Brain implant
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2008-07-15T14:29:54Z
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/* Historical research on brain implants */
'''Brain implants''', often referred to as '''neural implants''', are technological devices that connect directly to a biological subject's [[brain]] - usually placed on the surface of the [[brain]], or attached to the [[brain]]'s [[Cerebral cortex|cortex]]. A common purpose of modern brain implants and the focus of much current research is establishing a [[biomedical]] prosthesis circumventing areas in the brain, which became dysfunctional after a [[stroke]] or other [[head injury|head injuries]]. This includes [[sensory substitution]], e.g. in [[Visual perception|vision]]. Other brain implants are used in animal experiments simply to record brain activity for scientific reasons. Some brain implants involve creating interfaces between [[biological neural network|neural systems]] and [[integrated circuit|computer chips]], which are part of a wider research field called [[brain-computer interface]]s. (Brain-computer interface research also includes technology such as [[Electroencephalography|EEG]] arrays that allow interface between mind and machine but do not require direct implantation of a device.)
Neural-implants such as [[deep brain stimulation]] and[[ Vagus nerve stimulation]] are increasingly becoming routine for patients with [[Parkinson's disease]] and [[clinical depression]] respectively, proving themselves as a boon for people with diseases which were previously regarded as incurable.<ref>http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parkinson%27s_disease#Surgery_and_deep_brain_stimulation</ref>
==Research==
Brain implants electrically stimulate or record from single [[neuron]]s or groups of neurons ([[biological neural network]]s) in the brain. This can only be done where the functional associations of these neurons are approximately known. Because of the complexity of neural processing and the lack of access to [[action potential]] related signals using [[neuroimaging]] techniques, the application of brain implants has been seriously limited until recent advances in neurophysiology and computer processing power. Research in [[sensory substitution]] has also made steep progress in recent years.
Especially in vision, due to the knowledge of the working of the [[visual system]], [[Visual prosthetic|eye implant]]s (often involving some brain implants or monitoring) have been applied with demonstrated success. For [[hearing (sense)|hearing]], [[cochlear implant]]s are used to stimulate the auditory nerve directly. The [[vestibulocochlear nerve]] is part of the [[peripheral nervous system]], but the interface is similar to that of true brain implants.
Multiple projects have demonstrated success at recording from the brains of animals for long periods of time. As early as 1976, researchers at the [[Nih|NIH]] led by Ed Schmidt made action potential recordings of signals from Rhesus monkey motor cortexes using immovable 'hatpin' electrodes,<ref>xp Neurol. 1976 Sep;52(3):496-506</ref> including recording from single neurons for over 30 days, and consistent recordings for greater than three years from the best electrodes.
The 'hatpin' electrodes were made of pure iridium and insulated with Parylene-c, materials that are currently used in the [[Cyberkinetics]] implementation of the Utah array.<ref>[http://www.cyberkineticsinc.com/pdf/cyber.pdf Cyberkinetics array]</ref> These same electrodes, or derivations thereof using the same biocompatible electrode materials, are currently used in visual prosthetics laboratories,<ref>[http://www.blackwell-synergy.com/links/doi/10.1046/j.1525-1594.2003.07308.x/abs/ Blackwell Synergy - Artificial Organs, Volume 27 Issue 11 Page 1005-1015, November 2003 (Article Abstract)]</ref> laboratories studying the neural basis of learning,<ref>[http://www.neuron.org/content/article/abstract?uid=PIIS0896627306006313 Neuron - Blake et al]</ref> and motor prosthetics approaches other than the [[Cyberkinetics]] probes<ref>http://pr.caltech.edu/media/Press_Releases/PR12553.html</ref>
[[Image:Utah array pat5215088.jpg|thumb|250px|right|Schematic of the "Utah" Electrode Array]]
A competing series of electrodes and projects is manufactured by [http://www.plexoninc.com/products/products_top.html Plexon Inc.] (see [[Plexon]])including [http://www.plexoninc.com/products/electrodes/plextrode_top.html Plextrode® Series of Electrodes]. The electrodes are made using stainless steel, platinum/iridium, pure iridium, and tungsten.
Thus, the two well-known companies currently manufacturing such implants are [[Cyberkinetics]] and [[Plexon]].
Breakthroughs include studies of the process of functional brain re-wiring throughout the learning of a sensory discrimination,<ref name='Blake'>{{cite news | first= | last= | coauthors= | title=Making the connection between a sound and a reward changes brain and behavior | date=2006-10-19 | publisher=Physorg.com | url =http://www.physorg.com/news80492303.html | work = | pages = | accessdate = 2008-04-25 | language = }}</ref> control of physical devices by rat brains,<ref name='Chapin_rat'> {{cite web|url=http://www.downstate.edu/pharmacology/faculty/chapin.html |title=Robot arm controlled using command signals recorded directly from brain neurons |accessdate=2008-04-25 |last=Chapin |first=John K. |publisher=SUNY Downstate Medical Center }}</ref> monkeys over robotic arms,<ref name='Loeb_monkey'>{{cite news | first=Duncan | last=Graham-Rowe | coauthors= | title=Monkey's brain signals control 'third arm' | date=2003-10-13 | publisher= | url =http://www.newscientist.com/article.ns?id=dn4262 | work =[[New Scientist]] | pages = | accessdate = 2008-04-25 | language = }}</ref> remote control of mechanical devices by monkeys and humans,<ref name='BrainGate'>{{cite news | first=Raja | last=Mishra | coauthors= | title=Implant could free power of thought for paralyzed | date=2004-10-09 | publisher= | url =http://www.wireheading.com/misc/implant.html | work =Boston Globe | pages = | accessdate = 2008-04-25 | language = }}</ref> remote control over the movements of [[roach]]es,<ref name='roboroach'>{{cite news | first=Eric | last=Talmadoe | coauthors= | title=Japan's latest innovation: a remote-control roach | date=2001-07 | publisher=Associated Press | url =http://www.wireheading.com/roboroach/ | work = | pages = | accessdate = 2008-04-25 | language = }}</ref> electronic-based neuron transistors for [[leech]]es,<ref name='Fromherz_leech'>{{cite news | first=Michael | last=Gross | coauthors= | title=Plugging brains into computers | date=2004-09 | publisher=Royal Society of Chemistry | url =http://www.rsc.org/chemistryworld/Issues/2004/September/computers.asp | work =Chemistry World | pages = | accessdate = 2008-04-25 | language = }}</ref> the first reported use of the Utah Array in a human for bidirectional signalling.<ref>[[Kevin Warwick|Warwick,K]], [[Mark Gasson|Gasson,M]], Hutt,B, Goodhew,I, Kyberd,P, Andrews,B, Teddy,P and Shad,A:“The Application of Implant Technology for Cybernetic Systems”, ''Archives of Neurology'', 60(10), pp1369-1373, 2003</ref> Currently a number of groups are conducting preliminary motor prosthetic implants in humans. These studies are presently limited to several months by the longevity of the implants.
==Rehabilitation==
[[Brain pacemaker]]s have been in use since 1997 to ease the symptoms of such diseases as [[epilepsy]], [[Parkinson's Disease]], [[dystonia]] and recently [[clinical depression|depression]].
Current brain implants are made from a variety of materials such as [[tungsten]], [[silicon]], [[platinum-iridium]], or even [[stainless steel]]. Future brain implants may make use of more exotic materials such as nanoscale [[carbon fiber]]s ([[nanotube]]s), and [[polycarbonate]] [[urethane]].
''(see also [[nanotechnology]], [[cognotechnology]], and [[neurotechnology]])''
==Historical research on brain implants==
''(see also: [[History of brain imaging]])''
In 1870, [[Eduard Hitzig]] and Gustav Fritsch demonstrated that electrical stimulation of certain areas of the brains of dogs could produce movements. [[Robert Bartholow]] showed the same to be true for humans in 1874. By the start of the 20th century Fedor Krause began to systematically map human brain areas, using patients that had undergone [[brain surgery]].
Prominent research was conducted in the 1950s. Robert G. Heath experimented with aggressive mental patients, aiming to influence his subjects' moods through electrical stimulation.
Yale University physiologist [[José Manuel Rodriguez Delgado|Jose Delgado]] demonstrated limited control of animal and human subjects' behaviours using electronic stimulation. He invented the ''stimoceiver'' or ''transdermal stimulator'' a device implanted in the brain to transmit electrical impulses that modify basic behaviours such as aggression or sensations of pleasure.
Delgado was later to write a popular book on mind control, called "Physical Control of the Mind", where he stated: "''the feasibility of remote control of activities in several species of animals has been demonstrated [...] The ultimate objective of this research is to provide an understanding of the mechanisms involved in the directional control of animals and to provide practical systems suitable for human application.''"
In the 1950s, the CIA also funded research into [[mind control]] techniques, through programs such as [[MKULTRA]]. Perhaps because he received funding for some research through the US [[Office of Naval Research]], it has been suggested (but not proven) that Delgado also received backing through the CIA. He denied this claim in a 2005 article in ''Scientific American'' describing it only as a speculation by conspiracy-theorists. He stated that his research was only progressively scientifically-motivated to understand how the brain works.
==Ethical considerations==
Whilst [[deep brain stimulation]] is increasingly becoming routine for patients with Parkinson's disease, there may be some behavioural side effects. Reports in the literature describe the possibility of apathy, hallucinations, compulsive gambling, hypersexuality, cognitive dysfunction, and depression. However, these may be temporary and related to correct placement and calibration of the stimulator and so are potentially reversible.<ref>{{cite journal | author = Burn D, Troster A| title = Neuropsychiatric Complications of Medical and Surgical Therapies for Parkinson's Disease. | journal = Journal of Geriatric Psychiatry and Neurology| volume = 17| issue = 3 | pages = 172–180 | year = 2004 | pmid = 15312281| doi = 10.1177/0891988704267466}}</ref>
Some [[futurists]], such as [[Raymond Kurzweil]] and [[Kevin Warwick]], see brain implants as part of a next step for humans in progress and [[evolution]], whereas others, especially [[Techno-progressivism#Contrasting_stance|bioconservatives]], view them as [[unnatural]], with humankind losing essential [[human]] qualities. It raises controversy similar to other forms of [[human enhancement]]. For instance, it is argued that implants would technically change people into cybernetic organisms ([[cyborgs]]). Some people fear implants may be used for [[mind control]], ''e.g.'' to change human [[perception]] of [[reality]].
Although rarely these are viewed as mind-control by few and unnatural by few others (as mentioned above) but these devices are just like any other recent advances in medical-technology (such as [[fMRI]] or [[MEG]]) that are supposed to benefit patients and needy people. Opposing them will only lead to hindrance in the path of the progress of medical technology, ultimately hurting the advances in the curability of current non-curable diseases as well as the knowledge of how the brain works, which can be used in education, medicine and many other fields. It's entirely our choice whether we view them as devices of progress or not. They are not going to develop by their own. If we wish, we can develop or fund to develop them further and make them more cheaper (so that they become affordable by the masses) or hinder our own path of progress.
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==Brain implants in fiction and philosophy==
Brain implants are now part of modern popular culture but there were early philosophical references of relevance as far back as [[René Descartes]].
In his 1638 ''[[Discourse on the Method]]'', a study on proving self existence, Descartes wrote that a person would not know if an evil demon had trapped his mind in a black box and was controlling all inputs and outputs. Philosopher [[Hilary Putnam]] provided a modern parallel of Descartes argument in his 1989 discussion of a [[brain in a vat]], where he argues that brains which were directly fed with an input from a computer would not know the deception from [[reality]].
Popular science fiction discussing brain implants and [[mind control]] became widespread in the 20th century, often with a dystopian outlook. Literature in the 1970s delved into the topic, including ''[[The Terminal Man]]'' by [[Michael Crichton]], where a man suffering from brain damage receives an experimental surgical brain implant designed to prevent seizures, which he abuses by triggering for pleasure.[[Image:Gits-cyberbrains.jpeg|thumb|250px|right|Cyberbrain Implants in the Ghost in the Shell TV series]]
Fear that the technology will be misused by the government and military is an early theme. In the 1981 BBC serial ''[[The Nightmare Man]]'' the pilot of a high-tech mini submarine is linked to his craft via a brain implant but becomes a savage killer after ripping out the implant. In the 1983 film ''[[Brainstorm (1983 film)|Brainstorm]]'' the military tries to take control over a new technology that can record and transfer thoughts, feelings, and sensations. A character has a brain implant which is supposed to prevent future aggression in the BBC TV series ''[[Blake's 7]]'', after being convicted of killing an officer from the oppressive Federation.
Perhaps the most influential novel exploring the world of brain implants was [[William Gibson]]'s 1984 ''[[Neuromancer]]''. This novel is the first in a genre that has come to be known as "[[cyberpunk]]" and follows a computer hacker through a world where mercenaries are augmented with brain implants to enhance strength, vision, memory, etc. Gibson coins the term "matrix" and introduces the concept of "jacking in" with head electrodes or direct implants. He also explores possible entertainment applications of brain implants such as the "simstim" (simulated stimulation) which is a device used to record and playback experiences.
Gibson's work led to an explosion in popular culture references to brain implants. Its influences are felt, for example, in the 1989 roleplaying game ''[[Shadowrun]]'', which borrowed his term "datajack" to describe a brain-computer interface. The implants in Gibson's novels and short stories formed the template for the 1995 film [[Johnny Mnemonic]] and later, [[The Matrix Trilogy]].
In [[Stephen R. Donaldson]]'s ''The Gap into '' series of novels, collectively known as ''[[The Gap Cycle]]'' due to its deliberate thematic similarity to [[Wagner]]'s ''[[Ring Cycle]]'', the use (and misuse) of [[Zone Implant]] technology is key to several plotlines.
The extreme box office success of the Matrix films combined with earlier science fiction references have made brain implants ubiquitous in popular literature.
[[Cyberbrain]] neural augmentation technology is the focus of the ''[[Ghost in the Shell]]'' [[anime]] and [[manga]] franchise. Implants of powerful computers provide vastly increased memory capacity, total recall, as well as the ability to view his or her own memories on an external viewing device. Users can also initiate a telepathic conversation with other cyberbrain users, the downsides being cyberbrain hacking, malicious memory alteration, and the deliberate distortion of subjective reality and experience.
[[Pulp magazine|Pulp fiction]] with implants or brain implants include the novel series Typers, film ''[[Spider-Man 2]]'', the TV series ''[[Earth: Final Conflict]]'' and numerous computer games.
The "V-chip" implant was a satirical implant in the movie [[South Park: Bigger, Longer & Uncut]]. It was for foul-mouthed children, and served a related purpose to the true [[V-chip]] (it delivered an electric shock to the child whenever they swore).
==See also==
* [[Sensory substitution]]
* [[Mind control]]
* [[Biomedical engineering]]
* [[Cognotechnology]]
* [[Brain-computer interface]]
* [[Artificial brain]]
* [[Neuroprosthetics]]
* [[Cochlear implant]]
* [[Simulated reality]]
* [[Paranoia]]
==References==
<!--See http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Footnotes for an explanation of how to generate footnotes or references using the <ref(erences/)> tags-->
{{reflist}}
==External links==
* [http://www.neural-prosthesis.com/ Theodore Berger's Website]
* [http://www.mesolimbic.com/delgado/brainchips.pdf ''Scientific American'' article on Jose Delgado]
* [http://viterbi.usc.edu/tools/download/?asset=/assets/002/16239.pdf&name=berger_discovery_piece.pdf ''Discover Magazine'' article on brain implants]
* [http://www.neurotechreports.com/pages/hybrids.html ''Neurotech Reports'' article on neural-silicon hybrid chips]
==Further reading==
* [http://www.amazon.com/dp/0262025779/ Theodore W. Berger's book ''Toward Replacement Parts for the Brain''] ISBN 0-262-02577-9.
* [http://www.angelfire.com/or/mctrl/delgado.htm Jose Delgado's book ''Physical Control of the Mind'']
[[Category:Neural engineering]]
[[Category:Neuroprosthetics]]
[[Category:Multimodal interaction]]
[[Category:Devices to alter consciousness]]
[[Category:Mind control]]
[[Category:Brain-computer interfacing]]
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