Bluebuck
1620499
220343699
2008-06-19T11:54:14Z
146.182.9.9
/* Range */
{{Taxobox
| name = Bluebuck
| name_caption = Range: Late Pleistocene - Recent
| status = EX
| status_system = iucn2.3
| extinct = ca.1800
| image = BlueAntelope1801.jpg
| image_width = 250px
| image_caption = Drawing of a Bluebuck from 1801.
| regnum = [[Animal]]ia
| phylum = [[Chordate|Chordata]]
| classis = [[Mammal]]ia
| ordo = [[Artiodactyla]]
| familia = [[Bovidae]]
| subfamilia = [[Hippotraginae]]
| genus = ''[[Hippotragus]]''
| species = '''''H. leucophaeus'''''
| binomial = ''Hippotragus leucophaeus''
| binomial_authority = [[Peter Simon Pallas|Pallas]], 1766
| range_map = LocationBluebuckRange.gif
| range_map_width = 250px
| range_map_caption = Former range (in red)
}}
The '''Bluebuck''' or '''Blue Antelope''' (''Hippotragus leucophaeus'') is an extinct species of [[antelope]], the first large African [[mammal]] to disappear in historic times. It is related to the [[Roan Antelope]] and [[Sable Antelope]], but slightly smaller than either. It lived in the southwestern coastal region of [[South Africa]] savannahs, but was more widespread during the last [[Ice Age]]. It was probably a selective feeder, preferring high-quality [[grass]]es.
Europeans encountered the Bluebuck in the 17th century, but it was already uncommon by then. European settlers hunted it avidly, despite its flesh being distasteful, while converting its habitat to [[agriculture]]. The Bluebuck became [[extinct]] around 1800. There are only four mounted specimens – in museums in [[Vienna]], [[Stockholm]], [[Paris]], and [[Leiden]] – along with some bones and horns elsewhere. None of the museum specimens show a blue colour, which may have derived from a mixture of black and yellow hairs.
==Characteristics==
[[Image:Bluebuck.jpg|thumb|left|Illustration of a Bluebuck and a [[Klipspringer]] from 1851.]]
'''Total length''': 250-300 cm (bull); 230-280 cm (cow)
'''Shoulder height''': 100-120 cm
'''Skull length''': 396 mm
'''Horn length''': 50-61 cm
'''Body mass''': 160 kg
Eighteenth century travellers provided contradictory descriptions of this species, perhaps because some were embellishing, while others had not actually seen it and were simply repeating hearsay - Peter Kolb in 1719 incorrectly described it as having a long [[goat]]-like beard and tail, straight horns like an [[oryx]], and short ears<ref>^ Smithers, R.H.N. 1983. Die soogdiere van die Suider-Afrikaanse substreek. Universiteit van Pretoria, Pretoria.</ref><ref>^ Stuart, C. & Stuart, T. 1996. Africa’s vanishing wildlife. Southern Book Publishers, Halfway House.</ref>. They did send some skulls and skins back to Europe. In 1967, Erna Mohr reported that the four existing mounted blue antelopes vary from 102 to 116 cm at the shoulder. Adult bluebuck probably rarely exceeded 160 kg. None of the four museum specimens shows any sheen of blue. The dark skin showing through the thinning fur of older animals may have caused the blue colours described by several authors or the mix of black and yellow hears. Like most antelopes, the bluebuck had six teeth along the cheek in each half of the upper and lower jaws. These formed two distinct series three premolars immediately followed by three molars. Its remains can be distinguished from those of the roan by smaller molars and premolars, and from the sable by larger premolars, and a higher ratio of premolar row length to molar row length.
The bluebuck was a large, horse-like antelope, as heavy as a Javan or English [[horse]], but smaller than the [[roan]] or [[sable]]. The proportions of its body was similar to that of the [[southern reedbuck]]<ref>^ Loubser, J., Brink, J. & Laurens, G. 1990. Paintings of the extinct blue antelope, Hippotragus leucophaeus, in the Eastern Orange Free State. The South African Archaeological Bulletin 45 (152): 106-111.</ref>.
It had a relatively long, strong neck with a very short, underdeveloped mane<ref>^ Zaloumis, E.A. & Cross, R. 1987. A field guide to the antelope of Southern Africa. Natal Branch of the Wildlife Society of Southern Africa, Durban.</ref>, long white legs with dark bands on the anterior, and a long tail, up to the hock, with a dark, horse-like whisk. It had a long muzzle. Its ears were long and [[donkey]]-like, rufous and narrow-pointed, without the black tufts of hair found in the roan.
The long, scimitar-shaped horns inserted directly above the orbits, extending upwards at almost right angles to the skull , and then curving back gently, without any torsion, towards the shoulders<ref>^ Colahan, B.D. 1990. Did the last blue antelope Hippotragus leucophaeus die in the Eastern Orange Free State, South Africa? Mirafra 7 (2): 51-52.</ref>. These horns were heavily ridged, with 20-35 rings up to the tip of the horn, comparable to the roan (20-50 rings). Its horns were however more lightly built than those of the roan and sable, and slightly transversely compressed to the inside.
Its hair was short and glossy, and of a delicate light blue to grey - which quickly faded to a bluish grey after death. Its belly was pale white, and didn't actually contrast with the colour of the flanks. Its forehead and the upper muzzle was brown, becoming lighter towards the cheeks and upper lips. It had distinct white patches in front of the eyes not reaching the white muzzle.
The bulls resembled the cows up to the age of three years, after which they became paler (almost white) and developed large, more curved horns; the horns of the cows where more or less of the same length, although thinner and 10-20% smaller. The calves younger than 2 months were light tan, with no or very indistinct markings.
The back-curved horns reminded [[Jan van Riebeeck]] of the European [[ibex]], and he called it the 'steinbok'. It remains uncertain how long this name was used, or when it was changed to 'blaauwbok' or bluebuck.
==Range==
When the Europeans settled in the [[Cape Colony]] in the 17th and 18th century, they found the Bluebuck on the coastal plains of the southwestern Cape Province<ref>^ Comrie-Greig, J. 1992. Vrae en antwoorde - Bedreigde natuurlewe van Suider-Afrika. Struik Uitgewers, Kaapstad. </ref>, east of the [[Hottentots Holland]] mountains. It was never very common, and was probably restricted to an grassland area of less than 4 000 km<sup>2</sup> in the triangle formed by the towns of [[Caledon]], [[Swellendam]] and [[Bredasdorp]], [[South Africa]]. Lieutenant W.J. St. John also recorded 'roans' of a bluish grey colour at Liebenbergsvlei (28º15’S, 28º29’O) near [[Bethlehem]] in the [[Free State]] Province on 28-29 July 1853, and it is now thought that he actually saw the last remnants of a relict population of bluebuck.
From archaeological and palaeontological evidence it is known that the bluebuck had a wider distribution, and was more common, during the early [[Holocene]] Epoch 10 000 years ago. At one time it could be found on the coastal plain of the Cape Province from [[Elands Bay]] in the northwest to [[Uniondale]] in the east. Researchers of the [[National Museum]] in [[Bloemfontein]] have found [[San]] ([[Bushman]]) rock paintings near [[Ficksburg]] and [[Golden Gate Highlands National Park]]<ref>^ Woodhouse, B. 1996. The rock art of the Golden Gate and Clarens districts. William Waterman Publications, Rivonia. </ref><ref>^ Smith, M. 10 Januarie 2001. Boesmantekeninge van uitgestorwe kwagga gekry. Volksblad: 5. </ref>, while [[Pleistocene]] deposits (100 000 to 10 000 years ago) confirm its existence at Rose Cottage cave near [[Ladybrand]]<ref>^ De la Harpe, R. 2002. Puik vakansieplekke in Suid-Afrika. Sunbird Publishing, Kaapstad. </ref>.
==Habitat==
The early travellers found the bluebuck only in rolling [[grassland]] with extensive [[marshes]] and open areas with medium to long (0,5-1,5 m), perennial tuft grass and little hillside shrub. It was also at home at higher elevations, up to 2 400 m above sea-level. It was susceptible to droughts, and water was a necessary habitat requirement.
They avoided areas with short grass, and woodland where trees formed a thick canopy or thickets. Habitat change, due to [[overgrazing]] of grassland by other species, like [[sheep]], thus threathened this species.
==Food==
Like the roan and sable, it had to drink daily. Many other [[antelopes]] can obtain the moisture they need from the plants they eat and they can go for long periods without drinking.
The bluebuck was a selective grazer of medium to long (0,5-1,5 m), perennial tuft grasses, like high-quality red grass (''Themeda triandra''), spear grass (''Heteropogon contortus''), buffalo grass (''Panicum'' spp.) and love grass (''Eragrostis'' spp.). Unlike most other antelope, it was not particularly attracted to fresh grass, except during the dry season, when it would graze for short periods along drainage-lines and on floodplains on the fresh growth following the yearly fires. However, like most grazers, it would probably browse during the dry season.
==Behaviour==
Most of its activities took place during the day, especially early in the morning and late in the afternoon.
Bluebucks followed the conventional territorial system among the [[Hippotragini]] or 'horse antelopes': territorial bulls, herds of cows and calves, and bachelor herds which were kept segregate by the territorial bulls.
Bluebuck cows and calves lived in small to medium-sized herds of 5 to 20 individuals, although herds of 35 to 80 was not unusual. They normally occurred at a low density of about 4/km<sup>2</sup>. Cows shared a traditional home range, which included the territories of several bulls and occupied it for up to 30 years. At very low densities in substandard habitat the cows ranged across larger areas, and were accompanied by the same bull, which in the abscence of resistance by territorial neighbours, defended a movable space around his own private [[harem]].
Because they were equipped with long, dangerous horns, cows tended to be more aggressive than those antelope whose females are hornless. [[Dominance]] hierarchies based on age and individual prowess were vigorously maintained by both sexes. Maternal herds, comprising of animals that shared the same home range, were closed to outsiders. Herd members kept out of range of each other's horns, by increasing the individual space between them.
Herd composition changed daily and seasonally; members split into small groups during the rainy season, and concentrated into larger groups on the best available grazing near water during the dry season. The most cohesive groups were maintained by calves of different ages, which clustered around the youngest calf and usually lagged behind the herd.
Bulls were accepted in the natal herd up to the age of 15-18 months, which was unusually long. Until then, their similarity to cows suppressed the [[aggression]] of the territorial bulls. [[Subadult]] bulls were driven from the herd, and if these juveniles didn't escape quickly enough, they were killed. They then joined bachelor herds, where they stayed until they reached five or six years of age, when they would be strong enough to defend their own territory.
The adult bull would advertise his presence and high social status by standing or lying alone or away from the herd, at a conspicuous place. The bull stood in an erect manner, which was a sign of high status, and it was self-advertising if it was not directed. When another bull approached his herd, the dominant bull would stand with his neck arched, head high, and ears turned sideways. Unless the intruder showed [[submission]] by lowering his head, the bull kept his ears erect, and waved his tail or tucked it between his legs, and a clash of horns and head-butting would take place. Its sound was a blowing snort.
==Reproduction==
One calf, with a birth mass of 12-14 kg, was dropped after a gestation period of 268-281 days at any time of the year, with a peak during late summer. Bluebuck are thought to have lived for up to 18 years.
==Predators==
The calves were vulnerable to attacks from [[spotted hyena]]s (''Crocuta crocuta''), [[leopards]] (''Panthera pardus'') and [[wild dogs]] (''Lycaon pictus''). The adults were large and formidable, and resistant to [[predation]] in areas with low predator densities. They did sometimes fall prey to [[lions]] (''Panthera leo''), but were attacked with caution. Normally they would flee from predators, but when wounded, a bluebuck would lay down, preferably in a marsh, and defended itself with its razor-sharp horns - the angle-horn threat [[display]] indicating that it intended to stab sideways or over its shoulder.
==History & Population==
The Bluebuck or Blue Antelope was the first large African mammal to become extinct in historical times.
Shortly after the last [[Ice Age]], about 10 000 years ago, the bluebuck must have been common in the far south of [[Africa]], which was largely covered with grassy plains. Numerous finds of subfossil bones indicate a former distribution area from [[Elands Bay]] in the present [[Cape Colony]] to about 25° E at [[Uniondale]], as well as in the Eastern [[Free State]]. Bluebuck numbers dropped about 3 200-2 000 years ago, due to the change of grassland into bush and forest when the climate became warmer.
They showed a sharp decline around 400 A.D., which coincided with the introduction of livestock, particularly [[sheep]], by man at about that time. [[Competition]] for grazing with sheep, the resulting [[habitat degradation]] due to [[overgrazing]], and diseases may all have contributed to a decline in bluebuck. [[Subsistence]] hunting could also have played a role - it is known that the [[Late Stone Age]] inhabitants of Rose Cottage cave hunted several game species, including bluebuck. To the [[San]] or [[Bushman]] the bluebuck was an important animal, since [[rock art]] indicates that these animals contained [[supernatural power]].
Jan van Riebeeck mentioned a "steinbok" or ibex with back-curved horns near [[Cape Town]], while the German Peter Kolb was the first to write about the existence of a "blaauwbok" or bluebuck in 1719. The bluebuck was clearly on its way to extinction, when European naturalists and hunters finally discovered it. Its range was already small when Europeans who settled in the [[Cape Colony]] in the 17th and 18th century first saw this antelope. The Swedish naturalist [[Carl Peter Thunberg]] noted in 1774 that these animals were becoming rare. European hunters and farmers hunted it mainly for its skin. Its meat was not fatty, and generally fed to the dogs, although it was just as tasty as that of [[deer]]. According to the German zoologist [[Martin Lichtenstein]], the last bluebuck in the [[Cape Province]] was killed in 1799/1800 in the [[Swellendam]] district<ref>^ Skead, C.J. 1987. Historical mammal incidence in the Cape Province. Volume 1 – The Western and Northern Cape. The Department of Nature and Environmental Conservation of the Provincial Administration of the Cape of Goof Hope, Cape Town. </ref>. However, there is good evidence to suggest that an isolated remnant population still existed further north in the 18th century, and that the last bluebuck died in the Eastern [[Free State]] more than fifty years later.
==Extinction Information==
Cultivation of the [[Cape Colony]] and hunting with [[firearms]] made short work of the last small herds and the blue antelopes were gone before the early natural history cabinets and museum had a chance to obtain a fair number of specimens. In fact, it is a miracle that any were preserved at all.
==Museum Specimens==
There are four mounted Bluebuck skins: in the National Museum of Natural History “Naturalis” in Leiden (the [[Netherlands]]), and in the natural history museums of [[Stockholm]] ([[Sweden]]), [[Paris]] ([[France]]) and [[Vienna]] ([[Austria]]). Not counting the many bones excavated throughout the species' former range, there are two skulls, in [[Amsterdam]] (the [[Netherlands]]) and [[Glasgow]] ([[United Kingdom]]), and three pairs of horns, in [[Uppsala]] ([[Sweden]]), [[London]] ([[United Kingdom]]) and [[Cape Town]] ([[South Africa]]). None of these specimens is properly documented.
==Relatives==
Two close relatives of the bluebuck are the [[roan antelope]] (''[[Hippotragus equinus]]'') and the [[sable antelope]] (''[[Hippotragus niger]]''). Although some naturalists in the past classified the bluebuck merely as a [[subspecies]] of the roan, it is now generally accepted as a separate species. This is based on the fact that bluebuck and roan occurred in [[sympatry]] on the coastal plain of the southwestern Cape from [[Oakhurst]] to [[Uniondale]] during the early [[Holocene]].
There were a lot of speculations that the Giant or [[Giant Sable Antelope]] (''[[Hippotragus niger variani]]'') had become extinct. There had been unconfirmed sightings in recent years, but no confirmed sightings for 20 years. This subspecies of the Sable Antelope did only occur in [[Angola]], and there are none in zoos anywhere. An expedition headed to [[Angola]] on 14 August 2002 to search for the giant sable antelope. Scientists and others hope that this majestic antelope has survived the southwest African nation's decades-long civil war. The expedition had tried hunting for the antelope by [[helicopter]], but the animals avoid sound at all costs. Interviews with tribal chiefs revealed that locals often sighted the animals in the Luando reserve so the expedition changed tactics and carried out ground surveys on foot. They recorded five separate sightings but were not able to take any photographs. These five animals, whose spectacular scimitar horns sweep back more than five feet over their heads, were spotted in Cangandala National Park in Malanje province in north-central [[Angola]] by a team led by Professor Wouter van Hoven of the University of Pretoria.
==References==
^ Smithers, R.H.N. 1983. Die ''soogdiere van die Suider-Afrikaanse substreek''. Universiteit van Pretoria, Pretoria.
^ Stuart, C. & Stuart, T. 1996. ''Africa’s vanishing wildlife''. Southern Book Publishers, Halfway House.
^ Loubser, J., Brink, J. & Laurens, G. 1990. Paintings of the extinct blue antelope, ''Hippotragus leucophaeus'', in the Eastern Orange Free State. ''The South African Archaeological Bulletin'' 45 ('''152'''): 106-111.
^ Zaloumis, E.A. & Cross, R. 1987. ''A field guide to the antelope of Southern Africa''. Natal Branch of the Wildlife Society of Southern Africa, Durban.
^ Colahan, B.D. 1990. Did the last blue antelope ''Hippotragus leucophaeus'' die in the Eastern Orange Free State, South Africa? ''Mirafra'' 7 ('''2'''): 51-52.
^ Comrie-Greig, J. 1992. ''Vrae en antwoorde - Bedreigde natuurlewe van Suider-Afrika''. Struik Uitgewers, Kaapstad.
^ Smith, M. 10 Januarie 2001. Boesmantekeninge van uitgestorwe kwagga gekry. ''Volksblad'': 5.
^ Woodhouse, B. 1996. ''The rock art of the Golden Gate and [[Clarens]] districts''. William Waterman Publications, Rivonia.
^ De la Harpe, R. 2002. ''Puik vakansieplekke in Suid-Afrika''. Sunbird Publishing, Kaapstad.
^ Skead, C.J. 1987. ''Historical mammal incidence in the Cape Province. Volume 1 – The Western and Northern Cape''. The Department of Nature and Environmental Conservation of the Provincial Administration of the Cape of Goof Hope, Cape Town.
== Other references ==
* {{IUCN2006|assessors=Antelope Specialist Group|year=1996|id=10168|title=Hippotragus leucophaeus|downloaded=06 May 2006}} Database entry includes a brief justification of why this species is listed as extinct.
* Klein, R.G. 1974. On the taxonomic status, distribution and ecology of the blue antelope (''Hippotragus leucophaeus''). ''The Annals of the South African Museum'' 65 ('''4''').
* Klein, R.G. 1987. The extinct blue antelope. ''Sagittarius'' 2 ('''3''').
==External links==
* [http://www.petermaas.nl/extinct/speciesinfo/bluebuck.htm The Extinction Website - Species Info - Bluebuck]
* [http://www.iziko.org.za/sam/resources/sagittarius/bluebuck.htm South African Museum - The Extinct Blue Antelope]
*[http://www.hunterian.gla.ac.uk Hunterian Museum, University of Glasgow, Scotland - Search Bluebuck - Bluebuck Antelope skull]
*[http://www.africanconservation.org/cgi-bin/dcforum/dcboard.cgi?az=read_count&om=582&forum=DCForumID33 African Conservation Forums - The Extinct Blue Antelope]
[[Category:Extinct animals of Africa]]
[[Category:Extinct mammals]]
[[Category:Grazing antelopes]]
[[Category:Recent extinctions]]
[[de:Blaubock]]
[[es:Hippotragus leucophaeus]]
[[fr:Hippotragus leucophaeus]]
[[it:Hippotragus leucophaeus]]
[[hu:Kék lóantilop]]
[[pl:Antylopa niebieska]]
[[pt:Antílope-azul]]
[[fi:Siniantilooppi]]