Bicameralism 204299 226155019 2008-07-17T01:54:34Z 98.212.175.140 /* Federalism */ Added Indian Rajya Sabha representation {{Otheruses4|bicameralism in government|the psychological theory|Bicameralism (psychology)}} {{Legislature}} In [[government]], '''bicameralism''' (bi + Latin {{lang|la|''camera''}}, chamber) is the practice of having two legislative or [[parliamentary chamber]]s. Thus, a '''bicameral parliament''' or '''bicameral legislature''' is a [[legislature]] which consists of two chambers or houses. Bicameralism is an essential and defining feature of the [[classical antiquity|classical]] notion of [[mixed government]]. Bicameral legislatures tend to require a [[concurrent majority]] to pass legislation. ==Theory of bicameral congress== Although the ideas on which bicameralism are based can be traced back to the theories developed in Ancient Sumer and later [[ancient Greece]], [[History of India|ancient India]], and [[Ancient Rome|Rome]], recognizable bicameral institutions first arose in medieval Europe where they were associated with separate representation of different estates of the realm. For example, one house would represent the aristocracy, and the other would represent the commoners. The [[Founding Fathers of the United States]] eschewed a formal aristocracy, but favored a bicameral legislature. As part of the [[Great Compromise]] between large states and small states, they invented a new rationale for bicameralism in which the upper house would have states represented equally, and the lower house would have them represented by population. [[Image:Capitol Building Full View.jpg|thumb|280px|right|The bicameral legislature of the United States is housed in a [[United States Capitol|capitol building]] with two wings. The north wing houses the [[United States Senate|Senate]] while the south wing houses the [[United States House of Representatives|House of Representatives]]. ]] In subsequent constitution making, federal states have often adopted bicameralism, and the solution remains popular when regional differences or sensitivities require more explicit representation, with the second chamber representing the constituent states. Nevertheless, the older justification for second chambers — providing opportunities for second thoughts about legislation — has survived. A trend towards [[unicameralism]] in the 20th century appears now to have been halted. Growing awareness of the complexity of the notion of representation and the multifunctional nature of modern legislatures may be affording incipient new rationales for second chambers, though these do generally remain contested institutions in ways that first chambers are not. An example of political controversy regarding a second chamber has been the debate over the powers of the [[Canadian Senate]]. The relationship between the two chambers varies; in some cases, they have equal power, while in others, one chamber is clearly superior in its powers. The first tends to be the case in federal systems and those with presidential governments. The latter tends to be the case in unitary states with [[parliamentary system]]s. Some political scientists believe that bicameralism makes meaningful political reforms more difficult to achieve and increases the risk of deadlock (particularly in cases where both chambers have similar powers). Others argue strongly for the merits of the '[[checks and balances]]' provided by the bicameral model, which they believe helps prevent the passage into law of ill-considered legislation. ==Types== === Federalism === Some countries, such as [[Argentina]], [[Australia]], [[Belgium]], [[Brazil]], [[Canada]], [[Germany]], [[India]], [[Malaysia]], [[Mexico]], [[Pakistan]], [[Russia]], [[South Africa]], [[Switzerland]], and the [[United States]] link their bicameral systems to their [[federation|federal]] political structure. In the United States, Australia, Mexico and Brazil, for example, each state is given the same number of seats in the legislature's upper house. This takes no account of population differences between states — it is designed to ensure that smaller states are not overshadowed by more populous ones. (In the United States, the deal that ensured this arrangement is known as the [[Connecticut Compromise]].) In the lower houses of each country, these provisions do not apply, and seats are allocated based purely on population. The bicameral system, therefore, is a method of combining the principle of democratic equality with the principle of federalism — all citizens are equal in the lower houses, while all states are equal in the upper houses. In Canada, the country as a whole is divided into a number of [[Canadian Senate Divisions|Senate Divisions]], each with a different number of Senators, based on a number of factors. These Divisions are [[Quebec]], [[Ontario]], [[Western Canada|Western Provinces]], and [[the Maritimes]], each with 24 Senators, [[Yukon]], [[Northwest Territories]], [[Nunavut]], each with 1 Senator, and [[Newfoundland and Labrador]] has 6 Senators, making for a total of 105 Senators. In the German, Indian, and Pakistani systems, the upper houses (the [[Bundesrat (Germany)|Bundesrat]], the [[Rajya Sabha]], and the [[Senate of Pakistan|Pakistani Senate]] respectively) are even more closely linked with the federal system, being appointed or elected directly by the governments of each [[States of Germany|German Bundesland]], [[States and territories of India|Indian State]], or [[Provinces of Pakistan|Pakistani Province]]. (This was also the case in the United States before the [[Seventeenth Amendment to the United States Constitution|17th Amendment]].) The Indian Upper House does not have the states represented equally, but on the basis of their population. There are also instances of bicameralism in countries that are not federations, but which have upper houses with representation on a territorial basis. For example in [[South Africa]], the [[National Council of Provinces]] (and before 1997, the [[Senate of South Africa|Senate]]) has its members chosen by each [[Provinces of South Africa|Province]]'s legislature. In Spain the [[Spanish Senate]] functions as a ''de facto'' territorial-based upper house, and there has been some pressure from the [[Autonomous Communities]] to reform it into a strictly territorial chamber. The [[European Union]] maintains a bicameral legislative system which consists of the [[European Parliament]], which is elected in general elections on the basis of universal suffrage, and the [[Council of the European Union]] which consists of members of the governments of the Member States which are competent for the relevant field of legislation. Although the European Union is not considered a state, it enjoys the power to legislate in many areas of politics; in some areas, those powers are even exclusively reserved to it. === Aristocratic === In a few countries, bicameralism involves the juxtaposition of democratic and aristocratic elements. The best known example is the [[United Kingdom|British]] [[House of Lords]], which includes a number of [[hereditary peer]]s. The House of Lords represents a vestige of the aristocratic system which once predominated in British politics, while the other house, the [[British House of Commons|House of Commons]], is entirely elected. Over the years, there have been proposals to reform the House of Lords, some of which have been at least partly successful — the [[House of Lords Act 1999]] limited the number of hereditary peers (as opposed to [[life peer]]s, appointed by the government) to 92, down from around 700. The ability of the House of Lords to block legislation is curtailed by the [[Parliament Act]]. Further reform of the Lords is planned. Another example of aristocratic bicameralism was the [[Japan]]ese [[House of Peers]], abolished after [[World War II]] and replaced with the present [[House of Councillors]]. === Unitary states === Many bicameral systems are not connected with either federalism or an aristocracy, however. [[Japan]], [[France]], [[Italy]], the [[Netherlands]], the [[Philippines]], the [[Czech Republic]], the [[Republic of Ireland]] and [[Romania]] are examples of bicameral systems existing in [[unitary state]]s. In countries such as these, the upper house generally exists solely for the purpose of scrutinising and possibly vetoing the decisions of the lower house. In some of these countries, the upper house is indirectly elected. Members of France's [[French Senate|Senate]], Ireland's [[Seanad Éireann]] are chosen by [[electoral college]]s consisting of members of the lower house, local councillors, the [[Taoiseach]], and graduates of selected universities, while the Netherlands' [[Eerste Kamer|First Chamber]] is chosen by members of provincial assemblies. === Subnational entities === In some countries with federal systems, individual states (like those of the [[United States]] and [[States and territories of Australia|Australia]]) may also have bicameral legislatures. Only two such states, [[Nebraska]] in the US and [[Queensland]] in Australia, have adopted unicameral systems. However, in early [[United States of America|United States]] history, unicameral [[State legislature (United States)|state legislatures]] were not totally uncommon: even though twelve of the original thirteen States ([[Pennsylvania]] being the only exception) had a bicameral legislature at the time of the [[Philadelphia Convention]], some of the new States didn't immediately adopt such system. It was not until 1836, for example, that [[Vermont]] finally created a Senate. During the 1930s, the Legislature of the State of Nebraska was reduced from [[bicameral]] to unicameral with the 43 members that once comprised that state's Senate. One of the arguments used to sell the idea at the time to Nebraska voters was that by adopting a unicameral system, the perceived evils of the "[[conference committee]]" process would be eliminated. A conference committee is appointed when the two chambers cannot agree on the same wording of a proposal, and consists of a small number of legislators from each chamber. This tends to place much power in the hands of only a small number of legislators. Whatever legislation, if any, the conference committee finalizes must then be approved in an unamendable "take-it-or-leave-it" manner by both chambers. During his term as [[Governor]] of the State of [[Minnesota]], [[Jesse Ventura]] proposed converting the Minnesotan legislature to a single chamber with [[proportional representation]], as a reform that he felt would solve many legislative difficulties and impinge upon legislative corruption. In his book on political issues, ''Do I Stand Alone?'', Ventura argued that bicameral legislatures for provincial and local areas were excessive and unnecessary, and discussed unicameralism as a reform that could address many legislative and budgetary problems for states. In Australian states the lower house was traditionally elected based on the one-vote-one-value principle, whereas the upper house was partially appointed and elected, with a bias towards country voters. In Queensland, the appointed [[Queensland Legislative Council|upper house]] was abolished in 1922, while [[New South Wales]] there were similar attempts at abolition, before the [[New South Wales Legislative Council|upper house]] was reformed in the 1970s to provide for direct election. Nowadays, the upper house is elected using proportional voting and the lower house through preferential voting, except in [[Tasmania]], where proportional voting is used for the lower house, and preferential voting for the upper house. === Arab political reform === A [http://www.cfr.org/pdf/Arab_Democracy_TF.pdf 2005 report] on democratic reform in the Arab world by the US [[Council on Foreign Relations]] co-sponsored by former Secretary of State [[Madeleine Albright]] urged Arab states to adopt bicameralism, with upper chambers appointed on a 'specialised basis'. The Council claimed that this would protect against the 'tyranny of the majority', expressing concerns that without a system of checks and balances extremists would use the single chamber parliaments to restrict the rights of [[minority]] groups. In 2002, [[Bahrain]] adopted a bicameral system with an elected lower chamber and an appointed upper house. This led to a boycott of parliamentary elections that year by the [[Al Wefaq]] party, who said that the government would use the upper house to veto their plans. Many secular critics of bicameralism were won round to its benefits in 2005, after many MPs in the lower house voted for the introduction of so-called [[morality police]]. == Examples == [[Image:Unibicameral Map.png|400px|thumb|{{legend|#38b4d8|Nations with bicameral legislatures.}}{{legend|#f09c30|Nations with unicameral legislatures.}}{{legend|#a0989f|No legislature.}}]] * '''[[Parliament of Australia|Parliament]]''' in [[Australia]], which consists of [[Australian House of Representatives|House of Representatives]] and [[Australian Senate|Senate]]; all of the state parliaments except [[Queensland]]'s are also bicameral. * The Parliament in [[Austria]], which consists of the {{lang|de|[[National Council of Austria|Nationalrat]]}} and the {{lang|de|[[Federal Council of Austria|Bundesrat]]}}; all of the {{lang|de|''[[States of Austria|Bundesländer]]''}} have unicameral parliaments. * The '''[[Congresso Nacional]]''' in [[Brazil]] which consists of the [[Senate of Brazil|Senado]] and the [[Chamber of Deputies of Brazil|Câmara dos Deputados]]; all of the 26 state legislatures and the Federal District legislature are unicameral. * '''[[Parliament of Canada|Parliament]]''' in [[Canada]], which consists of the [[Canadian House of Commons|House of Commons]] and the [[Canadian Senate|Senate]]; all of the provincial legislatures are [[Unicameralism|unicameral]]. * '''[[Parliament of France|Parliament]]''' in the [[France|Fifth French Republic]] which consists of the {{lang|fr|[[French National Assembly|Assemblée Nationale]]}} (National Assembly) and the {{lang|fr|[[French Senate|Sénat]]}} (Senate) * the '''{{lang|de|[[Bundestag]]}}''' and {{lang|de|[[Bundesrat (Germany)|Bundesrat]]}} in [[Germany]]; they form two distinct bodies not framed by a comprehensive institution; all of the {{lang|de|''[[States of Germany|Länder]]''}} have today unicameral parliaments. * '''[[Parliament of India|Parliament]]''' in [[India]], which consists of the {{lang|hi|[[Lok Sabha]]}} (House of the People) and the {{lang|hi|[[Rajya Sabha]]}} (Council of States); some of the states also have bicameral legislatures namely {{lang|hi|[[Vidhan Sabha]]}} (Legislative Assembly) and {{lang|hi|[[Vidhan Parishad]]}} (Legislative Council). * The '''[[Italian Parliament|Parliament]]''' in [[Italy]], which consists of two chambers that have same role and power: the [[Italian Senate|Senato della Repubblica]] (Senate of the Republic, commonly considered the ''upper house'') and the [[Camera dei Deputati]] (Chamber of Deputies, considered the ''lower house'') with twice as many members as the Senate. * The '''[[Diet of Japan|Diet]]''' of [[Japan]] is bicameral, consisting of the [[House of Representatives of Japan|House of Representatives]] ({{lang|ja|衆議院}}; {{lang|ja|Shūgi-in}}) as the lower house and the [[House of Councillors of Japan|House of Councillors]] ({{lang|ja|参議院}}; {{lang|ja|Sangi-in}}) as the upper house. * The {{lang|ga|'''[[Oireachtas]]'''}} of the [[Republic of Ireland]] which consists of {{lang|ga|[[Dáil Éireann]]}} (the House of Representatives) and {{lang|ga|[[Seanad Éireann]]}} (the Senate) * '''[[Parliament of Malaysia|Parliament]]''' in [[Malaysia]], which consists of the {{lang|ms|''[[Dewan Rakyat]]''}} (House of Representatives) and the {{lang|ms|''[[Dewan Negara]]''}} (Senate); all of the state legislatures are unicameral. *The '''[[Netherlands States-General]]''', which consists of the {{lang|nl|[[Tweede Kamer]]}} (Second Chamber) and the {{lang|nl|[[Eerste Kamer]]}} (First Chamber) *'''[[Parliament of Pakistan|Parliament]]''' in [[Pakistan]], which consists of the National Assembly and the Senate; all of the provincial assemblies are unicameral. * In [[Spain]], the {{lang|es|'''[[Cortes Generales]]'''}}, with the {{lang|es|[[Spanish Congress of Deputies|Congreso de los Diputados]]}} (Congress of Deputies) and the {{lang|es|[[Spanish Senate|Senado]]}} (Senate) *'''[[Parliament of South Africa|Parliament]]''' in [[South Africa]] which consists of the [[National Assembly of South Africa|National Assembly]] and the [[National Council of Provinces]]; all of the provincial legislatures are unicameral. *The '''[[Federal Assembly of Switzerland|Federal Assembly]]''' in [[Switzerland]], which consists of the [[National Council of Switzerland|National Council]] and the [[Swiss Council of States|Council of States]]; all of the cantons have unicameral parliaments. *The '''[[Federal Assembly of Russia|Federal Assembly]]''' in [[Russian Federation]], which consists of the [[State Duma]] and the [[Federation_Council_of_Russia|Federation Council]]; all of the provincial parliaments are unicameral. * '''[[Parliament of the United Kingdom|Parliament]]''' in the [[United Kingdom]] which consists of the [[British House of Commons|House of Commons]] and the [[House of Lords]] * The '''[[Congress of the Philippines|Congress]]''' of the [[Philippines]] consists of a [[Senate of the Philippines|Senate]] and a [[House of Representatives of the Philippines|House of Representatives]] * '''[[United States Congress|Congress]]''' in the [[United States]] which consists of the [[United States Senate|Senate]] and the [[United States House of Representatives|House of Representatives]]; all of the state legislatures except Nebraska are also bicameral. == See also == * [[List of national legislatures]] * [[Lower house]] * [[Upper house]] * [[Unicameralism]] * [[Tricameralism]] * [[Tetracameralism]] {{Unreferenced|date=December 2007}} [[Category:Government]] [[ca:Bicameralitat]] [[cs:Bikameralismus]] [[da:Tokammersystem]] [[de:Zweikammersystem]] [[es:Bicameralidad]] [[fr:Bicamérisme]] [[ko:양원제]] [[id:Sistem dua kamar]] [[it:Bicameralismo]] [[lb:Zweekummersystem]] [[ms:Dwidewan]] [[nl:Tweekamersysteem]] [[ja:両院制]] [[pl:Bikameralizm]] [[pt:Bicameralismo]] [[ru:Бикамерализм]] [[sv:Tvåkammarparlament]] [[th:ระบบสองสภา]] [[tr:Çift Meclislilik]] [[zh:兩院制]]