Brain drain
188432
225588992
2008-07-14T13:11:53Z
Featherlessbiped
5949123
South Africa re-written
{{Otheruses4|the emigration term|the album by the [[Ramones]]|Brain Drain (album)}}
A '''brain drain''' or '''human capital flight''' is a large emigration of individuals with [[human capital|technical skills or knowledge]], normally due to [[war|conflict]], lack of opportunity, political instability, or [[disease|health risks]]. A brain drain is usually regarded as an [[economics|economic]] cost, since emigrants usually take with them the fraction of value of their [[education|training]] sponsored by the [[government]]. It is a parallel of ''[[capital flight]]'' which refers to the same movement of [[financial capital]]. The term was coined by the [[Royal Society]] to describe the emigration of "[[scientists]] and technologists" to [[North America]] from [[World War II|post-war]] [[Europe]].<ref>[http://www.oecdobserver.org/news/fullstory.php/aid/673/The_brain_drain:_Old_myths,_new_realities.html The brain drain: Old myths, new realities]</ref> The converse phenomenon is '''brain gain''', which occurs when there is a large-scale ''immigration'' of technically qualified persons. it can be stopped by providing an individual with lot of opportunity and giving a platform to them to prove their capability.
Brain drains are common amongst developing nations, particularly former colonies like much of [[Africa]]<ref>{{cite news|date= 2001-10-17|url = http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/africa/1605242.stm|title = Brain drain costs Africa billions|publisher = BBC| accessdate = 2008-06-01}}</ref> or the [[island]] nations of the [[Caribbean]].<ref>{{cite news|date= 2006-02-20|url = http://www.bbc.co.uk/caribbean/news/story/2006/02/060220_imf.shtml|title = Caribbean 'brain-drain' worsens|publisher = BBCCaribbean| accessdate = 2008-06-01}}</ref>
== Europe ==
[[Image:Spp-poster.jpg|Thumb|frame|right|2007 Election campaign poster by the [[Swiss People's Party]], who successfully won votes by appealing to public anger with [[immigrant criminality]]. The black sheep is being kicked off the [[Switzerland|Swiss]] flag. The caption is a pun on the German words for "sheep and "to cause", "Schaf" and "schaffen" respectively. It reads: "Bringing safety".]]
Brain drain phenomena in [[Europe]] fall into two distinct trends. The first is an outflow of highly-qualified scientists from [[Western Europe]] mostly to the [[United States]].<ref>{{cite news|date= 2004-01-11|first = Chu|last = Jeff|url = http://www.time.com/time/nation/article/0,8599,574849,00.html|title = How To Plug Europe's Brain Drain|publisher = TIME| accessdate = 2008-06-01}}</ref> The second is a migration of skilled workers from [[Eastern Europe|Eastern]] and [[Southeastern Europe]] into Western Europe, often made easy by new [[European Union|EU]] membership,<ref>{{cite news|date=2006-06-28|first = Jim|last = Stenman|url = http://edition.cnn.com/2006/WORLD/europe/06/28/eu.university/index.html|title = Europe fears brain drain to UK|publisher = [[CNN]]| accessdate = 2008-06-01}}</ref>, although there is evidence that the trend is slowing.<ref>[http://www.workpermit.com/news/2008-05-20/uk/united-kingdom-accession-monitoring-figures-released.htm Eastern European immigration statistics released by the UK]</ref><ref>[http://www.workpermit.com/news/2008-05-05/uk/eastern-european-immigration-decreases-britain.htm Eastern European immigration slows down in the UK]</ref> The European Union has noted a net loss of highly-skilled workers and introduced a "blue card" policy-much like the American [[green card]]-which "seeks to draw an additional 20 million workers from Asia, Africa and Latin America in the next two decades".<ref>{{cite news|date= 2007-10-24|first = Dan|last = Bilefsky|url = http://www.nytimes.com/2007/10/24/business/worldbusiness/24immig.html?_r=2&ref=business&oref=slogin&oref=slogin|title = Europe Tries to Attract Migrants It Prefers|publisher = New York Times| accessdate = 2008-06-01}}</ref>
Although the EU recognizes a need for extensive immigration in order to mitigate the effects of an aging population <ref>[http://ec.europa.eu/news/employment/071023_1_en.htm Open door for qualified workers]</ref>, nationalist political parties have gained support in many European countries by calling for stronger laws restricting immigration. <ref>{{cite news|date= |first = |last = |url = http://www.guardian.co.uk/gall/0,,711990,00.html|title = Europe's Far Right|publisher = The Guardian| accessdate = 2008-06-01}}</ref> Immigrants are perceived as a burden on the state and cause of social problems like increased [[crime]] rates, even in the absence of hard evidence.<ref>[http://repositories.cdlib.org/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1147&context=iir Spotlight on Immigration: Interdisciplinary Perspectives on Immigrants and Their Children]</ref>
[[Image:Brain drain.PNG|frame|center|Flow digram of net migration patterns]]
=== Western Europe ===
In 2006, over 250 000 Europeans emigrated to the United States (164 285)<ref>[http://www.dhs.gov/xlibrary/assets/statistics/publications/IS-4496_LPRFlowReport_04vaccessible.pdf]</ref>, [[Australia]] (40 455) <ref> [http://www.ausstats.abs.gov.au/ausstats/subscriber.nsf/0/C91452EF314864A8CA25732F001C92F8/$File/41020_Migration%20-%20permanent%20additions%20to%20Australia's%20population%20_2007.pdf]</ref>,
[[Canada]] (37 946)<ref>[http://www.cic.gc.ca/english/resources/statistics/facts2006/permanent/16.asp]</ref> and [[New Zealand]] (30 262)<ref>[http://www.stats.govt.nz/NR/rdonlyres/DFB1225E-3284-4C0F-9352-92993D8FECE6/17859/emdec06yearalltables.xls]</ref>. [[Germany]] alone saw 155 290 people leave the country (though mostly to destinations within Europe). This is the highest rate of worker emigration since [[German reunification|reunification]], which itself was equal to the rate in the aftermath of [[World War II]].<ref>{{cite news|date=2007-06-01|first = Tony|last = Paterson|url = http://www.independent.co.uk/news/europe/german-brain-drain-at-highest-level-since-1940s-451250.html|title = German brain drain at highest level since 1940s|publisher = The Independent| accessdate = 2008-06-01}}</ref> [[Portugal]] is suffering the largest drain in Western Europe. The country has lost 19.5% of its qualified population and is struggling to absorb sufficient skilled immigrants to cater for losses to Australia, Canada, [[Switzerland]], Germany and [[Austria]].<ref>[http://jn.sapo.pt/2005/10/28/sociedade/portugal_deixa_fugir_195_cerebros.html Jornal de Notícias]</ref>
=== Central and Eastern Europe ===
[[Central Europe|Central]] and [[Eastern Europe]]an countries have expressed concerns about extensive migration of skilled labourers to [[Republic of Ireland|Ireland]] and the [[United Kingdom]]. [[Lithuania]], for example, has lost about 100 000 citizens since 2003, many of them young and well-educated, to emigration to Ireland in particular.{{Fact|date=May 2008}} (Ireland itself used to suffer serious brain drain to America, Britain and Canada before the [[Celtic Tiger]] economic programs.) The same phenomenon occurred in [[Poland]] after its entry into the [[European Union]]. In the first year of its EU membership, 100 000 Poles registered to work in [[England]], joining an estimated 750 000 residents of Polish descent.<ref>{{cite news|date= 2005-05-15|first = |last = |url = http://www.guardian.co.uk/money/2005/may/15/workandcareers.europeanunion|title = Doctors go west in Polish brain drain|publisher = The Guardian| accessdate = 2008-06-01}}</ref> However, with the rapid growth of salaries in Poland, booming economy, strong value of the ''[[złoty]]'', and decreasing unemployment (which fell from 14.2% in May 2006 to 8% in March 2008<ref>[http://epp.eurostat.ec.europa.eu/pls/portal/docs/PAGE/PGP_PRD_CAT_PREREL/PGE_CAT_PREREL_YEAR_2008/PGE_CAT_PREREL_YEAR_2008_MONTH_04/3-01042008-EN-AP.PDF Eurostat February 2008 - Euro area unemployment stable at 7.1%]</ref>), the flight of Polish workers is slowing.<ref>{{cite news|date= 2008-02-16|author = Alexi Mostrous and Christine Seib|url = http://www.timesonline.co.uk/tol/news/uk/article3378877.ece|title = Tide turns as Poles end great migration|publisher = The Times| accessdate = 2008-06-01}}</ref> In 2008 people who came back outnumbered those leaving the country.
=== South Eastern Europe ===
The rapid and large-scale departure of highly-skilled workers from Southeastern Europe has caused concern about those nations developing towards inclusion in the European Union.<ref>Horvat, Vedran: {{PDFlink|[http://www.seep.ceu.hu/archives/issue51/horvat.pdf "Brain Drain. Threat to Successful Transition in South East Europe?"]|58.6 KB}}In: [http://www.seep.ceu.hu Southeast European Politics], Volume V, Number 1, May 2004</ref> This has sparked programmes to curb the outflow by encouraging skilled technicians and scientists to remain in the region to work on international projects.<ref>[http://portal.unesco.org/en/ev.php-URL_ID=23156&URL_DO=DO_TOPIC&URL_SECTION=201.html Stemming brain drain with the Grid in Southeast Europe] - UNESCO</ref> Among the most notable Yugoslav talent losses is [[Rada Ivekovic]].
== Africa ==
Even though little has been discussed about the effects of brain drain in Africa, it is believed to be one of the biggest issues to the developing nations. Conservatively speaking, "Brain drain has cost the African continent over $4 billion in the employment of 150,000 expatriate professionals annually."<ref>[http://www.theafricamonitor.com/news/ethiopian/april2007/290407/report.htm Brain drain in africa]</ref> According to UNDP, "Ethiopia lost 75 per cent of its skilled workforce between 1980 and 1991," which harms the ability of such nations to get out of poverty. Nigeria, Kenya and Ethiopia are believed to be the most affected. In the case of Ethiopia, the country produces many excellent doctors, but there are more Ethiopian doctors in Chicago than there are in Ethiopia.<ref>[http://www.sharingwitness.org/health_welfare/medical_students_beyond_border/ More Ethiopia doctors in chicago than Ethiopia]</ref>. South African President [[Thabo Mbeki]] said in his 1998 '[[African Renaissance]]' speech:
<blockquote>
"In our world in which the generation of new knowledge and its application to change the human condition is the engine which moves human society further away from barbarism, do we not have need to recall Africa's hundreds of thousands of intellectuals back from their places of emigration in Western Europe and North America, to rejoin those who remain still within our shores!
I dream of the day when these, the African mathematicians and computer specialists in Washington and New York, the African physicists, engineers, doctors, business managers and economists, will return from London and Manchester and Paris and Brussels to add to the African pool of brain power, to enquire into and find solutions to Africa's problems and challenges, to open the African door to the world of knowledge, to elevate Africa's place within the universe of research the information of new knowledge, education and information."
</blockquote>
=== South Africa ===
Along with many African nations, South Africa has been experiencing a "brain drain" (see [[human capital flight]]) in the past 20 years. This is believed to be potentially damaging for the regional economy<ref>http://jae.oxfordjournals.org/cgi/content/abstract/13/suppl_2/ii15 World Bank, IMF study 2004</ref>, and is almost certainly detrimental for the wellbeing of regional poor majority desperately reliant on the healthcare infrastructure given the HIV/AIDS epidemic.<ref>http://www.equinetafrica.org/bibl/docs/healthpersonnel.pdf Health Personnel in Southern Africa: Confronting maldistribution and brain drain</ref> The skills drain in South Africa tends to demonstrate racial contours (naturally given the skills distribution legacy of South Africa) and has thus resulted in large "white" South African communities abroad.<ref name ="mig_study">http://www-ilo-mirror.cornell.edu/public/english/protection/migrant/download/imp/imp52e.pdf Skilled Labour Migration from Developing Countries: Study on South and Southern Africa</ref> For details, see [[economy of south africa#human capital flight|human capital flight in South Africa]].
== Middle East ==
=== Iraq ===
The lack of basic services and security is feeding a outflow of professionals from [[Iraq]] that began under [[Saddam Hussein]], under whose rule 4 million Iraqis are believed to have left the country.<ref>[http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/middle_east/4726281.stm Brain drain puts new strain on Iraq - BBC]</ref> The exodus is fueled by violence, which, as of 2006, has seen 89 university professors and senior lecturers killed.<ref>[http://www.guardian.co.uk/world/2006/mar/24/iraq.jonathansteele The Iraqi brain drain - The Guardian]</ref>
=== Iran ===
{{main|Iran's Brain Drain problem}}
In 2006, the [[International Monetary Fund]] ranked [[Iran]] highest in brain drain among 90 measured countries.<ref>{{cite news|first=Frances|last=Harrison|title=Huge cost of Iranian brain drain|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/middle_east/6240287.stm|publisher=[[BBC News]]|date=[[2007-01-08]]|accessdate=2007-01-08}}</ref> The estimated exodus of 150,000 people per year is thought to be due to a poor job market, and tense domestic social conditions.<ref>BBC: http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/middle_east/6240287.stm</ref>
== Asia Pacific==
===China===
Since China began market economic reforms in the late 70s, many Chinese began migrating to countries Western Europe, North America and Oceania. <ref>http://www.chinadaily.com.cn/english/doc/2005-12/08/content_501680.htm</ref> It is estimated that 30 percent of the 100 000 Chinese students who study abroad annually return to China. The fact is there are many more job opportunities, higher standard of living and education opportunities for Chinese living abroad <ref>http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/asia-pacific/6356101.stm</ref>. The Chinese government is trying to lure back its foreign educated professionals by tweaking its salaries, housing and job incentives. As China continues to expand and accelerate market reforms, it faces massive shortage of professionals in management, engineering, medicine, science, research and also having to compete with western countries for experts. <ref>http://www.guardian.co.uk/world/2007/jun/02/internationaleducationnews.highereducation</ref>
=== New Zealand ===
During the 1990s, 30 000 New Zealanders were emigrating each year. An [[OECD]] report released in 2005 revealed that 24.2% of [[New Zealand]]ers with a tertiary education were living outside of New Zealand, predominantly in [[Australia]].<ref>[http://www.nzherald.co.nz/topic/story.cfm?c_id=209&objectid=10114923 Quarter of NZ's brightest are gone]</ref> In 2007, around 24 000 New Zealanders settled in Australia.<ref>[http://www.nzherald.co.nz/section/1/story.cfm?c_id=1&objectid=10465795 NZ top source of immigrants to Australia]</ref> Student loans are cited as a reason, with graduates using higher foreign salaries to pay off their debts.
It has been noted that New Zealand also enjoys immigration of qualified foreigners, potentially leaving a net gain of skills.<ref>[http://www.treasury.govt.nz/publications/research-policy/wp/2001/01-22 Brain Drain or Brain Exchange?]</ref>
=== Philippines ===
The [[Philippines]] first began experiencing a noticeable brain drain in the 1970s, when the government set up a mechanism for international contract work. These ''Overseas Contract Workers'' were at first employed largely in [[Middle East]] nations, notably [[Saudi Arabia]], but an increasing number of workers were taking contracts in [[Southeast Asia]] into the 1990s. The number of Filipinos working abroad in such contract work increased from 36 035 in 1975 to 214 590 in 1980. <ref>[http://www.ilo.org/public/english/protection/migrant/download/imp/imp51e.pdf Skilled Labour Migration from Developing Countries: Study on the Philippines]</ref>
As of 2006, it was thought that approximately 8 million Filipinos were working abroad. <ref>[http://www.voanews.com/english/archive/2006-06/2006-06-29-voa14.cfm Brain Drain Hits Philippines - VoA News, retrieved 29 May 2008]</ref> Philippine workers sent home more than $10.7 billion last year, equal to about 12% of the [[gross domestic product|GDP]].
<ref>[http://www.latimes.com/news/nationworld/world/la-fg-remit20apr20,1,7854317.story?coll=la-headlines-frontpage&ctrack=1&cset=true]</ref> The drain has a damaging effect on the country's health care system. It is estimated that approximately 100,000 [[nurses]] emigrated between 1994 and 2006 <ref>[http://www.voanews.com/english/archive/2006-05/2006-05-03-voa38.cfm Philippine Medical Brain Drain Leaves Public Health System in Crisis - VoA News, retrieved 29 May 2008]</ref>. This trend continues, with around 15 000 nurses expected to emigrate from the Philippines in 2008.<ref>[http://www.independent.co.uk/news/world/asia/western-demand-drains-philippines-of-85-per-cent-of-its-trained-nurses-773889.html Western demand drains Philippines of 85 per cent of its trained nurses - The Independent]</ref> The outflow of medical professionals has forced the closure of medical schools and threatened hospitals.<ref>[http://www.thestandard.com.hk/stdn/std/World/GD23Wd04.html Medical brain drain threat to Philippines - The Standard]</ref>
In attempt to curb the migration of skilled workers, the government has implemented minor incentive packages. In 1989, the ''Balikbayan'' program was created to encourage Filipino emigrants, mostly living in the [[United States]] and [[Canada]], to return to the Philippines as free-spending tourists.<ref>[http://philippineembassy.ca/index_files/Page2511.htm Balikbayan Privileges]</ref> (Balikbayan is formed from the [[Tagalog]] terms ''balik'' (to return) and ''bayan'' (town and nation).{{Fact|date=May 2008}})
== North America ==
=== Canada ===
Colonial administrators in [[Canada]] observed the trend of human capital flight to the [[United States]] as early as the 1860s, when it was already clear that a majority of immigrants arriving at [[Québec]] were en route to destinations in the United States. [[Alexander C. Buchanan]], government agent at Québec, argued that prospective [[emigrants]] should be offered free land to remain in Canada. The problem of attracting and keeping the right immigrants is a constant in Canadian immigration history.<ref>[http://www.collectionscanada.ca/immigrants/021017-2112.03-e.html Moving Here, Staying Here: The Canadian Immigrant Experience] - "Immigration," ''Annual Report of the Minister of the Province of Canada for the Year 1865'', pages 10-15.</ref>
In Canada today, the brain drain to the United States is occasionally a domestic political issue. At times, brain drain is used as a justification for [[income tax]] cuts, although this causal relationship has been questioned. For example, Canadian [[conservative]]s often claim there is a drain from Canada to the United States, especially in the financial, [[software]], [[aerospace]], [[health care]] and [[entertainment]] industries, due to perceived higher wages and lower income taxes in the U.S., despite some statistical evidence to the contrary.<ref>Herb Emery, {{PDFlink|"[http://www.irpp.org/archive/policyop/sep99/emery.pdf The Tax-Cutters]"|48.4 KB}} ''[[Institute for Research on Public Policy]]'', "Policy Options", September, 1999.</ref> The evidence shows that Canada is indeed losing its homegrown talent to the US{{Fact|date=March 2008}}, but it is gaining skilled migrants from abroad{{Fact|date=March 2008}}. However, recent anecdotal evidence shows that stringent US security measures after [[September 11th, 2001]] have helped to end the brain drain debate in Canada.<ref>Jeff Colgan, ''The Promise And Peril Of International Trade,'' (2005) pp 141ff. </ref>
=== United States ===
The 2000 [[United States]] [[United States Census Bureau|Census Bureau]] published a special report on domestic worker migration, with a focus on the movement of young, single, college-educated migrants.<ref>[http://www.census.gov/prod/2003pubs/censr-12.pdf Migration of the Young, Single, and College Educated] - US Census Bureau, Nov 2003</ref> The data shows a trend of such people moving away from the [[Rust Belt]] and northern [[Great Plains]] region towards the [[Pacific States|West Coast]] and [[Southern United States|Southeast]]. The area with the largest net influx of young, single, college-educated persons was the [[San Francisco Bay Area]].
The country as a whole does not experience a large-scale brain drain to other countries, since it is often the destination of skilled workers migrating from elsewhere in the world. However, a governmental stance against funding of [[stem cell]] research has fed a migration of researchers in this particular field to [[Europe]], where the research is well-supported.<ref>[http://www.guardian.co.uk/world/2006/jul/25/eu.genetics US faces science brain drain after Europe backs stem cell funding - The Guardian]</ref>
== South America ==
In many Latin American nations where enrollment at local medical schools is very high, there is a chronic shortage of doctors with the exception of [[Healthcare in Cuba|Cuba]].
=== Cuba ===
In 2007, [[Cuba]]n officials claimed that 31 000 Cuban doctors were deployed in 61 countries.<ref>[http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2007/02/02/AR2007020200987.html Cuban Doctors Awaiting U.S. Response - The Washington Post]</ref> A large number practice in South America. 20 000 are employed in [[Venezuela]] in exchange for 100 000 barrels of oil per day.<ref>[http://www.sfgate.com/cgi-bin/article.cgi?file=/c/a/2007/02/25/MNGN4O8FAC1.DTL Cuban doctors defect from Venezuela posts]</ref> From Venezuela and [[Bolivia]], where another 1 700 doctors work, it is thought that as many as 500 doctors may have fled the missions into neighbouring countries.<ref>[http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2007/02/02/AR2007020200987.html Cuban Doctors Awaiting U.S. Response - The Washington Post]</ref> Figures are dubious, since the defections are rarely made public.
=== Caribbean ===
Most of the [[Caribbean|Caribbean Islands]] endure a substantial emigration of qualified workers. Approximately 30% of the labour forces of many islands have left, and more than 80% of college graduates from [[Suriname]], [[Haiti]], [[Grenada]] and [[Guyana]] have emigrated, mostly to the [[United States]].<ref>[http://web.worldbank.org/WBSITE/EXTERNAL/NEWS/0,,contentMDK:21109448~pagePK:64257043~piPK:437376~theSitePK:4607,00.html?cid=3001 Latin America Shouldn’t Bet Everything On Remittances - World Bank]</ref> However, it is noted that these nationals pay valuable remittances. In [[Jamaica]], the money sent back amounts to 18% of [[gross national product|GNP]].<ref>[http://www.bbc.co.uk/caribbean/news/story/2007/07/printable/070720_ronsaunders23july.shtml Brain drain or export earnings? - BBCCaribbean.com]</ref> This calls into question whether this trend can be described as a true brain drain.
==Brain gain==
An opposite situation, in which many trained and talented individuals seek entrance into a country, is called a '''brain gain'''; this may create a brain drain in the nations that the individuals are leaving. A Canadian symposium in 2000 gave circulation to the new term, at a time when many highly skilled Canadians were moving to the United States, while simultaneously many qualified immigrants were coming to Canada from a number of different nations. This is sometimes referred to as a 'brain exchange'.
In 2000, the US Congress announced it was raising the annual cap on the number of temporary work visas granted to highly skilled professionals under its [[H1B visa]] program, from 115,000 to 195,000 per year, effective through 2003. That suggests a ballpark figure for the influx of talent into the United States at that time. A significant portion of this program was initiated by lobbyists from the computer industry, including [[Bill Gates]].<ref>http://www.hindustantimes.com/news/181_1654992,0002.htm</ref> In the same year the [[United Kingdom|British]] government, in cooperation with the Wolfson Foundation, a research charity, launched a £20 million, five-year research award scheme aimed at drawing the return of the UK’s leading expatriate scientists and sparking the migration of top young researchers to the United Kingdom. It has been shown, however, that scientists are attracted to the UK because there is a greater degree of freedom in experimentation. This is part of the reason why the UK leads the world in biomedical and genetic research.
== See also ==
* [[Human capital]]
* [[Immigration]]
* [[Instructional capital]]
* [[Edict of Fontainebleau]]
* [[Free rider problem]]
* [[Canadians of convenience]]
* [[American exceptionalism]]
* [[Forty-Eighters]]
* [[Great Migration (African American)]]
* [[Jim Crow laws]]
* [[Reverse brain drain]]
==Footnotes==
<div class="references-small">
<!--<nowiki>PLEASE DO NOT TYPE FOOTNOTES HERE OR BELOW. Instead insert the entire footnote in its proper spot in the body of the article using the<ref name=> </ref> tags. See [[Wikipedia:Footnotes]] for an explanation of how to generate footnotes using the tags.</nowiki>-->
{{reflist}}
</div>
==References==
* Lincoln C. Chen, M.D., and Jo Ivey Boufford, M.D. "Fatal Flows Doctors on the Move" New England Journal of Medicine,'' Volume 353:1850-1852 [[October 27]], [[2005]] Number 17 [http://content.nejm.org/cgi/content/full/353/17/1850 online version], editorial
* Cheng, L., & Yang, P. Q. "Global interaction, global inequality, and migration of the highly trained to the United States.'' ''International Migration Review,'' (1998). 32, 626-94.
* Jeff Colgan, ''The Promise and Peril ff International Trade,'' (2005) ch 9.
* David Heenan.''Flight Capital: The Alarming Exodus of America's Best and Brightest'' (2005), brain drain in reverse as immigrants return home
* Devesh Kapur and John McHale. ''Give Us Your Best and Brightest: The Global Hunt for Talent and Its Impact on the Developing World'' (2005) [http://www.cgdev.org/content/publications/detail/4415/]
* Kemp, Paul. ''Goodbye Canada?'' (2003), from Canada to U.S.
* Khadria, Binod. ''The Migration of Knowledge Workers: Second-Generation Effects of India's Brain Drain,'' (2000)
* Kuznetsov, Yevgeny. ''Diaspora Networks and the International Migration of Skills: How Countries Can Draw on Their Talent Abroad'' (2006)
* D. W. Livingstone; ''The Education-Jobs Gap: Underemployment or Economic Democracy'' (1998), focus on Canada [http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=82325306 online edition]
* Douglas S. Massey and J. Edward Taylor; ''International Migration: Prospects and Policies in a Global Market,'' (2003) [http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=109858153 online edition]
* Mullan, Fitzhugh. "The Metrics of the Physician Brain Drain." ''New England Journal of Medicine,'' Volume 353:1810-1818 [[October 27]], [[2005]] Number 17 [http://content.nejm.org/cgi/content/full/353/17/1810 online version]
* Caglar Ozden and Maurice Schiff. ''International Migration, Remittances, and Brain Drain.'' (2005)
* Ransford W. Palmer; ''In Search of a Better Life: Perspectives on Migration from the Caribbean'' Praeger Publishers, 1990 [http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=27964376 online edition]
* Ronald Skeldon and Wang Gungwu; ''Reluctant Exiles? Migration from Hong Kong and the New Overseas Chinese'' 1994 [http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=87319971 online edition]
* Michael Peter Smith and Adrian Favell. ''The Human Face of Global Mobility: International Highly Skilled Migration in Europe, North America and the Asia-Pacific,'' (2006)
* David Zweig, Chen Changgui, and Stanley Rosen; ''China's Brain Drain to the United States: Views of Overseas Chinese Students and Scholars in the 1990s'' Institute of East Asian Studies, 1995 [http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=2993276 online edition]
==Online references==
*[http://www.collectionscanada.ca/immigrants/ Moving Here, Staying Here: The Canadian Immigrant Experience] - "Immigration," ''Annual Report of the Minister of the Province of Canada for the Year 1865'' at Library and Archives Canada
*[http://www.nsf.gov/statistics/srs07203/ Mark Regets, Research Issues in the International Migration of Highly Skilled Workers] - National Science Foundation, SRS 07-203, June 2007
== External links ==
* [http://www.oecdobserver.org/news/fullstory.php/aid/673/The_brain_drain:_Old_myths,_new_realities.html Mario Cervantes and Dominique Guellec, "The brain drain: Old myths, new realities"]
* [http://www.maytree.com/HTMLFiles/brain_drain.htm "Brain Drain: Brain Gain"]
* [http://www.imf.org/external/pubs/ft/fandd/1999/06/carringt.htm How Extensive Is the Brain Drain?] An article on the extent of brain drain today
* [http://www.jrc.es/home/report/english/articles/vol29/SAT1E296.htm Sami Mahroum, "Europe and the Challenge of the Brain Drain"]
* {{PDFlink|1=[http://www.census.gov/prod/2003pubs/censr-12.pdf#search=%22Migration%20of%20the%20Young%2C%20Single%2C%20and%20College%20Educated%22 US Census Bureau report on migration of the young and educated]|2=210 KB}}
* [http://www.scidev.net/dossiers/index.cfm?fuseaction=dossierItem&Dossier=10 SciDev.net - Brain Drain]
* [http://www.time.com/time/europe/magazine/printout/0,13155,901040119-574849,00.html '' How To Plug Europe's Brain Drain''. Time Europe, accessed October 9, 2006]
[[Category:foreign workers|*]]
[[Category:Human migration]]
[[Category:Employment of foreign-born]]
[[de:Braindrain]]
[[es:Fuga de cerebros]]
[[fa:فرار مغزها]]
[[fr:Fuite des cerveaux]]
[[is:Vitsmunaflótti]]
[[it:Fuga di cervelli]]
[[he:בריחת מוחות]]
[[nl:Braindrain]]
[[no:Hjerneflukt]]
[[nn:Hjerneflukt]]
[[pl:Drenaż mózgów]]
[[pt:Fuga de cérebros]]
[[ru:Утечка мозгов]]
[[fi:Aivovuoto]]
[[tr:Beyin göçü]]
[[zh:人才外流]]