Biophysics
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/* Other notable biophysicists */
'''Biophysics''' (also '''biological physics''') is an [[interdisciplinary]] [[science]] that employs and develops theories and methods of the [[physical science]]s for the investigation of [[biology|biological]] systems. Studies included under the umbrella of biophysics span all [[Structure#Biological_structure|levels of biological organization]], from the molecular scale to whole organisms and ecosystems. Biophysical research shares significant overlap with [[biochemistry]], [[nanotechnology]], [[bioengineering]] and [[systems biology]].
Molecular biophysics typically addresses biological questions that are similar to those in [[biochemistry]] and [[molecular biology]], but the questions are approached quantitatively. Scientists in this field conduct research concerned with understanding the interactions between the various systems of a cell, including the interactions between DNA, RNA and protein biosynthesis, as well as how these interactions are regulated. A great variety of techniques are used to answer these questions.
[[Fluorescent]] imaging techniques, as well as [[electron microscopy]], [[x-ray crystallography]], [[NMR spectroscopy]] and [[atomic force microscopy]] (AFM) are often used to visualize structures of biological significance. Direct manipulation of molecules using [[optical tweezers]] or AFM can also be used to monitor biological events where forces and distances are at the nanoscale. Molecular biophysicists often consider complex biological events as systems of interacting units which can be understood through [[statistical mechanics]], [[thermodynamics]] and [[chemical kinetics]]. By drawing knowledge and experimental techniques from a wide variety of disciplines, biophysicists are often able to directly observe, model or even manipulate the structures and interactions of individual [[molecules]] or complexes of molecules.
In addition to traditional (i.e. molecular) biophysical topics like [[structural biology]] or enzyme [[chemical kinetics|kinetics]], modern biophysics encompasses an extraordinarily broad range of research. It is becoming increasingly common for biophysicists to apply the models and experimental techniques derived from [[physics]], as well as [[mathematics]] and [[statistics]], to larger systems such as tissues, organs, [[population biology|populations]] and [[ecosystem]]s.
==Focus as a subfield==
Biophysics often does not have university-level departments of its own, but have presence as groups across departments within the fields of [[biology]], [[biochemistry]], [[chemistry]], [[computer science]], [[mathematics]], [[medicine]], [[pharmacology]], [[physiology]], [[physics]], and [[neuroscience]]. What follows is a list of examples of how each department applies its efforts toward the study of biophysics. This list is hardly all inclusive. Nor does each subject of study belong exclusively to any particular department. Each academic institution makes its own rules and there is much overlap between departments.
*[[Biology]] and [[molecular biology]] - Almost all forms of biophysics efforts are included in some biology department somewhere. To include some: [[gene regulation]], single protein dynamics, bioenergetics, [[patch clamp]]ing, [[biomechanics]].
*[[Structural biology]] - Ångstrom-resolution structures of proteins, nucleic acids, lipids, carbohydrates, and complexes thereof.
*[[Biochemistry]] and [[chemistry]] - biomolecular structure, siRNA, nucleic acid structure, structure-activity relationships.
*[[Computer science]] - [[Neural network]]s, biomolecular and drug databases.
*[[Computational chemistry]] - [[molecular dynamics]] simulation, [[Docking (molecular)|molecular docking]], [[quantum chemistry]]
*[[Bioinformatics]] - [[sequence alignment]], [[structural alignment]], [[protein structure prediction]]
*[[Mathematics]] - graph/network theory, population modeling, dynamical systems, [[phylogenetics]].
*[[Medicine]] and [[neuroscience]] - tackling neural networks experimentally (brain slicing) as well as theoretically (computer models), membrane permitivity, gene therapy, understanding tumors.
*[[Pharmacology]] and [[physiology]] - channel biology, biomolecular interactions, cellular membranes, polyketides.
*[[Physics]] - biomolecular free energy, stochastic processes, covering dynamics.
Many [[biophysical techniques]] are unique to this field. Research efforts in biophysics are often initiated by scientists who were traditional physicists, chemists, and biologists by training.
== Topics in biophysics and related fields ==
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* [[Animal locomotion]]
* [[Bioacoustics]]
* [[Biochemical systems theory]]
* [[Biofilms]]
* [[Biological membrane]]s
* [[Biological thermodynamics|Bioenergetics]]
* [[Biomechanics]]
* [[Biomineralisation]]
* [[Bionics]]
* [[Biophotonics]]
* [[Biosensor]] and [[Bioelectromagnetism|Bioelectronics]]
* [[Cell division]]
* [[Cell membrane]]s
* [[Cell migration]]
* [[Cell signalling]]
* [[Ion channel|Channels]], [[Transmembrane receptor|receptors]] and [[Membrane transport protein|transporter]]s
* [[Cryobiology]]
* [[Dynamical system]]s
* [[Electrophysiology]]
* [[Enzyme kinetics]]
* [[Evolution]]
* [[Evolutionarily stable strategy]]
* [[Evolutionary algorithms]]
* [[Evolutionary computing]]
* [[Evolutionary theory]]
* [[Game theory]]
* [[Gravitational biology]]
* [[Mathematical biology]]
* [[Medical biophysics]]
* [[Metabolic control analysis]]
* [[Microscopy]]
* [[Molecular biophysics]]
* [[Molecular motors]]
* [[Muscle]] and [[contractility]]
* [[Negentropy]]
* [[Neural encoding]]
* [[Neuroimaging]]
* [[Nucleic acid]]s
* [[Origin of Life]]
* [[Phospholipids]]
* [[Protein]]s
* [[Punctuated equilibrium]]
* [[Radiobiology]]
* [[Sensory systems]]
* [[Signals (biology)|Signaling]]
* [[Spectroscopy]], [[imaging]], etc.
* [[Supramolecular assemblies]]
* [[Systems biology]]
* [[Systems neuroscience]]
* [[Tensegrity]]
* [[Theoretical biology]]
</div>
== Famous biophysicists ==
* [[Luigi Galvani]], discoverer of [[bioelectricity]]
* [[Hermann von Helmholtz]], first to measure the velocity of [[nerve impulse]]s; studied [[hearing (sense)|hearing]] and [[visual perception|vision]]
* [[Alan Hodgkin]] & [[Andrew Huxley]], [[mathematical model|mathematical theory]] of how [[ion]] fluxes produce [[action potential|nerve impulses]]
* [[Georg von Békésy]], research on the human ear
* [[Bernard Katz]], discovered how [[synapse]]s work
* [[Hermann Joseph Muller|Hermann J. Muller]], discovered that [[X-rays]] cause [[mutation]]s
* [[Linus Pauling]] & [[Robert Corey]], co-discoverers of the [[alpha helix]] and [[beta sheet]] structures in [[protein]]s
* [[J. D. Bernal]], [[X-ray crystallography]] of [[plant virus]]es and [[protein]]s
* [[Rosalind Franklin]], [[Maurice Wilkins]], [[James D. Watson]] and [[Francis Crick]], pioneers of [[DNA]] [[crystallography]] and co-discoverers of the structure of [[DNA]]. Francis Crick later participated in the [[Crick, Brenner et al. experiment]] which established the basis for understanding the [[genetic code]]
* [[Max Perutz]] & [[John Kendrew]], pioneers of [[protein]] [[crystallography]]
* [[Allan McLeod Cormack|Allan Cormack]] & [[Godfrey Hounsfield]], development of [[computed tomography|computer assisted tomography]]
* [[Paul Lauterbur]] & [[Peter Mansfield]], development of [[magnetic resonance imaging]]
* [[Stephen D. Levene]], DNA-protein Interactions, DNA looping, and DNA topology.
* [[Seiji Ogawa]], development of [[fMRI|functional magnetic resonance imaging]]
== Other notable biophysicists ==
* [[Adolf Eugen Fick]], responsible for [[Fick's law of diffusion]] and a method to determine [[cardiac output]].
* [[Howard Berg]], characterized properties of [[bacterial]] [[chemotaxis]]
* [[Steven Block]], observed the motions of enzymes such as [[kinesin]] and [[RNA polymerase]] with [[optical tweezers]]
* [[Carlos Bustamante]], known for single-molecule biophysics of [[molecular motors]] and biological [[polymer physics]]
* [[Steven Chu]], Nobel laureate who helped develop optical trapping techniques used by many biophysicists
* [[Friedrich Dessauer]], research on radiation, especially [[X-ray]]s
* [[Julio Fernandez]]
* [[Stefan Hell]], developed the principle of [[STED microscopy]]
* [[John J. Hopfield]], worked on error correction in transcription and translation (kinetic proof-reading), and associative memory models ([[Hopfield net]])
* [[Martin Karplus]], research on [[molecular dynamics|molecular dynamical]] simulations of biological macromolecules.
* [[Franklin Offner]], professor emeritus at [[Northwestern University]] of professor of biophysics, biomedical engineering and electronics who developed a modern prototype of the [[electroencephalograph]] and [[electrocardiograph]] called the dynograph
* [[Benoit Roux]]
* [[Mikhail Volkenshtein]], [[Revaz Dogonadze]] & [[Zurab Urushadze]], authors of the first [[Quantum mechanics|quantum-mechanical]] model of enzyme catalysis, supported a theory that enzyme catalysis use quantum-mechanical effects such as [[quantum tunneling|tunneling]].
* [[John P. Wikswo]], research on biomagnetism
* [[Douglas Warrick]], specializing in [[bird flight]] ([[hummingbird]]s and [[pigeon]]s)
* [[Ernest C. Pollard]] — founder of the [[Biophysical Society]]
* [[Marvin Makinen]], pioneer of the structural basis of [[enzyme]] action
* [[Gopalasamudram Narayana Iyer Ramachandran]], developer of the Ramachandran plot and pioneer of the collagen triple-helix structure prediction
* [[Doug Barrick]], repeat protein folding
* [[Naomi Courtemanche]], kinetics of leucine rich repeat protein folding
* [[Ellen Kloss]], salt-dependence of leucine rich repeat protein folding
* [[Bertrand Garcia Moreno E.]], Dielectric Constant of Globular Protein 'hydrophobic' core
* [[Ludwig Brand]], Time resolved fluorescence anisotropy decay in Biological systems
== References ==
* Perutz M.F. Proteins and Nucleic Acids, Elsevier, Amsterdam, 1962
* {{cite journal | author=Perutz MF | title=The haemoglobin molecule | journal=Proceedings of the Royal Society of London. Series B | volume=173 | issue=31 | year=1969 | pages=113–40}} PMID 4389425
* Dogonadze R.R. and Urushadze Z.D. Semi-Classical Method of Calculation of Rates of Chemical Reactions Proceeding in Polar Liquids.- ''J.Electroanal.Chem.'', 32, 1971, pp. 235-245
* Volkenshtein M.V., Dogonadze R.R., Madumarov A.K., Urushadze Z.D. and Kharkats Yu.I. Theory of Enzyme Catalysis.- ''Molekuliarnaya Biologia'' (Moscow), 6, 1972, pp. 431-439 (In Russian, English summary)
* {{Cite book
| author = [[Rodney M. J. Cotterill]]
| title = Biophysics : An Introduction
| publisher = [[Wiley]]
| year = 2002
| isbn = 978-0471485384
}}
* Sneppen K. and Zocchi G., ''Physics in Molecular Biology'', [[Cambridge University Press]], 2005. ISBN 0-521-84419-3
* Glaser R., Biophysics, Springer, 2001, ISBN 3-540-67088-2
== See also ==
* [[List of publications in biology#Biophysics|Important publications in biophysics (biology)]]
* [[list of publications in physics#Biophysics|important publications in biophysics (physics)]]
== External links ==
{{WVD}}
* [http://www.biophysics.org/ Biophysical Society]
* [http://www.physiome.ox.ac.uk/ The Wellcome Trust Physiome Project] - Links
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