon]] jar handles: [[Amariah]], [[Azariah]], [[Domla]], [[Geder]], [[Hananiah]], [[Neri]], [[Shebuel]] * ''Gemariah the son of Shaphan'' seal impression stamped on [[Bulla (seal)|bulla]] ** Found during [[Yigal Shiloh]]'s excavations of [[Jerusalem]] in 1983, it probably belonged to the person recorded in [[book of Jeremiah|Jeremiah]] 36:10 * [[Herod the Great|Herod]]'s tomb at [[Herodium]] * ''House of David'' inscription on [[Tel Dan Stele]] ** It consists of three fragments: the first and largest was discovered in 1993, and two smaller fragments were discovered in 1994.) ** The meaning of the inscription is disputed * [[Izbet Sartah]] ostracon; 2 fragments excavated in 1976 ** 5 incised lines of 80–83 letters (readings of epigraphers vary), the last line being an [[abecedarium|abecedary]] ** Found in the silo of an unfortified village (possibly Biblical [[Eben-Ezer]], 2 miles east of Philistine [[Aphek (biblical)|Aphek]] at [[Antipatris]]) occupied from 1200–1000 BC ** See Chapter 3 of [http://www.newjewishbooks.org/ITB ''In the Beginning: A Short History of the Hebrew Language''] (Hoffman 2004) for the linguistic importance of the Hebrew. ** See plates in ''The Text of the Old Testament'' (Wurthwein 1995) for a facsimile of the ostracon * [[Jeconiah|Jehoiachin's]] Rations Tablets <ref>These 3 transcriptions courtesy of "The Ancient Near East Vol. I, An Anthology of Texts and Pictures" by James B. Pritchard, 1958 (1973 edition), Princeton University Press, p. 205"</ref> ** Excavated from Babylon during 1899–1917 by [[Robert Koldewey]], stored in a barrel-vaulted underground building consisting of rows of rooms near the Ishtar Gate<ref>"Documents from Old Testament Times" by D. Winton Thomas, 1958 (1961 edition), Edinburgh and Longdon: Thomas Nelson and Sons Ltd., p. 84.</ref> ** Babylon 28122: ''"...t[o] Ia-'-u-kin, king..."'' ** Babylon 28178: ''"10 (sila of oil) to ...[Ia-'-kin, king of Ia[...] 2 1/2 sila to [...so]ns of the king of Ia-a-hu-du (Judah)"'' ** Babylon 28186: ''"10 (sila) to Ia-ku-u-ki-nu, the son of the king of Ia-ku-du (Judah), 2 1/2 sila for the 5 sons of the king of Ia-ku-du (Judah)"'' ** Cf. 2 Kings 24:12,15–6; 25:27–30; 2 Chronicles 36:9–10; Jeremiah 22:24–6; 29:2; 52:31–4; Ezekiel 17:12 * ''[[Jaazaniah]], servant of the king'' (ליאזניהו עבד המלך) striated agate seal with ''fighting cock'' icon ** Found in Tomb 19 at [[Tell en-Nasbeh]] (probably Biblical [[Mizpah]]) ** Possibly belonged to an army captain at [[Mizpah]] mentioned in [[Books of Kings|2 Kings]] 25:23 * ''Jehucal, the son of Shelemiah, the son of Shobi'' (יהוכל בן שלמיהו בן שבי) seal impression stamped on [[Bulla (seal)|bulla]] ** Found during [[Eilat Mazar]]'s excavations of an [[Alleged Palace of David site|alleged palace of King David]] in 2005, it probably belonged to the person recorded in [[book of Jeremiah|Jeremiah]] 37:3 and 38:1 (photo published in the August 6, 2005 edition of the Taipei Times) * [[Lachish]] [[ostraca]] ** Most of these terse texts, discovered in the 1930s, depict conditions during the end of the 7th century BC shortly before the [[Chaldea]]n conquest. ** Letter #3 mentions a warning from ''the prophet''. ** Letter #4 names [[Lachish]] and [[Azekah]] as among the last places being conquered as recorded in [[book of Jeremiah|Jeremiah]] 34:7. ** Letter #6 describes a conspiracy reminiscent of [[book of Jeremiah|Jeremiah]] 38:19 and 39:9 using phraseology nearly identical to 38:4. * [[Lachish]] [[bas relief|reliefs]] from [[Sennacherib]]'s palace at [[Nineveh]] (depicting his conquest of it) * [[Cylinder of Nabonidus|Nabonidus cylinder]] ** A [[Cuneiform script|cuneiform]] inscription found at the [[Temple of Shamash]] in [[Sippara]] that names [[Belshazzar]] as the son of the last king of [[Babylon]] ** [[book of Daniel|Daniel]] chapters 5, 7, and 8 name [[Belshazzar]] as a king, but that was probably due to [[Aramaic]] convention (e.g., the bilingual inscription on the statue of [[Haddayishi]] from [[Gozan]] calls him a "governor" in the [[Akkadian language]] but "king" in [[Aramaic]]); also note that [[Belshazzar]] offers third place in his kingdom as a prize rather than second **Nabonidus and not Belshazzar, as stated in Daniel, was the last King of Babylon. Moreover, the inscriptions show that up to the time that Belshazzar was killed by [[Gubaru]] (one of Cyrus's governors), he was referred to as "The King's Son." At no time did Babylonian records refer to Belshazzar as a king. Moreover, he died before his father did. Nabonidus/Babylon was captured by the Persians under Cyrus the Great—not [[Darius the Mede]] as stated in Daniel 5:30–31. Belzhassar was the son of Nabonidus. Nor was Nabonidus or Belzhassar a son or descendant of Nebuchadnezzar as stated in Dan.5:2,11,18. * [[Nebo-Sarsekim Tablet]] from [[Sippar]] that names an official of [[Nebuchadrezzar II]] from [[Book of Jeremiah|Jeremiah]] 39:3 * [[Pim weight]]s ** First specimen found by [[Robert Alexander Stewart Macalister|R.A.S. Macalister]] at [[Gezer]]; many others found since ** Inscribed with a previously unknown word that facilitated a better translation of [[Books of Samuel|1Samuel]] 13:21 * [[Pontius Pilate]] inscription found in secondary use in a stairway of the [[Ancient Rome|Roman]] theater in [[Caesarea]] ** "The prefect of Judaea, Pontius Pilate, erected the Tiberium (in honor of Tiberius Caesar)" ** Actual text of 3-line inscription (eroded portion in brackets is speculative but undisputed): : TIBERIEUM : [PON]TIUS PILATUS : [PRAEF]ECTUS IUDA[EA]E * [[Sargon II]]'s Conquest of [[Samaria]] inscription (ANET 284) found by [[Paul-Émile Botta|P.E. Botta]] at [[Khorsabad]] in 1843: "I besieged and conquered Samaria, led away as booty 27,290 inhabitants of it. ... The town I rebuilt better than it was before and settled therein people from countries which I myself had conquered." ([[2 Kings]] 17:23–24) * [[Shelomit seal]], found during a Jerusalem excavation with a name mentioned in [[Books of Chronicles|1Chronicles]] 3:19 and [[Book of Ezra|Ezra]] 8:10 * [Son of] Immer (ליהו [בן] אמר[?]) seal impression stamped on [[Bulla (seal)|bulla]] ** Found September 27, 2005, while sifting debris discarded from the [[Temple Mount]] of [[Jerusalem]] in 1999 ** May be related to a priest serving in [[Solomon's Temple]] per [[book of Jeremiah|Jeremiah]] 20:1 * [[Tiglath-Pileser III]]'s inscriptions found by [[Sir Austen Henry Layard|A.H. Layard]] at [[Nimrud]]: ** ANET 282: "I received the tribute of ... [[Jehoahaz]] of Judah" (incident not mentioned in the Bible) ** ANET 283: "As for [[Menahem]] I overwhelmed him ... I placed [[Hoshea]] as king over them." (alternate perspective in [[Books of Kings|2 Kings]] 15:19 and 17:3) * [[Zayit Stone]] ** Limestone boulder incised with a [[Paleo-Hebrew]] [[abecedarium|abecedary]] and remnants of several other inscriptions found at [[Zeitah]] ([[Tel Zayit]]) ''[[In situ|in-situ]]'' in a stratum dated to the 10th century BC ==Artifacts not from excavations, but with undisputed provenance== Items in this list mostly come from 19th-century surveys, and undocumented collections whose provenance is not relevant due to the genuine nature of their content. In other words, they were discovered at a time when knowledge was so limited that they could not have been faked. * [[Elephantine papyri]] ** Date to the Persian period, from an archive of Jews living in Egypt. ** One was written by someone in Jerusalem named Hananiah, who may have been the person mentioned in [[book of Nehemiah|Nehemiah]] 7:2 * Hanan's signet ring ** Owned by a Paris collector, this valuable ring has been known to the scholarly world since 1984. The seal’s origin is unknown, but the shape of the letters indicate that it was used during the seventh century B.C. The seal is inscribed in three lines, each line separated by two parallel straight lines. The band is almost 1/10 of an inch in diameter, suggesting that it was designed for a man’s finger. The inscription reads: “Belonging to Hanan, son of Hilqiyahu, the priest.” ** This Hilqiyahu is better known to us as Hilkiah, the high priest during the reign of Josiah, king of Judah in the last part of the seventh century B.C. The ending yahu is a theophoric (divine) element often found in ancient Hebrew names in Judah; the names in the Northern Kingdom carried yah as an ending. It seems that this Hilqiyahu was the same high priest who discovered the scroll of Torah in the temple that triggered religious reform in Judah (see 2 Kings 22; 2 Chronicles 34). ** 1 Chronicles 6:13 and 9:11 indicate that Azariah, not Hanan, succeeded Hilkiah. The explanation could be that Azariah succeeded his father as high priest, while his younger brother Hanan functioned as a priest, just as the inscription on the seal suggests. * [[The Kurkh Monolith|Kurkh Monolith]] of [[Shalmaneser III]] found by [[J.E. Taylor]] (British Consul at [[Diyarbekir]]) in 1861, which mentions "2,000 chariots, 10,000 foot soldiers of [[Ahab]] the Israelite" (incident not mentioned in the Bible) * [[Merneptah Stele]] ** A stele (monumental stone inscription) of the Egyptian Pharaoh Merneptah; contains the earliest reference (1209/1208 BC) to a people called [[Israel]]. * [[Mesha stele]] ** A [[Moab]]ite inscription discovered at Dhiban, [[Jordan]], in 1868 that mentions an [[Israelite]] king, Omri. It also records ''vessels of [[YHWH]]'' as tribute. * [[Siloam inscription]] ** Originally situated near the center of the [[Hezekiah tunnel]], where two teams of excavators tunneling toward one another met. ** Robinson documented the tunnel in 1838, but the inscription was not discovered until 1880. It was removed from [[Jerusalem]] the same year, and is presently in the Archaeological Museum at Istanbul. ==Artifacts with unknown, disputed, or disproved provenance== Items in this list mostly come from private collections via the antiquities market, but also from chance finds prior to the establishment of antiquities laws. Their authenticity is highly controversial and in some cases has been demonstrated to be fraudulent. * [[Ark of the Covenant]] ** The [[Ethiopian Orthodox Church]] in [[Axum, Ethiopia]] claims to possess it; local tradition maintains that it was brought to [[Ethiopia]] by [[Menelik I]] following a visit to his father King [[Solomon]]. * Artifacts originating from the antiquities dealer, [[Oded Golan]]. In December 2004 he was indicted by the Israeli police, together with several accomplices, for forging the following artifacts: ** The [[James Ossuary]] inscribed ''James, son of Joseph, brother of Jesus'' suspected of being forged on a genuine ancient ossuary. ** The Joash tablet ([[Jehoash inscription]]) recording repairs to the [[Temple in Jerusalem]] suspected of being forged on a genuine ancient stone panel. ** Various ostraca mentioning the Temple or place names from the Bible. ** A seven-nozzle stone lamp, bearing decorations of a Temple menorah and the seven species ** A stone seal with gold rim, attributed to King [[Manasseh of Judah]]. ** A quartz bowl bearing an inscription in ancient Egyptian, indicating that the Minister of the Army of King Shishek conquered the ancient city of [[Meggido]]. ** An ivory [[pomegranate]] inscribed ''Property of the priests of the temple…'' allegedly forged on a genuine ancient piece of [[ivory]]. ** A pottery jug bearing an inscription claiming that it was given as a contribution to the Temple. ** Numerous [[Bulla (seal)|bullae]] including ones which mention Biblical figures including King [[Hezekiah]] of Judah, the scribe [[Baruch]] and the prophet [[Isaiah]]. * [[Shroud of Turin]] ** Critics claim it contains a painted image of [[Jesus]] forged in the Middle Ages; others maintain the image was formed by some energetic process that darkened the fibers (such as a flash of light the instant the [[resurrection]] occurred). [[Radiocarbon dating]] seemed to limit its origin to the Middle Ages, but some analysts suggest the tests were erroneously performed using samples taken from patches sewn onto the ancient cloth during the Middle Ages, or contaminated from fires it was exposed to. Other analysts suggest that the dating results are skewed by limestone residue which is present on the shroud. * [[Stone of Scone]], also known as [[Jacob]]'s Pillar ** For centuries, this rock has been an integral compenent of coronation ceremonies for kings in the British isles. It is believed to be the rock upon which [[Jacob]] (later renamed [[Israel]]) received a vision, and a crack in it may have resulted from [[Moses]] striking it to bring forth water. None of this can be proven, and attempts to link it to Palestine via [[Jeremiah (prophet)|Jeremiah]] lack foundation. * [[Veil of Veronica]] **A cloth with an image of a bearded man on it. The faithful believe the cloth was used by [[Saint Veronica|Veronica]] to wipe sweat from the face of [[Jesus]] along the [[Via Dolorosa]] on the way to [[Calvary]]. Critics say it appears to be a man-made image. ==Footnotes== {{reflist|2}} ==See also== * [[Archaeology of Israel]] * [[The Bible and History]] * [[History of ancient Israel and Judah]] * [[List of Biblical figures identified in extra-Biblical sources]] * [[Palestinian archaeology]] * [[Synoptic table of the principal old world prehistoric cultures]] ==External links== * [http://www.piac.it/=Il Pontificio Istituto di Archeologia Cristiana]. *[http://www.dinur.org/resources/resourceCategoryDisplay.aspx?categoryID=409&rsid=478 Resources > Archaeology] Project of the Dinur Center for Research in Jewish History, The Hebrew University of Jerusalem *[http://www.biblicalstudies.org.uk/article_archaeology.html Robert I Bradshaw, "Archaeology & the Patriarchs"]: introductory survey with a full bibliography of accessible material in English * [http://www.pef.org.uk/ The Palestine Exploration Fund] * [http://www.cobb.msstate.edu/dig/ Digmaster Archaeology Database: An online database of artifacts] * [http://cctr.umkc.edu/user/fdeblauwe/iraq.html The 2003– Iraq War & Archaeology] Information about looting in Iraq. * {{CathEncy|wstitle=Christian Archaeology}} ==Further reading== * William F. Albright, ''From the Stone Age to Christianity'' (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1940) * John Bright, ''A History of Israel''(Philadelphia: Westminster, 1959). * Chapman, and J.N. Tubb, ''Archaeology & The Bible'' ([[British Museum]], 1990) * Cornfeld, G.and D.N. Freedman, ''Archaeology Of The Bible Book By Book'' (1989) * Davies, P.R., ''In Search of 'Ancient Israel': A Study in Biblical Origins'', Sheffield (JSOT Press, 1992). A key resource in the maximalist/minimalist controversy by a leading minimalist scholar. * [[William G. Dever|Dever, William G.]], "Archaeology and the Bible : Understanding their special relationship", in ''Biblical Archaeology Review'' 16:3, (May/June 1990) *{{cite book | author=Dever, William G. | title=What Did the Biblical Writers Know and When Did They Know It? | publisher=Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing Company | year=2002 | id=ISBN 0-8028-2126-X}} *{{cite book | author=Dever, William G. | title=Who Were the Early Israelites and Where Did They Come From? | publisher=Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing Company | year=2003 | id=ISBN 0-8028-0975-8}} *{{cite book | author=[[Israel Finkelstein|Finkelstein, Israel]], and Neil Asher Silberman | title=[[The Bible Unearthed|The Bible Unearthed: Archaeology's New Vision of Ancient Israel and the Origin of Its Sacred Texts]] | publisher=Free Press | year=2002 | id=ISBN 0-684-86913-6}} * Frend, William Hugh Clifford, ''The Archaeology of Early Christianity. A History'', Geoffrey Chapman, 1997. ISBN 0-225-66850-5 *Frerichs, Ernest S. and [[Leonard H. Lesko]] eds. ''Exodus: The Egyptian Evidence''. Winona Lake: Eisenbrauns, 1997 ISBN 1-57506-025-6 Collection of six essays. [http://www.denverseminary.edu/dj/articles1998/0100/0113.php Denver Seminary review] * Hallote, R. ''Bible, Map and Spade: The American Palestine Exploration Society, Frederick Jones Bliss and the Forgotten Story of Early American Biblical Archaeology'', (Gorgias Press, 2006) Discusses American involvement in biblical archaeology before 1900. * Keller, Werner, ''The Bible as History'', 1955. A widely-read but very out dated popular account, approximately fifty years old. * [[Kenneth Kitchen|Kitchen, Kenneth A.]], ''On the Reliability of the Old Testament'' (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 2003) * Kuntz, John Kenneth. ''The People of Ancient Israel: an introduction to Old Testament Literature, History, and Thought'', Harper and Row, 1974. ISBN 0-06-043822-3 * Lance, H.D. ''The Old Testament and The Archaeologist''. [[London]], (1983) * [[Amihai Mazar|Mazar, A.]], ''Archaeology of the Land of the Bible'' (The Anchor Bible Reference Library, 1990) * Mykytiuk, Lawrence J. (2004). ''Identifying Biblical Persons in Northwest Semitic Inscriptions of 1200–539 B.C.E.'' SBL Academia Biblica series, no. 12. Atlanta, Ga.: Society of Biblical Literature. * {{cite book | author=Negev, Avraham, and Gibson, Shimon, (eds.) | year=2003 | title=Archaeological Encyclopedia of the Holy Land | location=New York, NY | publisher=The Continuum International Publishing Group | id= }} * Ramsey, George W. ''The Quest For The Historical Israel''. London (1982) * Robinson, Edward (1856) ''Biblical Researches in Palestine, 1838–52'', Boston, MA: Crocker and Brewster. * Thiollet, J-P,'' Je m'appelle Byblos'', Paris (2005). * Thompson, J.A., ''The Bible And Archaeology'', revised edition (1973) * [[H. V. F. Winstone|Winstone, H.V.F.]] ''The Life of Sir Leonard Woolley of Ur'', London, 1990 * [[G. Ernest Wright|Wright, G. Ernest]], ''Biblical Archaeology''. Philadelphia: Westminster, (1962). * Yamauchi, E. ''The Stones And The Scriptures''. London: IVP, (1973). 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