Bolivia 3462 223943567 2008-07-06T17:04:02Z Bogdan 2801827 /* Economy */ correction {{pp-semi-protected|small=yes}} {{otheruses}} {{Infobox Country |native_name = ''República de Bolivia''{{spaces|2}}<small>{{es icon}}</small><br>''Bulibya Republika''{{spaces|2}}<small>{{qu icon}}</small><br>''Wuliwya Suyu''{{spaces|2}}<small>{{ay icon}}</small> |conventional_long_name = Republic of Bolivia |common_name = Bolivia |image_flag = Flag of Bolivia.svg |image_coat = Coat of arms of Bolivia.svg |image_map = LocationBolivia.svg |national_motto = ''"¡La unión es la fuerza!"''{{spaces|2}}<small>{{es icon}}</small><br/>"Unity is strength!"</small> |national_anthem = ''[[Bolivianos, el hado propicio]]''{{spaces|2}}<small>{{es icon}}</small> |capital = {{nowrap|[[Sucre]] <small>(constitutional, judicial)}}<br/>{{coor dm|19|2|S|65|15|W}}</small><br/>[[La Paz]]&nbsp;<small>(administrative)<br/>{{coor dm|16|29|S|68|8|W}}</small> |largest_city = {{nowrap|[[Santa Cruz de la Sierra]]}}<br/><small>{{coor dm|17|48|S|63|10|W}}</small> |official_languages = [[Spanish language|Spanish]], [[Quechua]], [[Aymara language|Aymara]] |demonym = Bolivian |government_type = [[Republic]] |leader_title1 = [[President of Bolivia|President]] |leader_name1 = [[Evo Morales]] |leader_title2 = [[Vice President of Bolivia|Vice President]] |leader_name2 = [[Álvaro García Linera|Álvaro García]] |sovereignty_type = [[History of Bolivia|Independence]] |established_event1 = from [[Spain]] |established_date1 = [[August 6]] [[1825]] |area_km2 = 1,098,581 |area_sq_mi = 424,163 <!--Do not remove per [[WP:MOSNUM]]--> |area_rank = 28th |percent_water = 1.29 |population_estimate = 9,119,152 |population_estimate_year = July 2007 |population_estimate_rank = 84th |population_census = 8,857,870 |population_census_year = |population_density_km2 = 8.4 |population_density_sq_mi = 21.8 <!--Do not remove per [[WP:MOSNUM]]--> |population_density_rank = 210th |GDP_PPP_year = |GDP_PPP = $25.684 billion |GDP_PPP_rank = 101st |GDP_PPP_per_capita = $2,817 |GDP_PPP_per_capita_rank = 125th |GDP_nominal = $12.8 billion |GDP_nominal_rank = 108rd |GDP_nominal_year = 2007 |GDP_nominal_per_capita = $1,422 |GDP_nominal_per_capita_rank = 121st |Gini = 60.1 |Gini_year = 2002 |Gini_category = <font color="#e0584e">high</font> |HDI_year = 2007 |HDI = {{increase}} 0.695 |HDI_rank = 117th |HDI_category = <font color="#ffcc00">medium</font> |currency = [[Bolivian boliviano|Boliviano]] |currency_code = BOB |time_zone = |utc_offset = -4 |cctld = [[.bo]] |calling_code = 591 }} The '''Republic of Bolivia''' ({{lang-es|República de Bolivia}}, {{IPAes|reˈpuβ̞lika ð̞e β̞oˈliβ̞ja}}), named after [[Simón Bolívar]], is a [[landlocked country]] in central [[South America]]. It is bordered by [[Brazil]] on the north and east, [[Paraguay]] and [[Argentina]] on the south, and [[Chile]] and [[Peru]] on the west. From 1839 [[Sucre]] was the seat of government until the administrative [[capital]] was moved to [[La Paz]] in 1898. Sucre remains the constitutional capital and seat of the Supreme Court (''Corte Suprema de Justicia''). == History == {{main|History of Bolivia}} ===Colonial period=== The territory now known as Bolivia was called "Upper Peru" and was under the authority of the Viceroy of [[Lima]]. Local government came from the [[Real Audiencia of Charcas|Audiencia de Charcas]] located in Chuquisaca (La Plata&mdash;modern Sucre). By the late 16th century Bolivian [[silver]] was an important source of revenue for the [[Spanish empire]].<ref>MSN Encarta, [http://encarta.msn.com/encyclopedia_761575057_13/spain.html Conquest in the Americas].</ref> A steady stream of natives served as labor force (the Spanish employed the pre-Columbian draft system called the [[Mita (Inca)|mita]]).<ref>[http://countrystudies.us/bolivia/29.htm Bolivia - Ethnic Groups]</ref> As Spanish royal authority weakened during the [[Napoleonic Wars|Napoleonic wars]], sentiment against colonial rule grew. ===The Republic and economic instability (1809)=== The struggle for independence started in 1809, and after 16 years of war the republic was proclaimed on [[August 6]], [[1825]], named for [[Simón Bolívar]] (see [[Bolivian War of Independence]]). In 1836, Bolivia, under the rule of [[Marshal]] [[Andres de Santa Cruz]], invaded Peru to reinstall the deposed president, [[General]] [[Luis Orbegoso]]. Peru and Bolivia formed the Peru-Bolivian Confederation, with de Santa Cruz as the ''Supreme Protector''. Following tensions between the Confederation and Chile, Chile declared war on December 28, 1836. Argentina, Chile's ally, declared war on the Confederation on May 9, 1837. The Peruvian-Bolivian forces achieved several major victories: the defeat of the Argentinian expedition and the defeat of the first Chilean expedition on the fields of [[Paucarpata]] near the city of [[Arequipa]]. On the same field the [[Paucarpata Treaty]] was signed with the unconditional surrender of the Chilean and Peruvian rebel army. The treaty stipulated that Chile withdraw from Peru-Bolivia, return captured Confederate ships, economic relations would be normalized, and the Confederation would pay Peruvian debt to Chile. Public outrage over the treaty forced the government to reject it. Chile organized a second attack on the Confederation, and defeated it on the fields of [[Battle of Yungay|Yungay]] using the same arms and equipment Santa Cruz had allowed them to retain. After this defeat, Santa Cruz fled to [[Ecuador]], and the Peruvian-Bolivian Confederation was dissolved. Following the independence of Peru, [[General]] [[Agustín Gamarra|Gamarra]], the Peruvian president, invaded Bolivia, under the Peruvian flag. The Peruvian army was decisively defeated at the [[Battle of Ingaví]] on November 20, 1841, where Gamarra was killed. The Bolivian army under General [[José Ballivián]] then mounted a counter-offensive managing to capture the Peruvian port of [[Arica]]. Later, both sides signed a peace in 1842 putting a final end to the war. A period of political and economic instability in the early to mid-19 century weakened Bolivia. Then in the [[War of the Pacific]] (1879&ndash;83) against to [[Chile]], it lost its access to the sea, and the adjoining rich [[nitrate]] fields, together with the port of [[Antofagasta]]. Since independence, Bolivia has lost over half of its territory to neighboring countries because of wars. It also lost the [[Acre State|state of Acre]] (known for its production of rubber) when Brazil persuaded the state of Acre to secede from Bolivia in 1903 (see the [[Treaty of Petrópolis]]). In the late 1800s, an increase in the world price of [[silver]] brought Bolivia relative prosperity and political stability. During the early 20th century, [[tin]] replaced silver as the country's most important source of wealth. A succession of governments controlled by the economic and social [[elite]] followed [[laissez-faire]] [[Capitalism|capitalist]] policies through the first thirty years of the 20th century. Living conditions of the native people, who constituted most of the population, remained deplorable. Forced to work under primitive conditions in the [[mine]]s and in nearly [[feudal]] status on large estates, they were denied access to [[education]], economic opportunity, and political participation. Bolivia's defeat by [[Paraguay]] in the [[Chaco War]] (1932&ndash;35) marked a turning-point.<ref>{{cite book |author=Harold Osborne |title=Bolivia: A Land Divided |publisher=London: Royal Institute of International Affairs |year=1954}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |author=History World |title=History of Bolivia |publisher=National Grid for Learning |year=2004 |url=http://www.historyworld.net/wrldhis/PlainTextHistories.asp?historyid=ac11}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |author=Juan Forero |title=History Helps Explain Bolivia's New Boldness |publisher=New York Times |year=2006 |url=http://www.nytimes.com/2006/05/07/weekinreview/07forero.html}} [http://www.geography.wisc.edu/archiveNews/2006/pdf/NYT-History%20Geography%20Bolivia.pdf (PDF)], University of Wisconsin-Madison, Department of Geography</ref> ===Rise of the Nationalist Revolutionary Movement (1951)=== [[Image:Llama en la laguna Colorada Potosí Bolivia.jpg|thumb|The [[llama]] is one of the icons of the Bolivian altiplano.]] The [[Nationalist Revolutionary Movement]] (MNR) emerged as a broadly based party. Denied its victory in the 1951 presidential elections, the MNR led the successful 1952 revolution. Under President [[Víctor Paz Estenssoro]], the MNR , having strong popular pressure, introduced [[universal suffrage]] into his political platform, and carried out a sweeping land-reform promoting rural education and nationalization of the country's largest tin-mines. Twelve years of tumultuous rule left the MNR divided. In 1964, a military [[military dictatorship|junta]] overthrew President Estenssoro at the outset of his third term. The 1969 death of President [[René Barrientos Ortuño]], a former member of the junta elected President in 1966, led to a succession of weak governments. Alarmed by public disorder and the rising Popular Assembly, the military, the MNR, and others installed Colonel (later General) [[Hugo Banzer Suárez]] as President in 1971. Banzer ruled with MNR support from 1971 to 1974. Then, impatient with schisms in the coalition, he replaced civilians with members of the armed forces and suspended political activities. The economy grew impressively during most of Banzer's presidency, but [[human rights]] violations and eventual fiscal crises undercut his support. He was forced to call elections in 1978, and Bolivia again entered a period of political turmoil. ===Military governments: García Meza and Siles Zuazo (1978)=== Elections in 1979 and 1981 were inconclusive and marked by fraud. There were [[coup d'état|coups d'état]], counter-coups, and caretaker governments. In 1980, General [[Luis García Meza Tejada]] carried out a ruthless and violent coup d'état that did not have popular support. He pacified the people by promising to remain in power only for one year. (At the end of the year, he staged a televised rally to claim popular support and announced, "''Bueno, me quedo''," or, "All right; I'll stay [in office]."<ref>[http://www.ireland.com/theticket/articles/2006/0120/1137626790492.html Ireland.com - Astroturfing all the way to No 1]</ref> He was deposed shortly thereafter.) His government was notorious for human-rights-abuses, [[narcotics]]-trafficking, and economic mismanagement; during his presidency, the inflation that later crippled the Bolivian economy could already be felt. Later convicted in absentia for various crimes, including murder, García Meza was extradited from Brazil and began serving a 30-year [[prison|sentence]] in 1995. After a military rebellion forced out García Meza in 1981, three other military governments in 14 months struggled with Bolivia's growing problems. Unrest forced the military to convoke the [[Congress of Bolivia|Congress]] elected in 1980 and allow it to choose a new chief executive. In October 1982, [[Hernán Siles Zuazo]] again became President, 22 years after the end of his first term of office (1956-60). ===Sánchez de Lozada and Banzer: Liberalizing the economy (1993-2001)=== [[Sánchez de Lozada]] pursued an aggressive economic and social reform agenda. The most dramatic reform was the "capitalization" program, under which investors, typically foreign, acquired 50% ownership and management control of public enterprises, such as the state [[Petroleum|oil]] corporation, [[telecommunications]] system, [[airline]]s, [[railroad]]s, and electric utilities, in return for agreed upon capital investments. The reforms and economic restructuring were strongly opposed by certain segments of society, which instigated frequent and sometimes violent protests, particularly in La Paz and the Chapare coca-growing region, from 1994 through 1996. The de Lozada government pursued a policy of offering monetary compensation for voluntary eradication of illegal coca by its growers in the Chapare region. The policy produced little net reduction in coca, and in the mid-1990s Bolivia accounted for about one-third of the world's coca that was being processed into [[cocaine]]. During this time, the umbrella labor-organization of Bolivia, the Central Obrera Boliviana (COB), became increasingly unable to effectively challenge government policy. A teachers' strike in 1995 was defeated because the COB could not marshal the support of many of its members, including construction- and factory-workers. The state also used selective martial law to keep the disruptions caused by the teachers to a minimum. The teachers were led by [[Trotskyite]]s, and were considered to be the most militant union in the COB. Their downfall was a major blow to the COB, which also became mired in internal corruption and infighting in 1996. In the 1997 elections, General [[Hugo Banzer]], leader of the [[Nationalist Democratic Action]] party (ADN) and former dictator (1971-1978), won 22% of the vote, while the MNR candidate won 18%. General Banzer formed a coalition of the ADN, MIR, UCS, and CONDEPA parties, which held a majority of seats in the Bolivian Congress. The Congress elected him as president, and he was inaugurated on [[August 6]], [[1997]]. During the election-campaign, Banzer had promised to suspend the privatization of the state-owned oil-company, YPFB. But this seemed unlikely to happen, considering Bolivia's the weak position vis-à-vis international corporations. The Banzer government basically continued the free-market and privatization-policies of its predecessor. The relatively robust economic growth of the mid-1990s continued until about the third year of its term in office. After that, regional, global and domestic factors contributed to a decline in economic growth. Financial crises in Argentina and Brazil, lower world prices for export-commodities, and reduced employment in the coca-sector depressed the Bolivian economy. The public also perceived a significant amount of public-sector corruption. These factors contributed to increasing social protests during the second half of Banzer's term.{{Fact|date=April 2008}} At the outset of his government, President Banzer launched a policy of using special police-units to physically eradicate the illegal coca of the Chapare region. The policy produced a sudden and dramatic four-year decline in Bolivia's illegal coca-crop, to the point that Bolivia became a relatively small supplier of coca for cocaine. Those left unemployed by coca-eradication streamed into the cities, especially El Alto, the slum-neighborhood of La Paz. The MIR of Jaime Paz Zamora remained a coalition-partner throughout the Banzer government, supporting this policy (called the Dignity Plan).{{Fact|date=April 2008}} On [[August 6]] [[2001]], Banzer resigned from office after being diagnosed with [[cancer]]. He died less than a year later. Banzer's Vice President, [[Jorge Quiroga|Jorge Fernando Quiroga Ramírez]], completed the final year of his term. ===2002 elections=== Quiroga was constitutionally prohibited from running for national office in 2002. In the June 2002 national elections, former President [[Gonzalo Sánchez de Lozada]] (MNR) placed first with 29.5% of the vote, followed by coca-advocate and native peasant-leader [[Evo Morales]] ([[Movement toward Socialism (Bolivia)|Movement Toward Socialism]], MAS) with 20.9%. Morales edged out populist candidate [[Manfred Reyes Villa]] of the [[New Republican Force]] (NFR) by just 700 votes nationwide, earning a spot in the congressional run-off against Sánchez de Lozada on [[August 4]], [[2002]]. A July agreement between the MNR and the fourth-place MIR, which had again been led in the election by former president [[Jaime Paz Zamora]], virtually ensured the election of Sánchez de Lozada in the congressional run-off, and on [[August 6]] he was sworn in for the second time. The MNR platform featured three overarching objectives: economic reactivation (and job creation), anti-[[political corruption|corruption]], and social inclusion. ===Contemporary social crisis and the nationalization of hydrocarbon resources (2000-2005)=== {{main|Bolivian Gas War}} ===2005 elections=== {{sync|History of Bolivia}} <!-- This summary should be *shorter* than the subarticle's version! --> {{Unreferencedsection|date=April 2008}} [[Image:La Paz-center.jpg|thumb|right|Central [[La Paz]]]] The [[Bolivian presidential election, 2005|2005 Bolivian presidential election]] was held on [[December 18]], [[2005]]. The two main candidates were [[Evo Morales|Juan Evo Morales Ayma]] of the [[Movement toward Socialism (Bolivia)|Movement Toward Socialism]] (MAS) Party, and [[Jorge Quiroga]], leader of the [[Democratic and Social Power]] (PODEMOS) Party and former head of the [[Nationalist Democratic Action|Acción Democrática Nacionalista]] (ADN) Party. Morales won the election with 53.740% of the votes, an [[absolute majority]] unusual in Bolivian elections. He was sworn in on [[January 22]] [[2006]] for a five-year term. Prior to his official inauguration in La Paz, he was inaugurated in an [[Aymara]] ritual at the archeological site of [[Tiwanaku]] before a crowd of thousands of Aymara people and representatives of leftist movements from across Latin America. Though highly symbolic, this ritual was not historically based and primarily represented native Aymaras — not the main Quechua-speaking population. Since the Spanish conquest in the early 1500s, this region of South America, with a majority native population, has been ruled mostly by descendants of European immigrants, with only a few [[mestizo]] (mixed European and indigenous) rulers. Morales, an Aymara, has stated that the 500 years of colonialism are now over and that the era of autonomy has begun. His recent presidential election victory has also brought new attention to the US [[war on drugs|drug-war]] in South America and its heavy emphasis on [[Coca eradication|coca-crop-eradication]]. The US-supported "Plan Dignidad" (dignity-plan), which seeks to reduce cocaine-production to zero, is seen by many Bolivians as an attack on their livelihoods and way of life. Morales, a leader among coca-growers, has said his government will try to interdict drugs, but he wants to preserve the legal market for [[coca]]-leaves and promote export of legal coca-products. [[Image:Morales 20060113 02.jpg|thumb|left|Current president [[Evo Morales]]]] On [[May 1]] [[2006]], Morales announced his intent to re-nationalize Bolivian [[hydrocarbon]] assets. While stating that the initiative would not be an expropriation, Morales sent Bolivian troops to occupy 56 gas-installations simultaneously. Troops were also sent to the two [[Petrobras]]-owned refineries in Bolivia, which provide over 90% of Bolivia's refining-capacity. A deadline of 180 days was announced, by which all foreign energy-firms were required to sign new contracts giving Bolivia majority ownership and as much as 82% of revenues (the latter for the largest natural-gas-fields). All such firms signed contracts. Reports from the Bolivian government and the companies involved are contradictory as to plans for future investment. By far the biggest customer for Bolivian hydrocarbons has been Brazil, which imports two-thirds of Bolivia's natural gas via [[pipeline]]s operated by the huge semi-private Petrobras (PBR). Since gas can only be exported from landlocked Bolivia via PBR's large (and expensive) pipelines, the supplier and customer are strongly linked. PBR has announced plans to produce enough natural gas by 2011 to replace that now supplied by Bolivia. Bolivia's position is strengthened by the knowledge that hydrocarbon reserves are more highly valued now than at the times of previous nationalizations, and by the pledged support of President [[Hugo Chávez]] of Venezuela. Fulfilling a campaign promise, Morales opened on [[August 6]], [[2006]] the [[Bolivian Constituent Assembly]] to begin writing a new constitution aimed at giving more power to the indigenous majority<ref>[http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/americas/5251306.stm BBC News - Push for new Bolivia constitution]</ref>. Problems immediately arose when, unable to garner the two-thirds votes needed to include controversial provisions in the constitutional draft, Morales' party announced that only a simple majority (50%+) would be needed to draft individual articles while two-thirds needed to pass the document in full. Violent protests arose in December 2006 in parts of the country for both two-thirds and departmental autonomy; mostly in the eastern third of the country, where much of the hydrocarbon wealth is located. Conservative sectors in this region threaten to secede from the nation if their demands are not met. MAS and its supports believed two-thirds voting rules would give an effective veto for all constitutional changes to the conservative minority. In August 2007, more conflicts arose in Sucre, as the city demanded the discussion of the seat of government inside the assembly, hoping the executive and legislative branch could return to the city, but assembly and the government said this demand was overwhelmingly impractical and politically undesirable. The conflict turned into violence, and the assembly was moved to a military area in Oruro. Although the main opposition party boycotted the session, a constitutional draft was approved on November 24. Subsequent riots, whipped up by opposition mercenary groups, left three dead. In January 2007, a clash between [[middle class]] city dwellers and poorer rural [[campesinos]] killed 2 people and injured over 130 in the central city of [[Cochabamba]]. The campesinos had paralyzed the city by blockading the highways, bridges, and main roads, and days earlier had set fire to the departmental seat of government. The fire aimed to force the resignation of the elected Prefect of Cochabamba, [[Manfred Reyes Villa]] after he demanded a re-vote on departmental autonomy having been previously defeated by popular vote. The city dwellers broke up the blockade and routed the protesters, while the [[police]] did little to interfere on either side. Further attempts by the campesinos to reinstate the blockade and threaten the government were unsuccessful, but the underlying tensions have not been resolved. == Politics == [[Image:Panorama Santa Cruz de la Sierra Bolivia.jpg|thumb|right|[[Santa Cruz de la Sierra]]]] {{main|Politics of Bolivia}} The 1967 constitution, amended in 1994, provides for balanced executive, legislative, and judicial powers. The traditionally strong executive, however, tends to overshadow the [[Congress of Bolivia|Congress]], whose role is generally limited to debating and approving legislation initiated by the executive. The judiciary, consisting of the [[Supreme Court of Bolivia|Supreme Court]] and departmental and lower courts, has long been riddled with corruption and inefficiency. Through revisions to the constitution in 1994, and subsequent laws, the government has initiated potentially far-reaching reforms in the judicial system and processes. Bolivia's nine [[Departments of Bolivia|departments]] received greater autonomy under the Administrative Decentralization law of 1995. Departmental autonomy further increased with the first popular elections for departmental governors (''prefectos'') on [[18 December]] [[2005]], after long protests by pro-autonomy-leader department of [[Santa Cruz Department|Santa Cruz]]. [[:Category:Cities in Bolivia|Bolivian cities and town]]s are governed by directly elected [[mayor]]s and councils. Municipal elections were held on [[5 December]] [[2004]], with councils elected to five-year terms. The Popular Participation Law of April 1994, which distributes a significant portion of national revenues to municipalities for discretionary use, has enabled previously neglected communities to make striking improvements in their facilities and services. The president is elected to a five-year term by popular vote. Elected president [[Gonzalo Sanchez de Lozada]] resigned in October 2003, and was substituted by Vice-president [[Carlos Mesa]]. Mesa was in turn replaced by chief justice of the Supreme Court [[Eduardo Rodríguez]] in June 2005. Six months later, on December 18, 2005, the Socialist native leader, [[Evo Morales]], was elected president. ===Legislative branch=== [[Image:LaPaz Plaza Pedro Di Murillo 10.2004.jpg|thumb|right|The government building of the [[National Congress of Bolivia]] at the Plaza Murillo in central La Paz]] Bolivia's government is a republic. The ''Congreso Nacional'' ([[National Congress of Bolivia|National Congress]]) has [[Bicameralism|two chambers]]. The ''[[Chamber of Deputies of Bolivia|Cámara de Diputados]]'' ([[Chamber of Deputies]]) has 130 members elected to five-year terms, seventy from single-member districts (''circunscripciones'') and sixty by proportional representation. The ''[[Senate of Bolivia|Cámara de Senadores]]'' ([[Senate|Chamber of Senators]]) has twenty-seven members (three per department), elected to five-year terms. Bolivia has had a total of 193 coups d'etat from independence until 1981, thereby averaging a change of government once every ten months. Credit for the past quarter century of relative political stability is largely attributed to President [[Víctor Paz Estenssoro]], who ceded power peacefully after cutting [[hyperinflation]] which reached as high as 14,000 percent.<ref>[http://www.aeroflight.co.uk/waf/americas/bolivia/Bolivia-national-history.htm Bolivia: National History]. Retrieved August 4, 2007.</ref> == Military == The [[Military of Bolivia|Bolivian military]] comprises three branches: an Army, Navy and Air Force. The legal age for voluntary admissions is 18; however, when the numbers are small the government recruits anyone as young as 14.<ref>[https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/print/bl.html CIA -The World Factbook - Bolivia]</ref> It is estimated that 20% of the Bolivian army is between the ages 14 and 16 while another 20% is from 16 to 18. The [[tour of duty]] is generally 12 months. The Bolivian government annually spends $130 million on defense.<ref>{{cite web |title=Bolivia Military Profile 2006|year=2006 |url=http://indexmundi.com/bolivia/military_profile.html}}</ref> == Departments and provinces == [[Image:Bolivia departments named.png|right|thumb|Map of the departments of Bolivia]] {{main|Departments of Bolivia|Provinces of Bolivia|Municipalities of Bolivia|Cantons of Bolivia}} [[Image:Park noel kempff.jpg|thumb|left|Scenery in the [[Noel Kempff Mercado National Park]] in the [[Santa Cruz Department]]]] Bolivia is divided into [[Departments of Bolivia|nine departments]] (''departamentos''); capitals in parentheses: * [[Beni Department|Beni]] ([[Trinidad, Bolivia|Trinidad]]) * [[Chuquisaca Department|Chuquisaca]] ([[Sucre]]) * [[Cochabamba Department|Cochabamba]] ([[Cochabamba]]) * [[La Paz Department (Bolivia)|La Paz]] ([[La Paz]]) * [[Oruro Department|Oruro]] ([[Oruro]]) * [[Pando Department|Pando]] ([[Cobija]]) * [[Potosí Department|Potosí]] ([[Potosí]]) * [[Santa Cruz Department|Santa Cruz]] ([[Santa Cruz de la Sierra]]) * [[Tarija Department|Tarija]] ([[Tarija, Bolivia|Tarija]]) Additionally, the departments are further divided into 100 provinces (''provincias''), and the provinces are each divided into municipalities (''municipios'') and cantons (''cantones''), which handle local affairs. == Geography == [[Image:Bl-map.png|right|thumb|Map of Bolivia from the [[CIA World Factbook]].]] {{main|Geography of Bolivia}} At 1,098,580&nbsp;[[square kilometre|km²]] (424,135&nbsp;[[square miles|mi²]])<!--SI comes first reflecting Wikipedia geographical convention-->, Bolivia is the world's 28th-largest country (after [[Ethiopia]]). It is comparable in size to [[Mauritania]], and it has about 1.5 times the area of the US state of [[Texas]].<ref>CIA World Factbook. Retrieved from https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/rankorder/2147rank.html.</ref> [[Image:Colors of Altiplano Boliviano 4340m Bolivia Luca Galuzzi 2006.jpg|thumb|left|Colours of Altiplano Boliviano]] Bolivia has been a landlocked nation since 1879, when it lost its coastal department of [[Antofagasta Region|Litoral]] to [[Chile]] in the [[War of the Pacific]]. However, it does have access to the Atlantic via the [[Paraguay River]]. An enormous diversity of ecological zones are represented within Bolivia's territory. The western highlands of the country are situated in the [[Andes]] Mountains and include the Bolivian [[Altiplano]]. The eastern lowlands include large sections of Amazonian [[rainforest]]s and [[Chaco]]. The highest peak is [[Nevado Sajama]] at 6,542 [[metre]]s (21,463&nbsp;[[Foot (unit of length)|ft]]) located in the department of [[Oruro]]. [[Lake Titicaca]] is located on the border between Bolivia and [[Peru]]. The [[Salar de Uyuni]], the world's largest [[salt flat]], lies in the southwest corner of the country, in the department of [[Potosí Department|Potosí]]. Major cities are [[La Paz]], [[El Alto]], [[Santa Cruz, Bolivia|Santa Cruz de la Sierra]], and [[Cochabamba, Bolivia|Cochabamba]]. == Economy == {{main|Economy of Bolivia}} Bolivia has the lowest GDP per capita figures in South America. The country is rich in [[natural resource]]s, and has been called a "donkey sitting on a [[gold]]-[[mining|mine]]" because of this. [[Image:Cochabamba5.jpg|thumb|right|[[Cochabamba]]]] Bolivia's 2002 gross domestic product (GDP) totaled [[USD]] $7.9 billion. Economic growth is about 2.5% a year, and inflation was expected to be between 3% and 4% in 2002 (it was under 2% in 2001). Bolivia’s current lackluster economic situation can be linked to several factors from the past three decades. The first major blow to the Bolivian economy came with a dramatic fall in the price of tin during the early 1980s, which impacted one of Bolivia’s main sources of income and one of its major mining-industries.<ref>{{cite journal | last=Crabtree | first=J. | coauthors = Buffy, G.; Pearce, J. | title=The Great Tin Crash: Bolivia and the World Tin Market | journal=Bulletin of Latin American Research | volume=7 | issue=1 | pages=174–175 |date=1988 | doi=10.2307/3338459}}</ref> The second major economic blow came at the end of the Cold War in the late 1980s and early 1990s as economic aid was withdrawn by western countries who had previously tried to keep a market-liberal regime in power through financial support. Since 1985, the government of Bolivia has implemented a far-reaching program of macroeconomic stabilization and structural reform aimed at maintaining price-stability, creating conditions for sustained growth, and alleviating scarcity. A major reform of the customs-service in recent years has significantly improved transparency in this area. The most important structural changes in the Bolivian economy have involved the capitalization of numerous public-sector enterprises.{{Fact|date=May 2008}} Parallel legislative reforms have locked into place market-liberal policies, especially in the hydrocarbon- and telecommunication-sectors, that have encouraged private investment. Foreign investors are accorded national treatment, and foreign ownership of companies enjoys virtually no restrictions in Bolivia. [[Image:Banco Central de Bolivia.png|thumb|left|The Central Bank of Bolivia]] The government has a long-term sales-agreement to sell natural gas to Brazil through 2019. The government expects to hold a binding referendum in 2004 on plans to export natural gas. In April 2000, [[Bechtel]] signed a contract with [[Hugo Banzer]], the former president of Bolivia, to privatize the water-supply in Bolivia's third-largest city, [[Cochabamba]]. Shortly thereafter, the company tripled the water-rates in that city, an action which resulted in [[Cochabamba protests of 2000|protests and rioting]] among those who could no longer afford clean water. Drawing water from community wells or gathering rainwater was made illegal.<ref>Jennifer Hattam, "[http://www.sierraclub.org/sierra/200109/lol1.asp "Who Owns Water?"] ''Sierra'', Sept 2001, v.86, iss.5, p.16.</ref><ref>PBS Frontline/World [http://www.pbs.org/frontlineworld/stories/bolivia/ "Leasing the Rain"], Video, June 2002</ref> Amidst Bolivia's nationwide economic collapse and growing national unrest over the state of the economy, the Bolivian government was forced to withdraw the water contract. Bolivian exports were $1.3 billion in 2002, from a low of $652 million in 1991. [[International trade|imports]] were $1.7 billion in 2002. Bolivian [[tariff]]s are a uniformly low 10%, with capital equipment charged only 5%. Bolivia's trade-deficit was $460 million in 2002. [[Image:Piles of Salt Salar de Uyuni Bolivia Luca Galuzzi 2006 a.jpg|thumb|right|Salt mounds in [[Salar de Uyuni]]]] Bolivia's trade with neighboring countries is growing, in part because of several regional preferential trade-agreements it has negotiated. Bolivia is a member of the [[Andean Community]] and enjoys nominally free trade with other member countries. The United States remains Bolivia's largest trading-partner. In 2002, the United States exported $283 million of merchandise to Bolivia and imported $162 million. [[Image:Camino a Samaipata Santa Cruz Bolivia.jpg|left|thumb|Camino a Samaipata Santa Cruz Bolivia]] [[Agriculture]] accounts for roughly 15% of Bolivia's GDP. [[Soybean]]s are the major [[cash crop]], sold into the Andean Community market. Bolivia's government remains heavily dependent on foreign assistance to finance development-projects. At the end of 2002, the government owed $4.5 billion to its foreign [[creditor]]s, with $1.6 billion of this amount owed to other governments and most of the balance owed to multilateral development-[[bank]]s. Most payments to other governments have been rescheduled on several occasions since 1987 through the [[Paris Club]] mechanism. External creditors have been willing to do this because the Bolivian government has generally achieved the monetary and fiscal targets set by IMF programs since 1987, though economic crises in recent years have undercut Bolivia's normally good record. The rescheduling of agreements granted by the Paris Club has allowed the individual creditor-countries to apply very soft terms to the rescheduled [[debt]]. As a result, some countries have forgiven substantial amounts of Bolivia's bilateral debt. The U.S. government reached an agreement at the Paris Club meeting in December 1995 that reduced by 67% Bolivia's existing debt-stock. The Bolivian government continues to pay its debts to the multilateral development banks on time. Bolivia is a beneficiary of the [[Heavily Indebted Poor Countries]] (HIPC) and Enhanced HIPC debt-relief-programs, which by agreement restricts Bolivia's access to new soft loans. == Demographics == [[Image:Centro de La Paz en Bolivia.JPG|thumb|left|People in La Paz city centre]] [[Image:Cristo de la Concordia 02.jpg|thumb|Cristo de la Concordia in [[Cochabamba]].]] {{main|Demographics of Bolivia}} Bolivia's ethnic distribution is estimated to be 30% [[Quechua]]-speaking and 25% [[Aymara language|Aymara]]-speaking Amerindians. The largest of the approximately three-dozen native groups are the [[Quechuas]] (2.5 million), [[Aymara]]s (2 million), then Chiquitano (180,000), and [[Guaraní]] (125,000). So the full [[Amerindian]] population is at 55% and the remaining 30% is [[Mestizo]] (mixed [[Amerindian]] and European) and around 15% are [[White people|Whites]].<ref>[https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/bl.html#People Bolivian people]</ref> The white population consists mostly of ''[[Criollo (people)|criollo]]s'', which in turn consist of families of relatively unmixed [[Spanish people|Spanish]] ancestry, descended from the early Spanish colonists. These have formed much of the aristocracy since independence. Other smaller groups within the white population are [[German people|Germans]] who founded the national airline [[Lloyd Aereo Boliviano]], as well as [[Italian people|Italian]], [[United States|American]], [[Basque people|Basque]], [[Croats|Croatian]], [[Russian people|Russian]], [[Polish people|Polish]] and other minorities, many of whose members descend from families that have lived in Bolivia for several generations. [[Image:Miners at Work Potosi (pixinn.net).jpg|left|thumb|Miners at work in [[Potosí]]]] Also noteworthy is the Afro-Bolivian community that numbers more than 0.5% of the population, descended from African slaves that were transported to work in Brazil and then migrated westward into Bolivia. They are mostly concentrated in the [[Yungas]] region ([[Nor Yungas Province|Nor Yungas]] and [[Sud Yungas Province|Sud Yungas]] provinces) in the [[La Paz Department, Bolivia|department of La Paz]], some three hours from [[La Paz]] city. There are also [[Japanese people|Japanese]] who are concentrated mostly in [[Santa Cruz de la Sierra]], and [[Middle East]]erners who became prosperous in commerce. Bolivia is one of the least developed countries in South America. Almost two-thirds of its people, many of whom are subsistence farmers, live in poverty. Population-density ranges from less than one person per square kilometer in the southeastern plains to about ten per square kilometer (twenty-five&nbsp;per [[square mile|sq.&nbsp;mi]]) in the central highlands. As of 2006, the population is increasing about 1.45% per year.<ref name="BackgroundNote">{{cite web |title=Background Note: Bolivia |publisher=[[United States Department of State]] |url=http://www.state.gov/r/pa/ei/bgn/35751.htm |accessdate=2006-10-17}}</ref> The great majority of Bolivians are [[Roman Catholic Church|Roman Catholic]] (the [[State religion|official religion]]), although [[Protestantism|Protestant]] denominations are expanding strongly.<ref name=BackgroundNote/> According to a 2001 survey conducted by the National Statistical Institute, 78 percent of the population is Roman Catholic, 16 percent is Protestant and 3 percent follow other religions of Christian origin.<ref>http://www.state.gov/g/drl/rls/irf/2007/90243.htm</ref> [[Islam]] practiced by the descendants of Middle Easterners is almost nonexistent. There is also a small [[Jewish]] community that is almost all [[Ashkenazi]] in origin. More than 1% of Bolivians practice the [[Bahá'í Faith]] (giving Bolivia one of the largest percentages of Bahá'ís in the world). [[Image:Mujeres aymara con siku y caja - flickr-photos-micahmacallen-85524669 (CC-BY-SA).jpg|thumb|right|Festival time in [[Sucre]]]] [[Image:Carnaval de Oruro dia I (60).JPG|thumb|right|[[Carnaval de Oruro]] 2007]] There are colonies of [[Mennonites]] in the [[Santa Cruz Department|department of Santa Cruz]].<ref>{{cite news |author=Sally Bowen |title=Brazil Wants What Bolivia Has |publisher=Latin Trade |url=http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_m0BEK/is_1_7/ai_54759942 |date=January 1999 |accessdate=2006-10-17}}</ref> Many Native communities interweave [[pre-Columbian]] and [[Christian]] symbols in their [[worship]]. About 80% of the people speak [[Spanish language|Spanish]] as their [[first language]], although the Aymara and Quechua languages are also common. Approximately 90% of the children attend primary-school but often for a year or less. The literacy-rate is low in many rural areas, but, according to the CIA, the [[List of countries by literacy rate|literacy rate]] is 87% nationwide, a rate similar to Brazil's, but below the South American average. == Culture == {{main|Culture of Bolivia}} {{see also|Music of Bolivia|Public holidays in Bolivia}} [[Image:Baile tradicional del Oriente boliviano.jpg|thumb|left|Traditional Bolivian dance]] Bolivian culture has been heavily influenced by the [[Quechua]], the [[Aymara]], as well as by the popular cultures of Latin America as a whole. The cultural development of what is present-day Bolivia is divided into three distinct periods: pre-Columbian, colonial, and republican. Important [[archaeology|archaeological]] ruins, gold and silver ornaments, stone monuments, [[ceramic]]s, and [[weaving]]s remain from several important pre-Columbian cultures. Major ruins include [[Tiwanaku]], [[Samaipata]], [[Incallajta]], and [[Iskanawaya]]. The country abounds in other sites that are difficult to reach and have seen little archaeological exploration.<ref name=BackgroundNote/> The Spanish brought their own tradition of religious art which, in the hands of local native and [[mestizo]] builders and [[artisan]]s, developed into a rich and distinctive style of [[architecture]], [[painting]], and [[sculpture]] known as "Mestizo Baroque". The colonial period produced not only the paintings of Pérez de Holguín, Flores, Bitti, and others but also the works of skilled but unknown [[stonecutter]]s, [[woodcarver]]s, [[goldsmith]]s, and [[silversmith]]s. An important body of native baroque religious music of the colonial period was recovered in recent years and has been performed internationally to wide acclaim since 1994.<ref name="BackgroundNote"/> Bolivian artists of stature in the twentieth century include Guzmán de Rojas, Arturo Borda, María Luisa Pacheco, and Marina Núñez del Prado. Bolivia has a rich [[folklore]]. Its regional [[folk music]] is distinctive and varied. The "devil dances" at the annual [[carnival]] of Oruro are one of the great folkloric events of South America, as is the lesser known carnival at [[Tarabuco]].<ref name="BackgroundNote"/> The best known of the various festivals found in the country is the "[[Carnaval de Oruro]]", which was among the first 19 "Masterpieces of the Oral and Intangible Heritage of Humanity," as proclaimed by the [[UNESCO]] in May of 2001. Entertainment includes [[football]], which is the national sport, as well as [[table football]], which is played on street-corners by both children and adults. ==References== {{reflist|2}} ==Further reading== * Brusco, Elizabeth 1995 Reformation of Machismo: Evangelical Conversion and Gender in Colombia. Austin: University of Texas Press. * Batalla, Guiellermo Bonfil 1996 México Profundo: Reclaiming a Civilization. Austin: University of Texas Press. * Burdick, John 1993 Looking for God in Brazil: The Progressive Catholic Church in Urban Brazil’s Religious Arena. Berkeley: University of California Press. * Corten, André 1999 Pentecostalism in Brazil: Emotion of the Poor and Theological Romanticism. New York: St. Martin’s Press. * Gill, Lesley 1990 “Like a Veil to Cover Them”: Women and the Pentecostal Movement in La Paz. American Ethnologist 17(4): 708-721. * Gill, Lesley 2000 Teetering on the Rim: Global Restructuring, Daily Life, and the Armed Retreat of the Bolivian State. New York: Columbia University Press. * Kray, Christine A.2002 The Pentecostal Re-Formation of Self: Opting for Orthodoxy in Yucatan. Ethos. 29(4):395-429. * Martin, David.1990 Tongues of Fire: The Explosion of Protestantism in Latin America. Oxford: Blackwell. * Morales, Waltraud Queiser 1992 Bolivia: Land of Struggle. Boulder, CO: Westview Press. * Stoll, David 1990 Is Latin America Turning Protestant? The Politics of Evangelical Growth. Berkeley: University of California Press. * Weber, Max 1930 [1984] The Protestant Ethic and the Spirit of Capitalism. Trans. Talcott Preston. London:Counterpoint. == External links == {{sisterlinks|Bolivia}} {{Wikinews}} ;Government * [http://www.bolivia.gov.bo Agencia Para el Desarrollo de la Sociedad de la Informacion en Bolivia] Agency for the Development of the Society of Information in Bolivia. Official web portal of the Bolivian Government. * [http://www.presidencia.gov.bo Presidencia de la Republica de Bolivia] Office of the President of the Republic of Bolivia. * [http://www.vicepres.gov.bo Vicepresidencia de la Republica de Bolivia, Presidencia del Congreso Nacional] Web portal of the Office of the Vice-President of the Republic of Bolivia, President of the Senate and President of the Commission of Congress. * [http://www.poderjudicial.gov.bo Poder Judicial de la Republica de Bolivia] Web portal of the Bolivian Judicial Branch, which includes the Supreme Court of Bolivia, Constitutional Court, Agrarian Tribunal, Superior Courts and Judicial Council. * [http://www.congreso.gov.bo Congreso Nacional de la Republica de Bolivia] Web portal of the Bolivian National Congress, which includes the Presidency of the National Congress, the National Senate and the House of Representatives. * [http://www.cne.org.bo Corte Nacional Electoral] Web portal of the National Electoral Court of Bolivia. Electoral Organism of Bolivia. * [http://www.constituyente.bo Asamblea Constituyente de la Republica de Bolivia] Web portal of the Constituent Assembly of Bolivia. * [http://www.ine.gov.bo Instituto Nacional de Estadistica] Web portal of the Statistics National Institute of Bolivia. ;General information * [http://www.angus-reid.com/polls/index.cfm/fuseaction/searchSimpleResults/iw/1/keyword/bolivia Public Opinion in Bolivia] * [http://www.angus-reid.com/tracker/index.cfm/fuseaction/viewItem/itemID/8124 Election Tracker-Bolivia] *[http://www.bolivia-online.net Bolivia-Online.net] Information about Bolivia * [http://www.britannica.com/nations/Bolivia Encyclopaedia Britannica - Bolivia's Country Page] * [http://digital.library.unt.edu/govdocs/crs/search.tkl?q=bolivia&search_crit=fulltext&search=Search&date1=Anytime&date2=Anytime&type=form Congressional Research Service (CRS) Reports regarding Bolivia] *[http://www.thespittingllama.com The Spitting Llama Bookstore] Maps and Books on Bolivia * [http://www.boliviainfoforum.org.uk Bolivia Information Forum - news and background information] * [http://www.boliviaweb.com/mapa/bolivia.aspx Annotated map of Bolivia] ;Military * [http://www.mindef.gov.bo Ministerio de Defensa de Bolivia] Ministry of Defense. * [http://www.ejercito.mil.bo Ejercito] ;Native culture * [http://www.guardian.co.uk/g2/story/0,,1705476,00.html 'Coca is a way of life' (The Guardian's article)] * [http://www.proyecto-yuracare.de Project to strengthen the culture and the self reliance of the indigenous tribes of the Yuracaré and Trinitario] ;Health * [http://saludpublica.bvsp.org.bo/ Virtual Library of Public Health] {{Template group |title = [[Image:Gnome-globe.svg|25lpx]]&nbsp;Geographic locale |list = {{Countries of South America}} }} {{Template group |title = International membership |list = {{Member States of the Union of South American Nations}} {{Mercosur\Mercosul (Southern Common Market)}} {{Organization of American States (OAS)}} }} <!--Categories--> [[Category:Bolivia| ]] [[Category:Former Spanish colonies]] [[Category:Landlocked countries]] [[Category:Spanish-speaking countries]] <!--Other languages--> [[kaa:Boliviya]] [[af:Bolivia]] [[als:Bolivien]] [[ar:بوليفيا]] [[an:Bolibia]] [[frp:Bolivie]] [[ast:Bolivia]] [[gn:Volívia]] [[ay:Wuliwya]] [[az:Boliviya]] [[bn:বলিভিয়া]] [[zh-min-nan:Bolivia]] [[be:Балівія]] [[be-x-old:Балівія]] [[bs:Bolivija]] [[br:Bolivia]] [[bg:Боливия]] [[ca:Bolívia]] [[cv:Боливи]] [[ceb:Bolivia]] [[cs:Bolívie]] [[cy:Bolifia]] [[da:Bolivia]] [[de:Bolivien]] [[dv:ބޮލީވިއާ]] [[dsb:Boliwiska]] [[et:Boliivia]] [[el:Βολιβία]] [[es:Bolivia]] [[eo:Bolivio]] [[eu:Bolivia]] [[fa:بولیوی]] [[fo:Bolivia]] [[fr:Bolivie]] [[fy:Bolivia]] [[ga:An Bholaiv]] [[gv:Yn Volivia]] [[gd:Boilibhia]] [[gl:Bolivia]] [[hak:Pô-li-vì-â]] [[ko:볼리비아]] [[hi:बोलीविया]] [[hsb:Boliwiska]] [[hr:Bolivija]] [[io:Bolivia]] [[ilo:Bolivia]] [[bpy:বলিভিয়া]] [[id:Bolivia]] [[ia:Bolivia]] [[os:Боливи]] [[is:Bólivía]] [[it:Bolivia]] [[he:בוליביה]] [[jv:Bolivia]] [[pam:Bolivia]] [[kn:ಬೊಲಿವಿಯ]] [[ka:ბოლივია]] [[ks:बोलिविया]] [[kk:Боливия]] [[kw:Bolivi]] [[sw:Bolivia]] [[ht:Bolivi]] [[ku:Bolîvya]] [[la:Bolivia]] [[lv:Bolīvija]] [[lb:Bolivien]] [[lt:Bolivija]] [[lij:Bolivia]] [[li:Bolivia]] [[hu:Bolívia]] [[mk:Боливија]] [[mr:बोलिव्हिया]] [[ms:Bolivia]] [[nah:Bolivitlān]] [[na:Bolivia]] [[nl:Bolivia]] [[new:बोलिभिया]] [[ja:ボリビア]] [[no:Bolivia]] [[nn:Bolivia]] [[nov:Bolivia]] [[oc:Bolívia]] [[uz:Boliviya]] [[ps:بولېويا]] [[pms:Bolivia]] [[nds:Bolivien]] [[pl:Boliwia]] [[pt:Bolívia]] [[crh:Boliviya]] [[ro:Bolivia]] [[rm:Bolivia]] [[qu:Buliwya]] [[ru:Боливия]] [[se:Bolivia]] [[sa:बोलिविया]] [[sq:Bolivia]] [[scn:Bolivia]] [[simple:Bolivia]] [[ss:IBholiviya]] [[sk:Bolívia]] [[sl:Bolivija]] [[sr:Боливија]] [[sh:Bolivija]] [[fi:Bolivia]] [[sv:Bolivia]] [[tl:Bolivia]] [[ta:பொலிவியா]] [[tet:Bolívia]] [[th:ประเทศโบลิเวีย]] [[vi:Bolivia]] [[tg:Боливия]] [[tr:Bolivya]] [[uk:Болівія]] [[ur:بولیویا]] [[vec:Bołivia]] [[vo:Bolivän]] [[wo:Boliibi]] [[wuu:鲍里维亚]] [[diq:Bolivya]] [[bat-smg:Buolėvėjė]] [[zh:玻利維亞]]