Bridge
3397
225795094
2008-07-15T13:01:58Z
135.245.8.37
/* Cable-stayed bridges */
{{otheruses1|the structure}}
[[Image:Sio se pol.jpg|thumb|right|300px|The [[masonry]] [[Bridge of 33 Arches]] over the [[Zayandeh River]] is the epitome of [[Safavid dynasty]] (1502-1722) bridge design. [[Esfahan]], [[Iran]].]]
[[Image:Story Bridge at night 1.jpg|thumb|right|The [[Story Bridge, Brisbane|Story Bridge]] in [[Brisbane]], [[Australia]], built in 1940 with modern materials, is an example of a [[steel]] [[cantilever bridge]].]]
[[Image:Salginatobelbruecke suedost unten.jpg|thumb|right|The [[Salginatobel Bridge]] in the [[Swiss Alps]] was declared a [[Historic Civil Engineering Landmark]] in 1991.]]
A '''bridge''' is a [[structure]] built to [[span (architecture)|span]] a [[gorge]], [[valley]], [[road]], [[Rail tracks|railroad track]], [[river]], [[body of water]], or any other physical obstacle, for the purpose of providing passage over the obstacle. Designs of bridges will vary depending on the function of the bridge and the nature of the terrain where the bridge is to be constructed.
==History==
[[Image:Vallorcine footpath bridge 2003-12-13.jpg|thumb|right|A [[log bridge]] in the [[French Alps]] near [[Vallorcine]].]]
[[Image:Pulteney Bridge, Bath 2.jpg|thumb|right|An English 18th century example of a bridge in the [[Palladian style]], with shops on the span: [[Pulteney Bridge]], [[Bath, Somerset|Bath]]]]
The first bridges were made by nature — as simple as a log fallen across a stream. The first bridges made by humans were probably spans of wooden [[logging|logs]] or planks and eventually [[rock (geology)|stones]], using a simple support and crossbeam arrangement. Most of these early bridges could not support heavy weights or withstand strong currents. It was these inadequacies which led to the development of better bridges.
Epic literature of [[India]] provides mythological accounts of bridges constructed from India to [[Lanka]] by the army of [[Rama]]. <ref>Kinney, pg. 190</ref><ref> Buck pg 78</ref> The ''[[Arthashastra]]'' of [[Kautilya]] mentions the construction of dams and bridges.<ref>Dikshitar, pg. 332</ref> A [[Mauryan]] bridge near [[Girnar]] was surveyed by James Princep.<ref name=Dutt/> The bridge was swept away during a flood, and later repaired by Puspagupta, the chief architect of emperor [[Chandragupta I]].<ref name=Dutt/> The bridge also fell under the care of the [[Yavana]] Tushaspa, and the [[Satrap]] Rudra Daman.<ref name=Dutt>Dutt, pg 46</ref> The use of stronger bridges using plaited bamboo and iron chain was visible in India by about the 4th century.<ref>"suspension bridge" in Encyclopaedia Britannica (2008). 2008 Encyclopedia Britannica, Inc.</ref> A number of bridges, both for military and commercial purposes, were constructed by the [[Mughal]] administration in India.<ref>Nath, pg. 213</ref>
The [[Ancient Rome|ancient Romans]] built [[arch bridges]] and [[aqueduct]]s that could stand in conditions that would damage or destroy earlier designs. Some of them still stand today. An example is the [[Alcántara]] Bridge, built over the river [[Tagus]], in [[Spain]]. Most earlier bridges would have been swept away by the strong current. The Romans also used [[cement]], which reduced the variation of strength found in natural stone. One type of cement, called [[pozzolana]], consisted of water, lime, sand, and [[volcanic rock]]. [[Brick]] and [[Mortar (masonry)|mortar]] bridges were built after the Roman era, as the technology for cement was lost then later rediscovered.
Although large Chinese bridges of wooden construction existed at the time of the [[Warring States]], the oldest surviving stone bridge in [[China]] is the [[Zhaozhou Bridge]], built from 595 to 605 AD during the [[Sui Dynasty]]. This bridge is also historically significant as it is the world's oldest open-[[spandrel]] stone segmental arch bridge. European segmental arch bridges date back to at least the [[Alconétar Bridge]] (approximately 2nd century AD), while the enormous Roman era [[Trajan's Bridge]] (105 AD) featured open-spandrel segmental arches in wooden construction.
[[Rope bridge]]s, a simple type of suspension bridge, were used by the [[Inca]] civilization in the [[Andes]] mountains of [[South America]], just prior to European colonization in the 1500s.
During the 18th century there were many innovations in the [[design]] of [[timber]] bridges by [[Hans Ulrich]], [[Johannes Grubenmann]], and others. The first book on bridge engineering was written by [[Hubert Gautier]] in 1716.
With the [[Industrial Revolution]] in the 19th century, [[truss]] systems of [[wrought iron]] were developed for larger bridges, but [[iron]] did not have the [[tensile strength]] to support large [[force|loads]]. With the advent of [[steel]], which has a high tensile strength, much larger bridges were built, many using the ideas of [[Gustave Eiffel]].
== Etymology ==
The [[Oxford English Dictionary]] traces the origin of the word ''bridge'' to an [[Old English]] word ''brycg'', of the same meaning, derived from a hypothetical [[Proto-Germanic]] root ''brugjō''. There are [[cognate]]s in other [[Germanic languages]] (for instance ''Brücke'' in [[German language|German]], ''brug'' in [[Dutch language|Dutch]], ''brúgv'' in [[Faroese language|Faroese]] or ''bro'' in [[Danish language|Danish]], [[Norwegian language|Norwegian]] and [[Swedish language|Swedish]]).
Another theory suggests that "bridge" comes from Turkish "köprü" (lit. bridge). It is highly possible that Turkish lent this word to Eastern European languages and then, in time, it arrived in English. "Köprü" itself is derived from "köprük (köpük)" which literally means "foam".
The word for the [[Pope]], [[pontiff]], comes from the [[Latin]] word ''pontifex'' meaning "bridge builder" or simply "builder". The word "Pope" however comes from "papa" meaning "father".
==Types of bridges==
[[Image:CharlesBridge.jpg|thumb|[[Charles Bridge]] in [[Prague]]]]
There are six main types of bridges: [[beam bridge]]s, [[cantilever bridge]]s, [[arch bridge]]s, [[suspension bridge]]s, [[cable-stayed bridge]]s and [[truss bridge]]s.
===Beam bridges===
[[Beam bridge]]s are horizontal beams supported at each end by piers. The earliest beam bridges were simple logs that sat across streams and similar simple structures. In modern times, beam bridges are large box steel girder bridges. Weight on top of the beam pushes straight down on the piers at either end of the bridge. <ref name=beambridge>{{cite web | url=http://www.design-technology.org/beambridges.htm | title=Beam bridges | publisher=Design Technology | accessdate=2008-05-14}}</ref>
===Cantilever bridges===
[[Cantilever bridge]]s are built using cantilevers — horizontal beams that are supported on only one end. Most cantilever bridges use two cantilever arms extending from opposite sides of the obstacle to be crossed, meeting at the center. The largest cantilever bridge is the {{convert|549|ft}} [[Quebec Bridge]] in Quebec, Canada.<ref name=quebec>{{cite web | url=http://filebox.vt.edu/users/aschaeff/quebec/quebec.html | title=The Quebec Bridge Disasters | accessdate=2008-05-14}}</ref>
[[Image:SpinningDrawbridge.JPG|thumb|right|A [[swing bridge]] near Belle Glade, Florida. The moveable span is balanced on a pier and rotated 90 degrees to allow marine traffic to pass beneath.]]
===Arch bridges===
[[Arch bridge]]s are arch-shaped and have abutments at each end. The earliest known arch bridges were built by the Greeks and include the Arkadiko Bridge. The weight of the bridge is thrusted into the abutments at either side. Dubai in the United Arab Emirates is currently building the largest arch bridge in the world, which is scheduled for completion in 2012.<ref name=dubai>{{cite web | url=http://www.arabianbusiness.com/509621-worlds-longest-arch-bridge-for-dubai?ln=en | publisher=Arabian Business | accessdate=2008-05-14 | title=Dubai to build world's longest arch bridge | first=Amy | last=Glass}}</ref>
===Suspension bridges===
[[Suspension bridge]]s are suspended from cables. The earliest suspension bridges were made of ropes or vines covered with pieces of bamboo. In modern bridges, the cables hang from towers that are attached to caissons or cofferdams. The caissons or cofferdams are implanted deep into the floor of a lake or river. The longest suspension bridge in the world is the {{convert|12826|ft}} [[Akashi Kaikyo Bridge]] in Japan.<ref name=suspension>{{cite news | url=http://www.constructionequipmentguide.com/story.asp?story=8153&headline=The%20Mighty%20Mac:%20A%20Sublime%20Engineering%20Feat | title=The Mighty Mac: A Sublime Engineering Feat | first=Pete | last=Sigmund | publisher=Construction Equipment Guide | date=2007-02-07 | accessdate=2008-05-14}}</ref>
===Cable-stayed bridges===
Like suspension bridges, [[cable-stayed bridge]]s are held up by cables. However, in a cable-stayed bridge, less cable is required and the towers holding the cables are proportionately shorter. <ref name=cable>{{cite web | url=http://www.newton.dep.anl.gov/askasci/eng99/eng99373.htm | title=Cable Stay vs Suspension Bridges | first=Andy | last=Johnson | publisher=U.S. Department of Energy}}</ref> The first known cable-stayed bridge was designed in 1784 by C.T. Loescher.<ref name=loescher>{{cite web | url=http://www.nyc.gov/html/dot/html/bridges/reconstruction.shtml | title=Bridges | publisher=NYCDOT | accessdate=2008-05-14}}</ref> The longest cable-stayed bridge is the [[Sutong Bridge]] over the Yangtze River in China.
===Truss bridges===
[[Truss bridge]]s are composed of connected elements. They have a solid deck and a lattice of pin-jointed girders for the sides. Early truss bridges were made of wood, but modern truss bridges are made of metals such as wrought iron and steel. The [[Quebec Bridge]], mentioned above as a cantilever bridge, is also the world's longest truss bridge.<ref>[http://www.tkk.fi/Units/Departments/R/Bridge/longspan.html World's Longest Bridge Spans]</ref>
===By use===
A bridge is designed for [[train]]s, [[pedestrian]] or [[road]] traffic, a [[pipeline transport|pipeline]] or waterway for water transport or barge traffic. An [[aqueduct]] is a bridge that carries water, resembling a [[viaduct]], which is a bridge that connects points of equal height.
A [[road-rail bridge]] carries both road and rail traffic.
Bridges are subject to unplanned uses as well. The areas underneath some bridges have become makeshift shelters and homes to [[homeless]] people, and the undersides of bridges all around the world are spots of prevalent [[graffiti]]. Some bridges attract people attempting [[suicide]], and become known as [[suicide bridge]]s.
===Decorative or ceremonial===
To create a beautiful image, some bridges are built much taller than necessary. This type, often found in east-Asian style gardens, is called a [[Moon bridge]], evoking a rising full moon. Other garden bridges may cross only a dry bed of stream washed pebbles, intended only to convey an impression of a stream. Often in palaces a bridge will be built over an artificial waterway as symbolic of a passage to an important place or state of mind. A set of five bridges cross a sinuous waterway in an important courtyard of the [[Forbidden City]] in [[Beijing]], the [[People's Republic of China]]. The central bridge was reserved exclusively for the use of the Emperor, Empress, and their attendants.
==The differences & similarities in bridge structure ==
[[Image:BridgeTaxonomyBW.png|thumb|right|A bridge taxonomy showing evolutionary relationships]]
Bridges may be classified by how the forces of [[tension (mechanics)|tension]], [[physical compression|compression]], [[bending]], [[torsion]] and [[Shear stress|shear]] are distributed through their structure. Most bridges will employ all of the principal forces to some degree, but only a few will predominate. The separation of forces may be quite clear. In a suspension or cable-stayed span, the elements in tension are distinct in shape and placement. In other cases the forces may be distributed among a large number of members, as in a truss, or not clearly discernible to a casual observer as in a box beam. Bridges can also be classified by their lineage, which is shown as the vertical axis on the diagram to the right.
==Efficiency==
A bridge's ''structural efficiency'' may be considered to be the ratio of load carried to bridge mass, given a specific set of material types. In one common challenge students are divided into groups and given a quantity of wood sticks, a distance to span, and glue, and then asked to construct a bridge that will be tested to destruction by the progressive addition of load at the center of the span. The bridge taking the greatest load is by this test the most ''structurally efficient''. A more refined measure for this exercise is to weigh the completed bridge rather than measure against a fixed quantity of materials provided and determine the multiple of this weight that the bridge can carry, a test that emphasizes economy of materials and efficient glue joints (see [[Balsa wood bridge|''balsa wood bridge'']]).
A bridge's ''economic efficiency'' will be site and traffic dependent, the ratio of savings by having a bridge (instead of, for example, a ferry, or a longer road route) compared to its cost. The lifetime cost is composed of materials, labor, machinery, engineering, cost of money, insurance, maintenance, refurbishment, and ultimately, demolition and associated disposal, recycling, and replacement, less the value of scrap and reuse of components. Bridges employing only compression are relatively inefficient structurally, but may be highly cost efficient where suitable materials are available near the site and the cost of labor is low. For medium spans, trusses or box beams are usually most economical, while in some cases, the appearance of the bridge may be more important than its cost efficiency. The longest spans usually require suspension bridges.
===Double-decker bridge===
[[Image:Vorobyovy Gory metro station in Moscow (09-05-2006 at night).jpg|thumb|"Metrobridge" [[Vorobyovy Gory]] ([[:ru:Метромост]]) double-deck bridge in [[Moscow]] carries the [[Moscow Metro]].]]
Double-decker bridges have two levels, such as the [[San Francisco-Oakland Bay Bridge]], with two [[road]] levels. [[Tsing Ma Bridge]] and [[Kap Shui Mun Bridge]] in [[Hong Kong]] have six lanes on their upper decks, and on their lower decks there are two lanes and a pair of tracks for [[MTR]] metro trains. Some double-decker bridges only use one level for street traffic; the [[Washington Avenue Bridge (Minneapolis)|Washington Avenue Bridge]] in [[Minneapolis, Minnesota|Minneapolis]] reserves its lower level for automobile traffic and its upper level for pedestrian and bicycle traffic (predominantly students at the [[University of Minnesota]]).
[[Robert Stephenson]]'s [[High Level Bridge]] across the [[River Tyne]] in [[Newcastle upon Tyne]], completed in 1849, is an early example of a double-deck bridge. The upper level carries a railway, and the lower level is used for road traffic.
Another example is [[Craigavon Bridge]] in [[Derry]], [[Northern Ireland]]. The [[Oresund Bridge]] between [[Copenhagen]] and [[Malmö]] consists of a four-lane highway on the upper level and a pair of railway tracks at the lower level.
The [[George Washington Bridge]] between New Jersey and New York has two roadway levels. It was built with only the upper roadway as traffic demands did not require more capacity. A [[truss]] work between the roadway levels provides stiffness to the roadways and reduced movement of the upper level when installed.
[[Tower Bridge]] is different example of a double-decker bridge, with the central section consisting of a low level [[Bascule bridge|bascule span]] and a high level [[footbridge]].
=== More than just a bridge ===
[[Image:Ponte Aracaju-Barra.jpg|thumb|right|Aracaju-Barra Bridge in [[Sergipe]] state, [[Brazil]].]]
* Some bridges carry special installations such as the tower of [[Nový Most]] bridge in [[Bratislava]] which carries a restaurant. Other suspension bridge towers carry transmission antennas.
* A bridge can carry overhead power lines as does the [[Storstrøm Bridge]].
* Costs and [[cost overrun]]s in bridge construction have been studied by Flyvbjerg et al. (2003). The average cost overrun in building a bridge was found to be 34%.<ref>[http://books.google.com/books?vid=ISBN0521009464&id=RAV5P-50UjEC&printsec=frontcover&dq=megaprojects+and+Risk:+An+Anatomy+of+Ambition Flyvbjerg, Bent, Nils Bruzelius, and Werner Rothengatter, 2003. ''Megaprojects and Risk: An Anatomy of Ambition'' (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press).]</ref>
==Visual index==
===Index to types===
<!-- PLEASE NOTE{ This is an index of BRIDGE TYPES, not a gallery of bridges. If you have an interesting bridge picture consider first determining the type, and then going to the article for that type, perhaps creating a gallery if there are already enough images to illustrate the principle. See also the index to bridge related articles list below if the article is not of a specific structural type but rather other factors. If you make a new entry that has no image, use Image:NoImageYetRectFramed.png -->
<gallery>
Image:NagasakiMeganebashi.jpg|<center>[[Arch bridge]]</center>
Image:Small footbridge.jpg|<center>[[Beam bridge]]</center>
<!--Image:NoImageYetRectFramed.png|<center>[[Bowstring arch]]</center>-->
Image:Concrete box girder bridge.JPG|<center>[[Box girder bridge]]</center>
Image:ThreeTwrBrCenter.jpg|<center>[[Cable-stayed bridge]]</center>
Image:ForthBridgeEdinburgh.jpg|<center>[[Cantilever bridge]]</center>
Image:Puente del Alamillo.jpg|<center>[[Cantilever spar cable-stayed bridge]]</center>
Image:Tarr Steps 01.jpg|<center>[[Clapper bridge]]</center>
Image:Australia sydney-404.jpg|<center>[[Compression arch suspended-deck bridge]]</center>
Image:GirderBridge2.jpg|<center>[[Girder bridge]]</center>
Image:Vallorcine footpath bridge 2003-12-13.jpg|<center>[[Log bridge]]</center>
Image:Salmon Bay Bridge-2Clip.jpg|<center>[[Moveable bridge]]</center>
Image:Pigtail Bridge on US 16A.jpg|<center>[[Pigtail bridge]]</center>
Image:PlateGirderUnderTracks.jpg|<center>[[Plate girder bridge]]</center>
Image:Pontoon bridge Rhine River 1945.jpg|<center>[[Pontoon bridge]]</center>
Image:SegmentalBridgeFtLauderdale.jpg|<center>[[Segmental bridge]]</center>
Image:ProposedSFOBBEasternSpan.jpg|<center>[[Self-anchored suspension bridge]]</center>
Image:WinnepegBridge.jpg|<center>[[Side-spar cable-stayed bridge]]</center>
Image:CapilanoBridge.jpg|<center>[[Simple suspension bridge]]</center>
Image:StepStoneBridge.jpg|<center>[[Step-stone bridge]]</center>
Image:Holzbrücke bei Essing 1.jpg|<center>[[Stressed ribbon bridge]]</center>
Image:suspension.bridge.bristol.arp.750pix.jpg|<center>[[Suspension bridge]]</center>
Image:Middlesbrough_Transporter_Bridge.jpg|<center>[[Transporter bridge]]</center>
Image:AlhambraTrestle.jpg|<center>[[Trestle]]</center>
Image:Eastbound_over_SCB.jpg|<center>[[Truss arch bridge]]</center>
Image:LittleManateeRiver.jpg|<center>[[Truss bridge]]</center>
Image:Conwy Castle 2.jpg|<center>[[Tubular bridge]]</center>
Image:Guilford_vermont_covered_bridge_20040820.jpg|<center>[[Covered bridge]]</center>
</gallery>
===Index to related topics===
<!--Articles here are less involved with structural types, rather being concerned with the employment, history, or cosmetic aspects of bridges-->
<gallery>
<!-- Deleted image removed: Image:Titanbridger.jpg|<center>[[Armoured vehicle-launched bridge]]</center> -->
Image:Pont_du_gard.jpg|<center>[[Aqueduct]]</center>
Image:PontBailey.jpg|<center>[[Bailey bridge]]</center>
Image:BalsaBridge_Break.jpg|<center>[[Balsa wood bridge]] breaking under load</center>
Image:WWI bridge of boats Scheldt.jpg|<center>[[Bridge of boats]]</center>
Image:Claude Monet-Waterlilies.jpg|<center>[[Bridges in art]]</center>
Image:BrownTrussDiagram.png|<center>[[Brown truss]]</center>
Image:Baumgardener's Covered Bridge Inside Center 3008px.jpg|<center>[[Burr Arch Truss]]</center>
Image:CaissonSchematic.jpg|<center>[[Caisson (engineering)|Caisson]]</center><!-- PERMANENT REPLACEMENT OF NONRENDERING THUMB Image:Caisson_Schematic.svg-->
Image:Guilford vermont covered bridge 20040820.jpg|<center>[[Covered bridge]]</center>
Image:EyebarDetail.JPG|<center>[[Eyebar]]</center>
Image:Bridgegroningen.JPG|<center>[[Hoogholtje bridge]]</center>
Image:IRBSideViewClip.jpg|<center>[[Inca rope bridge]]</center>
Image:JetwayAtVancouverBC.jpg|<center>[[Jetway]]</center>
Image:San Francisco Oakland Bay Bridge Retrofit 3.jpg|<center>[[Lattice girder]]<br />(laced strut or tie)</center>
Image:Guilford vermont bridge covered bridge interior 20040820.jpg|<center>[[Lattice truss bridge|Lattice truss]]<br />(Town's lattice truss)</center>
Image:16 Bay With Link 4.jpg|<center>[[Medium Girder Bridge]]</center>
Image:SFTGMoonBridge.jpg|<center>[[Moon bridge]]</center>
Image:Packhorse bridge in Marsden, West Yorkshire.jpg|<center>[[Packhorse bridge]]</center>
Image:Paying_Toll_on_passing_a_Bridge_From_a_Painted_Window_in_the_Cathedral_of_Tournay_Fifteenth_Century.png|<center>[[Toll bridge]]</center>
Image:Dundas.aqueduct.300805.arp.jpg|<center>[[Aqueduct#Navigable aqueducts|Water bridge]]</center>
Image:WeighBridge5500.JPG|<center>[[Weigh bridge]]</center>
Image:Toronto-bloorviaduct.jpg|<center>[[Viaduct]]</center>
Image:wooden bridge.jpg|<center>[[Wooden bridge]]</center>
</gallery>
== Politics ==
Most bridges are built for economic reasons, meaning they are cost justified. As the size and cost go up it becomes more difficult to cost justify bridges. Some of the largest and most costly bridges in the world are built for political reasons, namely to tie together otherwise isolated areas.{{Fact|date=May 2008}}
== See also ==
* [[Architectural structure]]
* [[Landscape architecture]]
==References==
{{Refimprove|date=September 2007}}
{{reflist}}
===General references===
<small>
*Brown, David J. ''Bridges: Three Thousand Years of Defying Nature''. Richmond Hill, Ont: Firefly Books, 2005. ISBN 1-55407-099-6.
*Sandak, Cass R. ''Bridges''. An Easy-read modern wonders book. New York: F. Watts, 1983. ISBN 0-531-04624-9.
*Whitney, Charles S. ''Bridges of the World: Their Design and Construction''. Mineola, NY: Dover Publications, 2003. ISBN 0-486-42995-4.
:Unabridged republication of ''Bridges : a study in their art, science, and evolution''. 1929.
* Dikshitar, V. R. R. Dikshitar (1993). ''The Mauryan Polity''. Motilal Banarsidass. ISBN 8120810236.
* Dutt, Romesh Chunder (2000). ''A History of Civilisation in Ancient India: Vol II''. Routledge. ISBN 0415231884.
* Nath, R. (1982). ''History of Mughal Architecture''. Abhinav Publications. ISBN 8170171598.
* Kinney, A. R.; el al. (2003). ''Worshiping Siva and Buddha: The Temple Art of East Java''. University of Hawaii Press. ISBN 0824827791.
* Buck, William; el al. (2000). ''Ramayana''. University of California Press. ISBN 0520227034
</small>
==External links==
{{Wikisource1911Enc|Bridges}}
{{Sisterlinks|Bridge}}
*[http://www.en.broer.no en.Broer.no a site for bridges]
*[http://bridges.lib.lehigh.edu/ Digital Bridge: Bridges of the Nineteenth Century], a collection of digitized books at Lehigh University
*[http://en.structurae.de/ Structurae] - International Database and Gallery of Engineerings Structures with over 10000 Bridges.
*[http://www.fhwa.dot.gov/bridge/ U.S. Federal Highway Administration Bridge Technology]
*[http://filebox.vt.edu/users/aschaeff/titlepage.html Descriptions and photographs of five bridge disasters]
*[http://www.nireland.com/bridgeman/index.htm Bridge enthusiast site]
*[http://www.flexiblebridge.com/ Interesting Flexible Arch Bridge design]
*[http://www.webcastgroup.com/client/start.asp?wid=0670524062530 Video on how bridges are made] (Grade school level educational film by National Association of Manufactures.) ''Caution: Other links on this page may lead to politically biased material.''
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