British Raj
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225907363
2008-07-15T23:27:07Z
Mnmazur
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{{Redirect|British Indian Empire|for the British Colonial Empire|British Empire}}
{{Infobox Former Country
|conventional_long_name = India/Indian Empire
|common_name = India
|continent = Asia
|region = [[Indian Subcontinent]]
|country = India
|status = Colony
|empire = United Kingdom
|government_type = Monarchy
|event_start = [[Government of India Act 1858|Established]]
|date_start = August 2
|year_start = 1858
|event_end = [[Indian Independence Act 1947|Disestablished]]
|date_end = August 15
|year_end = 1947
|p1 = Company rule in India
|flag_p1 = Flag of the British East India Company (1801).svg
|p2 = Mughal Empire
|flag_p2 = Mughalempire.png
|s1 = Dominion of India
|s2 = Dominion of Pakistan
|s3 = Burma#Colonial era (1886-1948)
|flag_s1 = Flag of India.svg
|flag_s2 = Flag of Pakistan.svg
|flag_s3 = Burmaoflag.gif
|flag_s4 = Sikkimflag.svg
|image_flag = British Raj Red Ensign.svg
|flag = Star of India (flag)
|flag_type = <!--- Displayed text for link under flag. Default "Flag" --->
|image_coat = Star-of-India-gold-centre.svg
|symbol = Order of the Star of India
|symbol_type = <!--- Displayed text for link under symbol. Default "Coat of arms" --->
|image_map = IGI british indian empire1909reduced.jpg
|image_map_caption = The British Indian Empire, 1909
|capital = [[Calcutta]] <small>(1858 - 1912)</small><br>[[New Delhi]] <small>(1912 - 1947)</small>
|national_motto =
|national_anthem = [[God Save The Queen]]
|common_languages = [[Hindustani language|Hindustani]], [[English language|English]], [[Tamil language|Tamil]] and many others
|currency = [[History of the rupee|British Indian rupee]]
|leader1 = [[Victoria of the United Kingdom|Victoria]]¹
|leader2 = [[Edward VII of the United Kingdom|Edward VII]]
|leader3 = [[George V of the United Kingdom|George V]]
|leader4 = [[Edward VIII of the United Kingdom|Edward VIII]]
|leader5 = [[George VI of the United Kingdom|George VI]]
|year_leader1 = 1858-1901
|year_leader2 = 1901-1910
|year_leader3 = 1910-1936
|year_leader4 = 1936
|year_leader5 = 1936-1947
|title_leader = Emperor/Empress of India (1876-1947)
|representative1 = [[Charles Canning, 1st Earl Canning|The Viscount Canning]]
|year_representative1 = 1858-1862
|representative2 = [[James Bruce, 8th Earl of Elgin|The 8th Earl of Elgin]]
|year_representative2 = 1862-1863
|representative3 = [[John Lawrence, 1st Baron Lawrence|Sir John Lawrence]]
|year_representative3 = 1864-1869
|representative4 = [[Richard Southwell Bourke, 6th Earl of Mayo|The Earl of Mayo]]
|year_representative4 = 1869-1872
|representative5 = [[Thomas Baring, 1st Earl of Northbrook|The Lord Northbrook]]
|year_representative5 = 1872-1876
|representative6 = [[Robert Bulwer-Lytton, 1st Earl of Lytton|The Lord Lytton]]
|year_reprsentative6 = 1876-1880
|representative7 = [[George Robinson, 1st Marquess of Ripon|The Marquess of Ripon]]
|year_representative7 = 1880-1884
|representative8 = [[Frederick Hamilton-Temple-Blackwood, 1st Marquess of Dufferin and Ava|The Earl of Dufferin]]
|year_representative8 = 1884-1888
|representative9 = [[Henry Petty-Fitzmaurice, 5th Marquess of Lansdowne|The Marquess of Lansdowne]]
|year_representative9 = 1888-1894
|representative10 = [[Victor Bruce, 9th Earl of Elgin|The 9th Earl of Elgin]]
|year_representative10= 1894-1899
|representative11 = [[George Curzon, 1st Marquess Curzon of Kedleston|The Lord Curzon of Kedleston]]
|year_representative11= 1899-1905
|representative12 = [[Gilbert Elliot-Murray-Kynynmound, 4th Earl of Minto|The Earl of Minto]]
|year_representative12= 1905-1910
|representative13 = [[Charles Hardinge, 1st Baron Hardinge of Penshurst|The Lord Hardinge of Penshurst]]
|year_representative13= 1910-1916
|representative14 = [[Frederic Thesiger, 1st Viscount Chelmsford|The Lord Chelmsford]]
|year_representative14= 1916-1921
|representative15 = [[Rufus Isaacs, 1st Marquess of Reading|The Earl of Reading]]
|year_representative15= 1921-1926
|representative16 = [[E.F.L. Wood, 1st Earl of Halifax|The Baron Irwin]]
|year_representative16= 1926-1931
|representative17 = [[Freeman Freeman-Thomas, 1st Marquess of Willingdon|The Earl of Willingdon]]
|year_representative17= 1931-1936
|representative18 = [[Victor Hope, 2nd Marquess of Linlithgow|The Marquess of Linlithgow]]
|year_representative18= 1936-1943
|representative19 = [[Archibald Wavell, 1st Earl Wavell|The Viscount Wavell]]
|year_representative19= 1943-1947
|representative20 = [[Louis Mountbatten, 1st Earl Mountbatten of Burma|The Viscount Mountbatten of Burma]]
|year_representative20= 1947
|title_representative = [[Governor-General of India|Viceroy]]²
|<!--- Area and population of a given year --->
|stat_year1 = <!--- year of the statistic, specify either area, population or both --->
|stat_area1 = <!--- area in square kílometres (w/o commas or spaces), area in square miles is calculated --->
|stat_pop1 = <!--- population (w/o commas or spaces), population density is calculated if area is also given --->
|footnotes= ¹ Reigned as [[Emperor of India|Empress of India]] from May 1, 1876, before that as Queen of the United Kingdom.<br>² Governor-General and Viceroy of India
}}
{{HistoryOfSouthAsia}}
'''British Raj''' (''rāj'', lit. "reign" in [[Hindustani language|Hindustani]]<ref>Oxford English Dictionary, 2nd edition, 1989: from [[Sanskrit|Skr.]] ''rāj'': to reign, rule; cognate with [[Latin|L.]] ''rēx'', ''rēg-is'', [[Old Irish|OIr.]] ''rī'', ''rīg'' king (see RICH).</ref>) primarily refers to the British rule in the [[Indian subcontinent]] between 1858 and 1947;<ref>Oxford English Dictionary, 2nd edition, 1989. "b. spec. the British dominion or rule in the Indian sub-continent (before 1947). In full, ''British raj''.</ref> it can also refer to the ''region'' of the rule, or the ''period'' of dominion.<ref>Oxford English Dictionary, 2nd edition, 1989. Examples: '''1955''' ''Times'' 25 Aug. 9/7 It was effective against the British raj in India, and the conclusion drawn here is that the British knew that they were wrong. '''1969''' R. MILLAR ''Kut'' xv. 288 Sir Stanley Maude had taken command in Mesopotamia, displacing the raj of antique Indian Army commanders. '''1975''' H. R. ISAACS in H. M. Patel et al. ''Say not the Struggle Nought Availeth'' 251 The post-independence régime in all its incarnations since the passing of the British Raj.</ref> The region, commonly called '''India''' in contemporary usage, included areas directly administered by the [[United Kingdom]]<ref>First the [[United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland]] then, after 1927, the [[United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland]]</ref> (contemporaneously, "British India") as well as the [[princely states]] ruled by individual rulers under the [[paramountcy]] of the [[British Crown]]. After 1876, the resulting [[polity|political union]] was officially called the '''Indian Empire''' and issued passports under that name. As ''India'', it was a [[League of Nations members#1920: founder members|founding member]] of the [[League of Nations]], and a member nation of the [[Summer Olympics]] in 1900, 1920, 1928, 1932, and 1936.
The system of governance was instituted in 1858, when the [[Company rule in India|rule]] of the [[British East India Company]] was transferred to the Crown in the person of [[Victoria of the United Kingdom|Queen Victoria]] (and who, in 1876, was proclaimed [[Emperor of India|Empress of India]]), and lasted until 1947, when the British Indian Empire was [[Partition of India|partitioned]] into two sovereign [[dominion]] states, the ''[[Union of India]]'' (later the [[Republic of India]]) and the ''[[Dominion of Pakistan]]'' (later the [[Islamic Republic of Pakistan]] and the [[People's Republic of Bangladesh]]).
==Geographical extent of the Raj==
The British ''Indian Empire'' included the regions of present-day [[India]], [[Pakistan]], and [[Bangladesh]], and, in addition, at various times, [[Aden Colony|Aden]] (from 1858 to 1937), [[Lower Burma]] (from 1858 to 1937), [[Upper Burma]] (from 1886 to 1937), [[British Somaliland]] (briefly from 1884 to 1898), and [[Singapore]] (briefly from 1858 to 1867). Burma was directly administered by the British Crown from 1937 until its independence in 1948. Among other countries in the region, [[Ceylon]] (now [[Sri Lanka]]), which was ceded to the [[United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland|United Kingdom]] in 1802 under the [[Treaty of Amiens]], was a British [[Crown Colony]], but not part of British India. The kingdoms of [[Nepal]] and [[Bhutan]], both having fought wars with the British and subsequently signed treaties with them, were recognized by the British as independent states.<ref>[http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-23632 "Nepal."] Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.</ref><ref> [http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-25008 "Bhutan."] Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.</ref> The Kingdom of [[Sikkim]] was established as a [[princely state]] after the ''Anglo-Sikkimese Treaty'' of 1861, however, the issue of sovereignty was left undefined.<ref> "Sikkim." Encyclopædia Britannica. 2007. Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 5 Aug. 2007 <http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-46212>.</ref> The [[Maldives|Maldive Islands]] were a British [[protectorate]] from 1867 to 1965, but not part of British India.
==British India and the Native States==
The British Indian Empire (contemporaneously ''India'') consisted of two divisions: ''British India'' and the ''Native States'' or ''[[Princely States]]''. In its Interpretation Act of 1889, the British Parliament adopted the following definitions:<ref name=igi-59-60>{{Harvnb|Imperial Gazetteer of India vol. IV|1907|pp=59-60}}</ref><blockquote>
The expression ''British India'' shall mean all territories and places within [[British Crown|Her Majesty's]] dominions which are for the time being governed by Her Majesty through the [[Governor-General of India]], or through any Governor or other officer subordinate to the Governor-General of India. The expression ''India'' shall mean British India together with any territories of an [[Princely States|Native Prince or Chief]] under the [[suzerainty]] of Her Majesty, exercised through the Governor-General of India, or through any Governor or other officer subordinate to the Governor-General of India. '''(52 & 53 Vict. cap. 63, sec. 18)'''</blockquote>
Suzerainty over 175 Princely States, including some of the largest and most important, was exercised (in the name of the [[British Crown]]) by central government of British India under the Viceroy; the remaining, approximately 500, states were dependents of the provincial governments of British India under a Governor, Lieutenant-Governor, or Chief Commissioner (as the case might have been).<ref name=igi-60>{{Harvnb|Imperial Gazetteer of India vol. IV|1907|p=60}}</ref> A clear distinction between "dominion" and "suzerainty" was supplied by the jurisdiction of the courts of law: the law of British India rested upon the laws passed by the British Parliament and the legislative powers those laws vested in the various governments of British India, both central and local; in contrast, the courts of the Princely States existed under the authority of the respective rulers of those states.<ref name=igi-60/>
==Administrative Divisions of British India==
[[Image:BritishIndianEmpireandEnvirons2.jpg|thumb|left|The [[British Raj|British ''Indian Empire'']] and surrounding countries in 1909.]]
{{main|Provinces of British India}}
===Major Provinces===
At the turn of the 20th century, British India consisted of eight provinces that were administered either by a Governor or a Lieutenant-Governor. The following table lists their areas and populations (but does not include those of the dependent Native States):<ref name=igi-46>{{Harvnb|Imperial Gazetteer of India vol. IV|1907|p=46}}</ref>
During the partition of Bengal (1905–1911), a new province, ''Assam and East Bengal'' was created as a Lieutenant-Governorship. In 1911, ''East Bengal'' was reunited with Bengal, and the new provinces in the east became: Assam, Bengal, Bihar and Orissa.<ref name=igi-46/>
{| class=wikitable
|- valign=bottom
! Province of British India<ref name=igi-46/> !! Area (in thousands of square miles)!! Population (in millions of inhabitants) !! Chief Administrative Officer
|-
| align="center" | [[Burma#Colonial_era_.281886-1948.29|Burma]] ||align="center" | 170 || align="center" | 9 || align="center" | Lieutenant-Governor
|-
| align="center" | [[Bengal Province|Bengal]] (including present-day [[Bangladesh]], [[West Bengal]], [[Bihar]] and [[Orissa]])|| align="center" | 151 || align="center" | 75 || align="center" | Lieutenant-Governor
|-
|align="center" | [[Madras Presidency|Madras]] || align="center" | 142 || align="center" | 38 || align="center" | Governor-in-Council
|-
|align="center" | [[Bombay Presidency|Bombay]] || align="center" | 123 || align="center" | 19 || align="center" | Governor-in-Council
|-
| align="center" | [[United Provinces of Agra and Oudh|United Provinces]] (present-day [[Uttar Pradesh]]) || align="center" | 107 || align="center" | 48 || align="center" | Lieutenant-Governor
|-
| align="center" | [[Central Provinces and Berar|Central Provinces (including Berar)]] || align="center" | 104 || align="center" | 13 || align="center" | Chief Commissioner
|-
|align="center" | [[Punjab (British India)|Punjab]] || align="center" | 97 || align="center" | 20 || align="center" | Lieutenant-Governor
|-
|align="center" | [[Assam#British_Assam|Assam]] || align="center" | 49 || align="center" | 6 || align="center" | Chief Commissioner
|}
===Minor Provinces===
In addition, there were a few minor provinces that were administered by a Chief Commissioner:<ref name=igi-56>{{Harvnb|Imperial Gazetteer of India vol. IV|1907|p=56}}</ref>
{| class=wikitable
|- valign=bottom
! Minor Province<ref name=igi-56/> !! Area (in thousands of square miles)!! Population (in thousands of inhabitants) !! Chief Administrative Officer
|-
| align="center" | [[NWFP#British_era|North West Frontier Province]] ||align="center" | 16 || align="center" | 2,125 || align="center" | Chief Commissioner
|-
| align="center" | [[Baluchistan (Chief Commissioners Province)|British Baluchistan (British and Administered territory)]] || align="center" | 46 || align="center" | 308 || align="center" | British Political Agent in Baluchistan served as ''ex-officio'' Chief Commissioner
|-
|align="center" | [[Coorg]] || align="center" | 1.6 || align="center" | 181 || align="center" | British Resident in Mysore served as ''ex-officio'' Chief Commissioner
|-
|align="center" | [[Ajmer-Merwara]] || align="center" | 2.7 || align="center" | 477 || align="center" | British Political Agent in Rajputana served as ''ex-officio'' Chief Commissioner
|-
|align="center" | [[Andaman and Nicobar Islands]] || align="center" | 3 || align="center" | 25 || align="center" | Chief Commissioner
|}
==The Native States==
The native states included five large states that were in "direct political relations" with the Government of India. Of these, Nepal, differed from others, in that it was independent in its internal administration, but was represented internationally by the Government of India.<ref name=igi-92>{{Harvnb|Imperial Gazetteer of India vol. IV|1907|p=92}}</ref>
===Under the Central Government===
;Five Large States
{|class="navbox collapsible collapsed" style="text-align: left;"
|-
! Please expand to view the table for the five large states
|-
|
{| cellspacing="7"
| valign="top" |
{| cellpadding="3" border="1" class="wikitable"
! bgcolor="#DDDDDD" colspan="7" | Five large Princely States in direct political relations with the Central Government in India<ref name=igi-92/>
|-
! Name of Princely State !! Area in Square Miles !! Population in 1901 !! Approximate Revenue of the State (in hundred thousand [[Rupees]])!! Title, ethnicity, and religion of ruler !! Gun-Salute for Ruler !! Designation of local political officer
|-
| align="center" | [[Nepal]] || align="center" | 54,000 || align="center" | 4 million (Hindus and Buddhists) || align="center" | 150 || align="center" | ''Maharaja'', Rajput, Hindu || align="center" | 21 || align="center" | Resident in Nepal
|-
| align="center" | [[Hyderabad State|Hyderabad]] || align="center" | 82,698 || align="center" | approx. 11.14 million (Hindus and Muslims) || align="center" | 359 || align="center" | ''Nizam'', Turk, Sunni Muslim || align="center" | 21 || align="center" | Resident in Hyderabad
|-
|align="center" | [[Kingdom of Mysore|Mysore]] || align="center" | 29,444 || align="center" | 5.53 million (mostly Hindu) || align="center" | 190 || align="center" | ''Maharaja'', Kshattriya, Hindu || align="center" | 21 || align="center" | Resident in Mysore
|-
| align="center" | [[Baroda Residency|Baroda]] || align="center" | 8,099 || align="center" | 1.95 million (chiefly Hindu) || align="center" | 123 || align="center" | ''Maharaja'', Maratha, Hindu || align="center" | 21 || align="center" | Resident at Baroda
|-
| align="center" | [[Kashmir and Jammu]] || align="center" | 80,900 || align="center" | 2.91 million including Gilgit, Skardu, Ladakh, and Punch (Chiefly Muslim) || align="center" | 87 || align="center" | ''Maharaja'', Dogra Rajput, Hindu || align="center" | 19 (21 within Kashmir) || align="center" | Resident in Kashmir
|-
! Total !! 255,141 !! 25.54 million !! 909 !! colspan="3" |
|}
|}
|}
;[[Central India Agency]]
{|class="navbox collapsible collapsed" style="text-align: left;"
|-
! Please expand to view the table for the Central India Agency
|-
|
{| cellspacing="7"
| valign="top" |
{| cellpadding="3" border="1" class="wikitable"
! bgcolor="#DDDDDD" colspan="7" | 148 Princely States forming the Central India Agency<ref name=igi-93>{{Harvnb|Imperial Gazetteer of India vol. IV|1907|p=93}}</ref>
|-
! Name of Princely State !! Area in Square Miles !! Population in 1901 !! Approximate Revenue of the State (in hundred thousand [[Rupees]])!! Title, ethnicity, and religion of ruler !! Gun-Salute for Ruler !! Designation of local political officer
|-
| align="center" | [[Gwalior State|Gwalior]] || align="center" | 25,041 || align="center" | 2.93 million (Chiefly Hindus) || align="center" | 163 || align="center" | ''[[Maharaja]]'', [[Maratha]], [[Hindu]] || align="center" | 19 (21 within Gwalior) || align="center" | [[Resident_%28title%29#Residents_in_.28British.29_Asia|Resident]] at Gwalior
|-
| align="center" | [[Holkar|Indore]] || align="center" | 9,500 || align="center" | 0.85 million (Chiefly Hindu) || align="center" | 72 || align="center" | ''Maharaja'', Maratha, Hindu || align="center" | 19 (21 within Indore) || align="center" | Resident at Indore
|-
|align="center" | [[Bhopal (state)|Bhopal]] || align="center" | 6,859 || align="center" | 0.66 million (mostly Hindu) || align="center" | 29 || align="center" | ''[[Nawab]]''(m)/''[[Begum]]''(f), [[Pashtun people|Afghan]], [[Muslim]] || align="center" | 19 (21 within Bhopal) || align="center" | Political Agent in Bhopal
|-
| align="center" | [[Rewa (princely state)|Rewah]] || align="center" | 13,000 || align="center" | 1.33 million (chiefly Hindu) || align="center" | 29 || align="center" | ''Maharaja'', Baghel Rajput, Hindu || align="center" | 17 || align="center" | Political agent in [[Bagelkhand Agency|Baghelkhand]]
|-
| align="center" | 144 smaller and minor states || align="center" | 22,995 || align="center" | 2.74 million (Chiefly Hindu) || align="center" | 129 || align="center" | || align="center" | || align="center" |
|-
! Total !! 77,395 !! 8.51 million !! 421 !! colspan="3" |
|}
|}
|}
;[[Rajputana Agency]]
{|class="navbox collapsible collapsed" style="text-align: left;"
|-
! Please expand to see view table for the Rajputana Agency
|-
|
{| cellspacing="7"
| valign="top" |
{| cellpadding="3" border="1" class="wikitable"
! bgcolor="#DDDDDD" colspan="7" | 20 Princely States forming the [[Rajputana Agency]]<ref name=igi-94-95>{{Harvnb|Imperial Gazetteer of India vol. IV|1907|pp=94-95}}</ref>
|-
! Name of Princely State !! Area in Square Miles !! Population in 1901 !! Approximate Revenue of the State (in hundred thousand [[Rupees]])!! Title, ethnicity, and religion of ruler !! Gun-Salute for Ruler !! Designation of local political officer
|-
| align="center" | [[Udaipur State|Udaipur (Mewar)]] || align="center" | 12,691 || align="center" | 1.02 million (Chiefly [[Hindus]] and [[Bhil]]s) || align="center" | 24 || align="center" | ''[[Maharana]]'', [[Sisodia]] [[Rajput]], Hindu || align="center" | 21 (including two guns personal to the then ruler) || align="center" | Resident in [[Mewar]]
|-
| align="center" | [[Jaipur State|Jaipur]] || align="center" | 15,579 || align="center" | 2.66 million (Chiefly Hindu) || align="center" | 62 || align="center" | ''[[Maharaja]]'', [[Kachwaha]] [[Rajput]], Hindu || align="center" | 21 (including two guns personal to the then ruler) || align="center" | Resident at Jaipur
|-
|align="center" | [[Jodhpur State|Jodhpur (Marwar)]] || align="center" | 34,963 || align="center" | 1.94 million (mostly Hindu) || align="center" | 56 || align="center" | ''Maharaja'', [[Rathor]] [[Rajput]], Hindu || align="center" | 17 || align="center" | Resident in the Western States of [[Rajputana Agency|Rajputana]]
|-
| align="center" | [[Bikaner (princely state)|Bikaner]] || align="center" | 23,311 || align="center" | 0.58 million (chiefly Hindu) || align="center" | 23 || align="center" | ''Maharaja'', Rathor Rajput, Hindu || align="center" | 17 || align="center" | Political agent in Bikaner
|-
| align="center" | 16 other states || align="center" | 42,374 || align="center" | 3.64 million (Chiefly Hindu) || align="center" | 155 || align="center" | || align="center" | || align="center" |
|-
! Total !! 128,918 !! 9.84 million !! 320 !! colspan="3" |
|}
|}
|}
;[[Baluchistan Agency]]
{|class="navbox collapsible collapsed" style="text-align: left;"
|-
! Please expand to view the table for the Baluchistan Agency
|-
|
{| cellspacing="7"
| valign="top" |
{| cellpadding="3" border="1" class="wikitable"
! bgcolor="#DDDDDD" colspan="7" | 2 Princely States forming the Baluchistan Agency<ref name=igi-96>{{Harvnb|Imperial Gazetteer of India vol. IV|1907|p=96}}</ref>
|-
! Name of Princely State !! Area in Square Miles !! Population in 1901 !! Approximate Revenue of the State (in hundred thousand [[Rupees]])!! Title, ethnicity, and religion of ruler !! Gun-Salute for Ruler !! Designation of local political officer
|-
| align="center" | Kalat || align="center" | 71,593 || align="center" | 0.37 million (Chiefly Sunni Muslims) || align="center" | 8 || align="center" | ''Khan'' or ''Wali'', Brahui, Sunni Muslim || align="center" | 19 || align="center" | Political Agent in Kalat
|-
| align="center" | Las Bela || align="center" | 6,441 || align="center" | 56 thousand (Chiefly Sunni Muslim) || align="center" | 2 || align="center" | ''Jam'', Kureshi Arab, Sunni Muslim || align="center" | || align="center" | Political Agent in Kalat
|-
! Total !! 78,034 !! 0.43 million !! 10 !! colspan="3" |
|}
|}
|}
===Under a Provincial Government===
;[[Burma#Colonial_era_.281886-1948.29|Burma]] (52 States)
{|class="navbox collapsible collapsed" style="text-align: left;"
|-
! Please expand to view the table for Burma(52 States)
|-
|
{| cellspacing="7"
| valign="top" |
{| cellpadding="3" border="1" class="wikitable"
! bgcolor="#DDDDDD" colspan="7" | 52 States in [[Burma#Colonial_era_.281886-1948.29|Burma]]: all except the [[Karen people|Karen]] States were included in British India<ref name=igi-101>{{Harvnb|Imperial Gazetteer of India vol. IV|1907|p=101}}</ref>
|-
! Name of Princely State !! Area in Square Miles !! Population in 1901 !! Approximate Revenue of the State (in hundred thousand [[Rupees]])!! Title, ethnicity, and religion of ruler !! Gun-Salute for Ruler !! Designation of local political officer
|-
| align="center" | [[Hsipaw]] (Thibaw)|| align="center" | 5,086 || align="center" | 105,000 ([[Buddhist]]) || align="center" | 3 || align="center" | ''Sawbwa'', [[Shan]], Buddhist || align="center" | 9 || align="center" | Superintendent, [[Shan State|Northern Shan States]]
|-
|align="center" | [[Kengtung]] || align="center" | 12,000 || align="center" | 190,000 (Buddhist) || align="center" | 1 || align="center" | ''Sawbwa'', Shan, Buddhist || align="center" | 9 || align="center" | Superintendent [[Shan State|Southern Shan States]]
|-
| align="center" | [[Mongnai]]|| align="center" | 2,717 || align="center" | 44,000 (Buddhist) || align="center" | 0.5 || align="center" | ''Sawbwa'', Shan, Buddhist || align="center" | 9 || align="center" | Superintendent Southern Shan States
|-
| align="center" | 5 [[Karen people|Karen]] States|| align="center" | 4,830 || align="center" | 45,795 (Buddhist and Animists) || align="center" | 0.5 || align="center" | || align="center" | || align="center" | Superintendent Southern Shan States
|-
| align="center" | 44 Other States|| align="center" | 42,198 || align="center" | 792,152 (Buddhist and Animist) || align="center" | 8.5 || align="center" | || align="center" | || align="center" |
|-
! Total !! 67,011 !! 1,177,987 !! 13.5 !! colspan="3" |
|}
|}
|}
;[[Bengal Province|Bengal]] (30 States)
{|class="navbox collapsible collapsed" style="text-align: left;"
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{| cellspacing="7"
| valign="top" |
{| cellpadding="3" border="1" class="wikitable"
! bgcolor="#DDDDDD" colspan="7" | 30 States under the suzerainty of the Provincial Government of [[Bengal Province|Bengal]]<ref name=igi-98>{{Harvnb|Imperial Gazetteer of India vol. IV|1907|p=98}}</ref>
|-
! Name of Princely State !! Area in Square Miles !! Population in 1901 !! Approximate Revenue of the State (in hundred thousand [[Rupees]])!! Title, ethnicity, and religion of ruler !! Gun-Salute for Ruler !! Designation of local political officer
|-
| align="center" | [[Sikkim]]|| align="center" | 2,818 || align="center" | 59,014 (chiefly Buddhist and Hindu) || align="center" | 1 || align="center" | ''Maharaja'', Tibetan, Buddhist || align="center" | 15 || align="center" | Political Officer, Sikkim
|-
|align="center" | [[Cooch_Behar_District#Princely_Cooch_Beha|Cooch Behar]] || align="center" | 1,307 || align="center" | 566,974 (chiefly Hindu and Muslim) || align="center" | 24 || align="center" | ''Maharaja'', Kshattriya, Brahmo || align="center" | 13 || align="center" | Commissioner of Rajshahi (''ex officio'' Political Agent)
|-
| align="center" | [[Hill Tippera]] || align="center" | 4,086 || align="center" | 173,325 (chiefly Hindu) || align="center" | 7 || align="center" | ''Raja'', Kshattriya, Hindu || align="center" | 13 || align="center" | Commissioner of Chittagong (''ex officio'' Political Agent)
|-
| align="center" | [[Bhutan]]|| align="center" | 20,000 || align="center" | 250,000 (Buddhist) || align="center" | 2 || align="center" | ''Deb Raja'', Bhotia, Buddhist || align="center" | || align="center" | Commissioner of Rajshahi (''ex officio'' Political Agent)
|-
| align="center" | 26 Other States|| align="center" | 30,441 || align="center" | 2,949,231 || align="center" | 44 || align="center" | || align="center" | || align="center" |
|-
! Total !! 58,652 !! 3,998,544 !! 78 !! colspan="3" |
|}
|}
|}
;[[Madras Presidency|Madras]] (5 States)
{|class="navbox collapsible collapsed" style="text-align: left;"
|-
! Please expand to view the table for Madras (5 States)
|-
|
{| cellspacing="7"
| valign="top" |
{| cellpadding="3" border="1" class="wikitable"
! bgcolor="#DDDDDD" colspan="7" | 5 States under the suzerainty of the Provincial Government of [[Madras Presidency|Madras]]<ref name=igi-96>{{Harvnb|Imperial Gazetteer of India vol. IV|1907|p=96}}</ref>
|-
! Name of Princely State !! Area in Square Miles !! Population in 1901 !! Approximate Revenue of the State (in hundred thousand [[Rupees]])!! Title, ethnicity, and religion of ruler !! [[Gun_salute#In_the_colonial_context|Gun-Salute]] for Ruler !! Designation of local political officer
|-
| align="center" | [[Travancore]] || align="center" | 7,091 || align="center" | 2,952,157 (chiefly Hindu and Christian) || align="center" | 100 || align="center" | ''[[Maharaja]]'', Kshattriya, Hindu || align="center" | 21 (including two guns personal to the then ruler)|| align="center" | Resident in Travancore and Cochin
|-
|align="center" | [[Kingdom of Cochin|Cochin]] || align="center" | 1,362 || align="center" | 812,025 (chiefly Hindu and Christian) || align="center" | 27 || align="center" | ''Raja'', Kshattriya, Hindu || align="center" | 17|| align="center" | Resident in Travancore and Cochin
|-
| align="center" | Padukkottai|| align="center" | 1,100 || align="center" | 380,440 (Hindu) || align="center" | 11 || align="center" | ''Raja'', Kallar, Hindu || align="center" | 11 || align="center" | Collector of Trichinopoly (''ex officio'' Political Agent)
|-
| align="center" | 2 minor states|| align="center" | 416 || align="center" | 43,464 || align="center" | 3 || align="center" | || align="center" | || align="center" |
|-
! Total !! 9,969 !! 4,188,086 !! 141 !! colspan="3" |
|}
|}
|}
;[[Bombay Presidency|Bombay]] (354 States)
{|class="navbox collapsible collapsed" style="text-align: left;"
|-
! Please expand to view the table for Bombay (354 States)
|-
|
{| cellspacing="7"
| valign="top" |
{| cellpadding="3" border="1" class="wikitable"
! bgcolor="#DDDDDD" colspan="7" | 354 states under the suzerainty of the Provincial Government of [[Bombay Presidency|Bombay]]<ref name=igi-97>{{Harvnb|Imperial Gazetteer of India vol. IV|1907|p=97}}</ref>
|-
! Name of Princely State !! Area in Square Miles !! Population in 1901 !! Approximate Revenue of the State (in hundred thousand [[Rupees]])!! Title, ethnicity, and religion of ruler !! Gun-Salute for Ruler !! Designation of local political officer
|-
| align="center" | [[Kolhapur#Kolhapur_as_a_Princely_State|Kolhapur]] || align="center" | 2,855 || align="center" | 910,011 (chiefly [[Hindus]]) || align="center" | 48 || align="center" | ''[[Maharaja]]'', [[Kshatriya]], Hindu || align="center" | 19 || align="center" | Political Agent for Kolhapur
|-
|align="center" | [[Kutch District|Cutch]] || align="center" | 7,616 || align="center" | 488,022 (chiefly Hindus) || align="center" | 20 || align="center" | ''[[Maharao]]'', [[Jadeja]] [[Rajput]], Hindu || align="center" | 17 || align="center" | Political Agent in Cutch
|-
| align="center" | [[Khayrpur (princely state)|Khairpur]]|| align="center" | 6,050 || align="center" | 199,313 (chiefly Muslims) || align="center" | 13 || align="center" | ''[[Mir (title)|Mir]]'', [[Talpur]] [[Baloch]], Muslim || align="center" | 15 || align="center" | Political Agent for Khairpur
|-
| align="center" | [[Junagadh|Junagarh]]|| align="center" | 3,284 || align="center" | 395,428 (chiefly Hindus) || align="center" | 27 || align="center" | ''[[Nawab]]'', [[Pathan]], Muslim || align="center" | 11 || align="center" | Agent to the Governor in Kathiawar
|-
| align="center" | [[Nawanagar|Navanagar]]|| align="center" | 3,791 || align="center" | 336,779 (chiefly Hindus) || align="center" | 31 || align="center" | ''[[Jam Sahib]]'', [[Jadeja]] [[Rajput]], Hindu || align="center" | 11 || align="center" | Agent to the Governor in Kathiawar
|-
| align="center" | 349 other states|| align="center" | 42,165 || align="center" | 4,579,095 || align="center" | 281 || align="center" | || align="center" | || align="center" |
|-
! Total !! 65,761 !! 6,908,648 !! 420 !! colspan="3" |
|}
|}
|}
;[[United Provinces of Agra and Oudh|United Provinces]] (2 States)
{|class="navbox collapsible collapsed" style="text-align: left;"
|-
! Please expand to view the table for the United Provinces (2 States)
|-
|
{| cellspacing="7"
| valign="top" |
{| cellpadding="3" border="1" class="wikitable"
! bgcolor="#DDDDDD" colspan="7" | Two states under the suzerainty of the Provincial Government of the [[United Provinces of Agra and Oudh|United Provinces]]<ref name=igi-99>{{Harvnb|Imperial Gazetteer of India vol. IV|1907|p=99}}</ref>
|-
! Name of Princely State !! Area in Square Miles !! Population in 1901 !! Approximate Revenue of the State (in hundred thousand [[Rupees]])!! Title, ethnicity, and religion of ruler !! [[Gun_salute#In_the_colonial_context|Gun-Salute]] for Ruler !! Designation of local political officer
|-
| align="center" | [[Rampur (Uttar Pradesh)|Rampur]] || align="center" | 899 || align="center" | 533,212 (chiefly [[Hindus]] and [[Muslims]]) || align="center" | 33 || align="center" | ''[[Nawab]]'', [[Pathan]], Muslim || align="center" | 13 || align="center" | [[Commissioner#India|Commissioner]] for [[Bareilly]] (''ex officio'' Political Agent)
|-
|align="center" | [[Tehri_Garhwal#History|Tehri (Garhwal)]] || align="center" | 4,180 || align="center" | 268,885 (chiefly Hindus) || align="center" | 3 || align="center" | ''[[Raja]]'', [[Kshatriya]] Hindu || align="center" | 11 || align="center" | [[Commissioner#India|Commissioner]] of [[Kumaun]] (''ex officio'' Political Agent)
|-
! Total !! 5,079 !! 802,097 !! 36 !! colspan="3" |
|}
|}
|}
;[[Central Provinces and Berar|Central Provinces]] (15 States)
{|class="navbox collapsible collapsed" style="text-align: left;"
|-
! Please expand to view the table for the Central Provinces (15 States)
|-
|
{| cellspacing="7"
| valign="top" |
{| cellpadding="3" border="1" class="wikitable"
! bgcolor="#DDDDDD" colspan="7" | 15 States under the suzerainty of the Provincial Government of the [[Central Provinces and Berar|Central Provinces]]<ref name=igi-102>{{Harvnb|Imperial Gazetteer of India vol. IV|1907|p=102}}</ref>
|-
! Name of Princely State !! Area in Square Miles !! Population in 1901 !! Approximate Revenue of the State (in hundred thousand [[Rupees]])!! Title, ethnicity, and religion of ruler !! [[Gun_salute#In_the_colonial_context|Gun-Salute]] for Ruler !! Designation of local political officer
|-
| align="center" | [[Kalahandi]] || align="center" | 3,745 || align="center" | 284,465 (chiefly Hindus) || align="center" | 4 || align="center" | ''[[Raja]]'', [[Kshatriya]], [[Hindu]] || align="center" | 9 || align="center" | Political Agent for the [[Chhattisgarh Division|Chattisgarh]] [[Feudatory|Feudatories]]
|-
|align="center" | [[Bastar state|Bastar]] || align="center" | 13,062 || align="center" | 306,501 (chiefly Animists) || align="center" | 3 || align="center" | ''Raja'', Kshatriya, Hindu || align="center" | || align="center" | Political Agent for the [[Chhattisgarh Division|Chattisgarh]] [[Feudatory|Feudatories]]
|-
| align="center" | 13 other states|| align="center" | 12,628 || align="center" | 1,339,353 (chiefly Hindus) || align="center" | 16 || align="center" | || align="center" | 11 || align="center" |
|-
! Total !! 29,435 !! 1,996,383 !! 21 !! colspan="3" |
|}
|}
|}
;[[Punjab (British India)|Punjab]] (34 States)
{|class="navbox collapsible collapsed" style="text-align: left;"
|-
! Please expand to view the table for Punjab (34 States)
|-
|
{| cellspacing="7"
| valign="top" |
{| cellpadding="3" border="1" class="wikitable"
! bgcolor="#DDDDDD" colspan="7" | 34 states under the suzerainty of the Provincial Government of the [[Punjab (British India)|Punjab]]<ref name=igi-100>{{Harvnb|Imperial Gazetteer of India vol. IV|1907|p=100}}</ref>
|-
! Name of Princely State !! Area in Square Miles !! Population in 1901 !! Approximate Revenue of the State (in hundred thousand [[Rupees]])!! Title, ethnicity, and religion of ruler !! [[Gun_salute#In_the_colonial_context|Gun-Salute]] for Ruler !! Designation of local political officer
|-
| align="center" | [[Bahawalpur (princely state)|Bahawalpur]] || align="center" | 15,000 || align="center" | 720,877 (chiefly [[Muslims]]) || align="center" | 24 || align="center" | ''[[Nawab]]'', [[Daudpota|Daudputra]], Muslim || align="center" | 17 || align="center" | Political Agent for [[Phulkian]] States and Bahawalpur
|-
|align="center" | [[Patiala]] || align="center" | 5,412 || align="center" | 1,596,692 (chiefly Hindus and Sikhs) || align="center" | 57 || align="center" | ''[[Maharaja]]'', Sidhu Jat, Sikh || align="center" | 17 || align="center" | Political Agent for Phulkian States and Bahawalpur
|-
| align="center" | [[Nabha State|Nabha]] || align="center" | 928 || align="center" | 297,949 (chiefly Hindus and Sikhs) || align="center" | 12 || align="center" | ''[[Raja]]'', Sidhu Jat, Sikh || align="center" | 15 (including 4 guns personal to the then ruler|| align="center" | Political Agent for Phulkian States and Bahawalpur
|-
| align="center" | [[Jind]] || align="center" | 1,259 || align="center" | 282,003 (chiefly Hindus and Sikhs) || align="center" | 15 || align="center" | ''[[Raja]]'', Sidhu Jat, Sikh || align="center" | 11 || align="center" | Political Agent for Phulkian States and Bahawalpur
|-
| align="center" | [[Kapurthala]] || align="center" | 630 || align="center" | 314,351 (chiefly Muslims and Hindus) || align="center" | 13 || align="center" | ''Raja'', Ahluwalia, Sikh || align="center" | 11 || align="center" | Commissioner of the [[Jullundur]] Division (''ex-officio'' Political Agent)
|-
| align="center" | [[Faridkot]] || align="center" | 642 || align="center" | 124,912 (Sikhs, Hindus, and Muslims) || align="center" | 4 || align="center" | ''Raja'', Barar Jat, Sikh || align="center" | 11 || align="center" | Commissioner of the Jullundur Division (''ex-officio'' Political Agent)
|-
| align="center" | 28 other states|| align="center" | 12,661 || align="center" | 1,087,614 || align="center" | 30 || align="center" | || align="center" | || align="center" |
|-
! Total !! 36,532 !! 4,424,398 !! 155 !! colspan="3" |
|}
|}
|}
;[[Assam#British_Assam|Assam]] (26 States)
{|class="navbox collapsible collapsed" style="text-align: left;"
|-
! Please expand to view the table for Assam (26 States)
|-
|
{| cellspacing="7"
| valign="top" |
{| cellpadding="3" border="1" class="wikitable"
! bgcolor="#DDDDDD" colspan="7" | 26 States under the suzerainty of the Provincial Government of [[Assam#British_Assam|Assam]]<ref name=igi-103>{{Harvnb|Imperial Gazetteer of India vol. IV|1907|p=103}}</ref>
|-
! Name of Princely State !! Area in Square Miles !! Population in 1901 !! Approximate Revenue of the State (in hundred thousand [[Rupees]])!! Title, ethnicity, and religion of ruler !! [[Gun_salute#In_the_colonial_context|Gun-Salute]] for Ruler !! Designation of local political officer
|-
| align="center" | [[History of Manipur|Manipur]] || align="center" | 8,456 || align="center" | 284,465 (chiefly Hindus and Animists) || align="center" | 4 || align="center" | ''[[Raja]]'', [[Kshatriya]], Hindu || align="center" | 11 || align="center" | Political Agent in Manipur
|-
|align="center" | [[Khasi Hill States|25 Khasi States]] || align="center" | 3,900 || align="center" | 110,519 (Khasis and Christians) || align="center" | 0.5 || align="center" | || align="center" | || align="center" | Deputy Commissioner, Khasi and Jaintia Hills
|-
! Total !! 12,356 !! 394,984 !! 4.5 !! colspan="3" |
|}
|}
|}
==Organization of the British Raj==
[[Image:Image victoria proclamation1858c.JPG|right|thumb|The proclamation to the "Princes, Chiefs, and People of India," issued by [[Queen Victoria]] on November 1, 1858. "We hold ourselves bound to the natives of our Indian territories by the same obligation of duty which bind us to all our other subjects." (p. 2)]]
[[Image:Victoria empress india1.jpg|right|thumb|An 1887 souvenir portrait of Queen Victoria as [[Empress of India]], a full 30 years after the Great Uprising.]]
Following the [[Indian Rebellion of 1857]], the [[Government of India Act 1858|Act for the Better Government of India (1858)]] made changes in the governance of India at three levels: in the imperial government in [[London]], in the central government in [[Calcutta]], and in the provincial governments in the presidencies (and later in the provinces).<ref name=moore-general>{{Harvnb|Moore|2001a|pp=424-426}}</ref>
In London, it provided for a cabinet-level [[Secretary of State for India]] and a fifteen-member [[Council of India]], whose members were required, as one prerequisite of membership, to have spent at least ten years in India and to have done so no more than ten years before.<ref name=moore-424>{{Harvnb|Moore|2001a|p=424}}</ref> Although the Secretary of State formulated the policy instructions to be communicated to India, he was required in most instances to consult the Council, but especially so in matters relating to spending of Indian revenues.<ref name=moore-general/> The Act envisaged a system of "double government" in which the Council ideally served both as a check on excesses in imperial policy-making and as a body of up-to-date expertise on India.<ref name=moore-general/> However, the Secretary of State also had special emergency powers that allowed him to make unilateral decisions, and, in reality, the Council's expertise was sometimes outdated.<ref>{{Harvnb|Brown|1994|p=96}}</ref> From 1858 until 1947, twenty seven individuals would serve as Secretary of State for India and direct the [[India Office]]; these included: Sir [[Charles Wood, 1st Viscount Halifax|Charles Wood]] ([[1859]] - [[1866]]) ,
[[Robert Arthur Talbot Gascoyne-Cecil, 3rd Marquess of Salisbury|Marquess of Salisbury]] ([[1874]] - [[1878]]) (later three-time Prime Minister of Britain), [[John Morley]] ([[1905]] - [[1910]]) (initiator of the [[Minto-Morley Reforms]]), [[Edwin Samuel Montagu|E. S. Montagu]] ([[1917]] - [[1922]]) (an architect of the [[Montagu-Chelmsford reforms]]), and [[Frederick Pethick-Lawrence]] ([[1945]] - [[1947]]) (head of the [[1946 Cabinet Mission to India]]). The size of the advisory Council would be reduced over the next half-century, but its powers would remain unchanged; in 1907, for the first time, two Indians would be appointed to the Council.<ref name=moore-426>{{Harvnb|Moore|2001a|p=426}}</ref>
In Calcutta, the [[Governor-General of India|Governor-General]] remained head of the Government of India and now was more commonly called the [[Viceroy]] on account of his secondary role as the [[British Crown|Crown]]'s representative to the nominally sovereign [[princely states]]; he was, however, now responsible to the Secretary of State in London and through him to [[British Parliament]]. A system of "double government" had already been in place in the [[Company rule in India|East India Company rule in India]] from the time of Pitt's [[Pitt's India Act|India Act of 1784]].<ref name=moore-426/> The Governor-General in the capital, Calcutta, and the Governor in a subordinate presidency ([[Madras Presidency|Madras]] or [[Bombay Presidency|Bombay]]) was each required to consult his advisory council; executive orders in Calcutta, for example, were issued in the name of "Governor-General-in-Council" (''i.e.''the Governor-General with the advice of the Council).<ref name=moore-426/> The Company's system of "double government" had its critics, since, from the time of the system's inception, there had been been intermittent feuding between the Governor-General and his Council; still, the Act of 1858 made no major changes in governance<ref name=moore-426/> However, in the years immediately thereafter, which were also the years of post-rebellion reconstruction, the Viceroy Lord Canning found the collective decision-making of the Council to be too time-consuming for the pressing tasks ahead.<ref name=moore-426/> He therefore requested the "portfolio system" of an ''[[Executive Council]]'' in which the business of each government department (the "portfolio") was assigned to and became the responsibility of a single Council member.<ref name=moore-426/> Routine departmental decisions were made exclusively by the member, however, important decisions required the consent of the Governor-General and, in the absence such consent, required discussion by the entire Executive Council. This innovation in Indian governance was promulgated in the [[Indian Councils Act 1861|Indian Councils Act of 1861]].
If the Government of India needed to enact new laws, the Councils Act allowed for a ''Legislative Council''—an expansion of the Executive Council by up to twelve additional members, each appointed to a two-year term—with half the members consisting of British officials of the government (termed ''official'') and allowed to vote, and the other half, comprising Indians and domiciled Britons in India (termed ''non-official'') and serving only in an advisory capacity.<ref>{{Harvnb|Moore|2001a|p=426}}, {{Harvnb|Metcalf|Metcalf|2006|p=104}}</ref> All laws enacted by ''Legislative Councils'' in India, whether by the [[Imperial Legislative Council]] in Calcutta or by the provincial ones in Madras and Bombay, required the final assent of the Secretary of State in London; this prompted Sir Charles Wood, the second Secretary of State, to describe the Government of India as "a despotism controlled from home."<ref>Quoted in {{Harvnb|Moore|2001a|p=426}}</ref> Moreover, although the appointment of Indians to the Legislative Council was a response to calls after the [[Indian rebellion of 1857|1857 rebellion]], most notably by Sir [[Sayyid Ahmad Khan]], for more consultation with Indians, the Indians so appointed were from the landed aristocracy, often chosen for their loyalty, and far from representative.<ref>{{Harvnb|Peers|2006|p=76}}, {{Harvnb|Metcalf|Metcalf|2006|p=104}}, {{Harvnb|Spear|1990|p=149}}</ref> Even so, the "tiny advances in the practise of representative government were intended to provide safety valves for the expression of public opinion which had been so badly misjudged before the rebellion." ({{Harvnb|Bayly|1990|p=195}}). Indian affairs now also came to be more closely examined in the British parliament and more widely discussed in the British press.<ref>{{Harvnb|Peers|2006|p=72}}, {{Harvnb|Bayly|1990|p=72}}</ref>
Although the Great Uprising of 1857 had shaken the British enterprise in India, it had not derailed it. After the rebellion, the British became more circumspect. Much thought was devoted to the causes of the rebellion, and from it three main lessons were drawn. At a more practical level, it was felt that there needed to be more communication and camaraderie between the British and Indians; not just between British army officers and their Indian staff, but in civilian life as well. The Indian army was completely reorganised: units composed of the Muslims and Brahmins of the [[United Provinces of Agra and Oudh]], who had formed the core of the rebellion, were disbanded.<ref name=spear147>{{Harvnb|Spear|1990|p=147}}</ref> New regiments, like the Sikhs and Baluchis, composed of Indians who, in British estimation, had demonstrated steadfastness, were formed. From then on, the Indian army was to remain unchanged in its organization until 1947.<ref name=spear147-148>{{Harvnb|Spear|1990|pp=147-148}}</ref>
It was also felt that both the princes and the large land-holders, by not joining the rebellion, had proved to be, in [[Lord Canning]]'s words, "breakwaters in a storm."<ref name=spear147/> They too were rewarded in the new British Raj, by being officially recognised in the treaties each state now signed with the [[British Crown|Crown]].<ref name=spear147-148/> At the same time, it was felt that the peasants, for whose benefit the large land-reforms of the United Provinces had been undertaken, had shown disloyalty, by, in many cases, fighting for their former landlords against the British. Consequently, no more land reforms were implemented for the next 90 years: Bengal and Bihar were to remain the realms of large land holdings (unlike the Punjab and [[Uttar Pradesh]]).<ref name=spear147-148/>
Lastly, the British felt disenchanted with Indian reaction to social change. Until the rebellion, they had enthusiastically pushed through social reform, like the ban on ''[[suttee]]'' by [[Lord William Bentinck]].<ref name=spear147/> It was now felt that traditions and customs in India were too strong and too rigid to be changed easily; consequently, no more British social interventions were made, especially in matters dealing with religion, even when the British felt very strongly about the issue (as in the instance of the remarriage of Hindu child widows).<ref name=spear147-148/>
==Famines, Epidemics, and Public Health==
{{main|Famines, Epidemics, and Public Health in the British Raj|Timeline of major famines in India during British rule (1765 to 1947)|Chalisa famine| Doji bara famine|Agra famine of 1837–38|Orissa Famine of 1866|Rajputana famine of 1869|Bihar famine of 1873–74|Great Famine of 1876–78|Indian famine of 1896–97}}
==A timeline==
{{underconstruction}}
{| class=wikitable
|- valign=bottom
! Viceroy !! Period of Tenure!! Events/Accomplishments
|-
| [[Charles Canning, 1st Earl Canning|Charles Canning]]|| [[1 November]] [[1858]]–[[21 March]] [[1862]] || [[1858]] reorganization of [[British Indian Army]] (contemporaneously and hereafter [[British Indian Army|Indian Army]]) <br> Construction begins (1860): [[University of Bombay]], [[University of Madras]], and [[University of Calcutta]] <br> [[Indian Penal Code]] passed into law in 1860.<br> Upper ''[[Doab]]'' famine of 1860–61 <br> [[Indian Councils Act 1861]] <br> Establishment of [[Archaeological Survey of India]] in 1861 <br> [[James Wilson (UK politician)|James Wilson]], financial member of [[Council of India]] reorganizes [[customs]], imposes [[income tax]], creates [[paper currency]]. <br> Indian Police Act of 1861, creation of [[Indian Police Service]].
|-
| [[James Bruce, 8th Earl of Elgin|Lord Elgin]] || [[21 March]] [[1862]]–[[20 November]] [[1863]]|| Dies prematurely in [[Dharamsala]]
|-
| Sir [[John Lawrence, 1st Baron Lawrence|John Lawrence]] || [[12 January]] [[1864]]–[[12 January]] [[1869]] || [[Duar War|Anglo-Bhutan Duar War]] ([[1864]]–[[1865]])<br> [[Orissa famine of 1866]] <br> [[Rajputana famine of 1869]]<br> Creation of [[Department of Irrigation]]. <br> Creation of [[Imperial Forestry Service]] in 1867 (now [[Indian Forest Service]]).
|-
| [[Richard Southwell Bourke, 6th Earl of Mayo|Lord Mayo]] || [[12 January]] [[1869]]–[[8 February]] [[1872]] || Creation of [[Department of Agriculture]] (now [[Ministry of Agriculture (India)|Ministry of Agriculture]]) <br> Major extension of railways, roads, and canals <br> [[Indian Councils Act of 1870]] <br> Creation of [[Andaman and Nicobar Islands]] as a [[Chief Commissioner]]ship (1872). <br>Assassination of Lord Mayo in the Andamans.
|-
| [[Thomas Baring, 1st Earl of Northbrook|Lord Northbrook]] || [[3 May]] [[1872]]–[[12 April]] [[1876]]|| Mortalities in [[Bihar famine of 1873–74]] prevented by importation of rice from Burma. <br> [[Gaikwad of Baroda]] dethroned for misgovernment; dominions continued to a child ruler. <br> [[Indian Councils Act of 1874]] <br> Visit of the [[Prince of Wales]], future [[Edward VII]] in 1875–76.
|-
| [[Robert Bulwer-Lytton, 1st Earl of Lytton|Lord Lytton]] || [[12 April]] [[1876]]–[[8 June]] [[1880]] || [[Baluchistan (Chief Commissioners Province)|Baluchistan]] established as a [[Chief Commissioner]]ship<br> [[Queen Victoria]] (in absentia) proclaimed [[Empress of India]] at [[Delhi Durbar|Delhi Durbar of 1877]]. <br> [[Great Famine of 1876–78]]: 5.25 million dead; reduced relief offered at expense of [[Rupee|Rs.]] 8 [[crore]]. <br> Creation of [[Famine Commission of 1878–80]] under Sir [[Richard Strachey]]. <br> [[Indian Forest Act of 1878]] <br> [[Second Anglo-Afghan War]].
|-
| [[George Robinson, 1st Marquess of Ripon|Lord Ripon]] || [[8 June]] [[1880]]–[[13 December]] [[1884]] || End of [[Second Anglo-Afghan War]]. <br> Repeal of [[Vernacular Press Act of 1878]]. Compromise on the [[Ilbert Bill]].<br> [[Local Government Acts]] extend self-government from towns to country. <br> [[University of Punjab]] established in [[Lahore]] in 1882 <br> [[Famine Code]] promulgated in 1883 by the Government of India. <br> Creation of the [[Education Commission]]. Creation of indigenous schools, especially for Muslims. <br> Repeal of import duties on cotton and of most tariffs. Railway extension.
|-
| [[Frederick Hamilton-Temple-Blackwood, 1st Marquess of Dufferin and Ava|Lord Dufferin]] || [[13 December]] [[1884]]–[[10 December]] [[1888]] || Passage of [[Bengal Tenancy Bill]] <br> [[Third Anglo-Burmese War]]. <br> [[Joint Anglo-Russian Boundary Commission]] appointed for the Afghan frontier. Russian attack on Afghans at [[Panjdeh]] (1885). The [[Great Game]] in full play. <br> Report of [[Public Services Commission of 1886-87]], creation of [[Imperial Civil Service]] (later [[Indian Civil Service]], and today [[Indian Administrative Service]]) <br> [[University of Allahabad]] established in 1887 <br> Queen Victoria's Jubilee, 1887.
|-
| [[Henry Petty-Fitzmaurice, 5th Marquess of Lansdowne|Lord Lansdowne]] || [[10 December]] [[1888]]–[[11 October]] [[1894]] || Strengthening of NW Frontier defense. Creation of [[Imperial Service Troops]] consisting of regiments contributed by the [[princely states]]. <br> [[Gilgit Agency]] leased in 1899 <br> British Parliament passes [[Indian Councils Act of 1892]] opening the [[Imperial Legislative Council]] to Indians. <br> Revolution in [[princely state]] of [[Manipur]] and subsequent reinstatement of ruler. <br> High point of the [[Great Game]]. Establishment of the [[Durand Line]] between British India and [[Afghanistan]], <br> Railways, roads, and irrigation works begun in [[Burma]]. Border between Burma and [[Siam]] finalized in 1893. <br> [[Fall of the Rupee]], resulting from the steady depreciation of silver currency worldwide (1873-93). <br> [[Indian Prisons Act of 1894]]
|-
| [[Victor Bruce, 9th Earl of Elgin|Lord Elgin]] || [[11 October]] [[1894]]–[[6 January]] [[1899]]||Reorganization of [[British Indian Army|Indian Army]] (from Presidency System to the four Commands). <br> Pamir agreement Russia, 1895 <br> The [[Chitral Campaign]] (1895), the [[Tirah Campaign]] (1896-97) <br> [[Indian famine of 1896–97]] beginning in [[Bundelkhand]]. <br> [[Bubonic plague in Bombay (1896)]], [[Bubonic plague in Calcutta (1898)]]; riots in wake of plague prevention measures. <br> Establishment of [[Provincial Legislative Councils]] in [[Burma]] and Punjab; the former a new Lieutenant Governorship.
|-
| [[George Curzon, 1st Marquess Curzon of Kedleston|Lord Curzon]] || [[6 January]] [[1899]]–[[18 November]] [[1905]]|| Creation of the [[NWFP|North West Frontier Province]] under a [[Chief Commissioner]] (1901). <br> [[Famine of 1899-1900]], the worst yet on record. <br> Return of the [[bubonic plague]], 1 million deaths<br> [[Financial Reform Act of 1899]]; [[Gold Reserve Fund]] created for India. <br> [[Punjab Land Alienation Act]] <br> Inauguration of [[Ministry of Commerce and Industry (India)|Department (now Ministry) of Commerce and Industry]].<br> Death of [[Queen Victoria]] (1901); dedication of the [[Victoria Memorial (India)|Victoria Memorial Hall]], [[Calcutta]] as a national gallery of Indian antiquities, art, and history. <br> [[Delhi Durbar|Coronation Durbar in Delhi (1903)]]; [[Edward VII]] (in absentia) proclaimed [[Emperor of India]].<br> [[Francis Younghusband]]'s [[British expedition to Tibet]] (1903-04) <br> [[North-Western Provinces]] (previously [[Ceded and Conquered Provinces]]) and [[Awadh|Oudh]] renamed [[United Provinces of Agra and Oudh|United Provinces]] in 1904 <br> [[Reorganization of Indian Universities Act]] (1904). <br> Systemization of preservation and restoration of ancient monuments by [[Archaeological Survey of India]] with [[Indian Ancient Monument Preservation Act]]. <br> Inauguration of agricultural banking with [[Cooperative Credit Societies Act of 1904]] <br> [[Partition of Bengal (1905)]]; new province of [[East Bengal and Assam]] under a Lieutenant-Governor.
|-
| [[Gilbert Elliot-Murray-Kynynmound, 4th Earl of Minto|Lord Minto]] || [[18 November]] [[1905]]–[[23 November]] [[1910]] || Creation of the [[Railway Board]] <br> [[Anglo-Russian Convention of 1907]] <br> [[Government of India Act of 1909]] (also Minto-Morley Reforms) <br> Appointment of [[Indian Factories Commission]] in 1909.<br> Establishment of [[Department of Education]] in 1910 (now [[Ministry of Education (India)|Ministry of Education]])
|-
| [[Charles Hardinge, 1st Baron Hardinge of Penshurst|Lord Hardinge]] || [[23 November]] [[1910]]–[[4 April]] [[1916]] || Visit of [[George V of the United Kingdom|King George V]] and [[Mary of Teck|Queen Mary]] in 1911: commemoration as [[Emperor of India|Emperor and Empress of India]] at last [[Delhi Durbar]]<br> King George V announces creation of new city of [[New Delhi]] to replace [[Calcutta]] as capital of India.<br> [[Indian High Courts Act of 1911]] <br> [[Indian Factories Act of 1911]] <br> [[Construction of New Delhi, 1912-1929]] <br> [[World War I]], [[British Indian Army|Indian Army]] in: [[Western Front (World War I)|Western Front, Belgium, 1914]]; [[German East Africa]] ([[Battle of Tanga|Battle of Tanga, 1914]]); [[Mesopotamian Campaign]] ([[Battle of Ctesiphon (1915)|Battle of Ctesiphon, 1915]]; [[Siege of Kut|Siege of Kut, 1915-16]]); [[Battle of Gallipoli|Battle of Galliopoli, 1915-16]] <br> Passage of [[Defence of India Act 1915]]
|-
| [[Frederic Thesiger, 1st Viscount Chelmsford|Lord Chelmsford]] || [[4 April]] [[1916]]–[[2 April]] [[1921]] || [[British Indian Army|Indian Army]] in: [[Mesopotamian Campaign]] ([[Fall of Baghdad (1917)|Fall of Baghdad, 1917]]); [[Sinai and Palestine Campaign]] ([[Battle of Megiddo (1918)|Battle of Megiddo, 1918]]) <br> Passage of [[Rowlatt Act|Rowlatt Act, 1919]] <br> [[Government of India Act of 1919]] (also Montagu-Chelmsford Reforms) <br> [[University of Rangoon]] established in 1920.
|-
| [[Rufus Isaacs, 1st Marquess of Reading|Lord Reading]] || [[2 April]] [[1921]]–[[3 April]] [[1926]] || [[University of Delhi]] established in 1922. <br> [[Indian Workers Compensation Act of 1923]]
|-
| [[E. F. L. Wood, 1st Earl of Halifax|Lord Irwin]] || [[3 April]] [[1926]]–[[18 April]] [[1931]] || [[Indian Trade Unions Act of 1926]], [[Indian Forest Act, 1927]] <br> Appointment of [[Royal Commission of Indian Labour, 1929]] <br> [[Round Table Conferences (India)|Indian Constitutional Round Table Conferences, London, 1930-32]], [[Gandhi-Irwin Pact|Gandhi-Irwin Pact, 1931]].
|-
| [[Freeman Freeman-Thomas, 1st Marquess of Willingdon|Lord Willingdon]] || [[18 April]] [[1931]]–[[18 April]] [[1936]] || [[New Delhi]] inaugurated as capital of India, 1931.<br> [[Indian Workmen's Compensation Act of 1933]] <br> [[Indian Factories Act of 1934]] <br> [[Royal Indian Air Force]] created in 1932. <br> [[Indian Military Academy]] established in 1932. <br> [[Government of India Act of 1935]] <br> Creation of [[Reserve Bank of India]]
|-
|[[Victor Hope, 2nd Marquess of Linlithgow|Lord Linlithgow]] || [[18 April]] [[1936]]–[[1 October]] [[1943]] || [[Indian Payment of Wages Act of 1936]] <br> [[Burma]] administered independently after 1937 with creation of new cabinet position [[Secretary_of_State_for_India#Secretaries_of_State_for_India_and_Burma|Secretary of State for India and Burma]] <br> [[Indian Provincial Elections of 1937]] <br> [[Cripps' mission]] to India, 1942.<br> [[British Indian Army|Indian Army]] in [[Middle East Theatre of World War II]] ([[East African Campaign (World War II)|East African campaign, 1940]], [[Anglo-Iraqi War|Anglo-Iraqi War, 1941]], [[Syria-Lebanon campaign|Syria-Lebanon campaign, 1941]], [[Anglo-Soviet invasion of Iran|Anglo-Soviet invasion of Iran, 1941]] <br>
[[British Indian Army|Indian Army]] in [[North African campaign]] ([[Operation Compass]], [[Operation Crusader]], [[First Battle of El Alamein]], [[Second Battle of El Alamein]]) <br> [[British Indian Army|Indian Army]] in [[Battle of Hong Kong]], [[Battle of Malaya]], [[Battle of Singapore]]<br> [[Burma Campaign]] of [[World War II]] begins in 1942.
|-
| [[Archibald Wavell, 1st Earl Wavell|Lord Wavell]] || [[1 October]] [[1943]]–[[21 February]] [[1947]] || [[British Indian Army|Indian Army]] becomes, at 2.5 million men, the largest all-volunteer force in history.<br> [[Burma Campaign|World War II: Burma Campaign, 1943-45]] ([[Battle of Kohima]], [[Battle of Imphal]]) <br> [[Bengal famine of 1943]] <br> [[British Indian Army|Indian Army]] in [[Italian campaign]] ([[Battle of Monte Cassino]]) <br> [[British Labour Party]] wins [[United Kingdom general election, 1945|UK General Election of 1945]] with [[Clement Atlee]] as prime minister.<br> [[1946 Cabinet Mission to India]] <br> [[Indian Elections of 1946]].
|-
| [[Louis Mountbatten, 1st Earl Mountbatten of Burma|Lord Mountbatten]] || [[21 February]] [[1947]]–[[15 August]] [[1947]] || [[Indian Independence Act 1947]] (10 and 11 Geo VI, c. 30) of the British Parliament enacted on 18th July 1947. <br> [[Radcliffe Award]], August 1947 <br> [[Partition of India]] <br> [[India Office]] changed to [[Burma Office]], and [[Secretary_of_State_for_India#Secretaries_of_State_for_India_and_Burma|Secretary of State for India and Burma]] to [[Secretary of State for Burma]].
|}
==History==
{{main|History of the British Raj}}
===Prelude: Company Rule in India===
{{main|Company rule in India}}
Although the [[British East India Company]] had ''administered'' its factory areas in India—beginning with [[Surat]] early in the 17th century, and including by the century's end, [[Fort William, India|Fort William]] near [[Calcutta]], [[Fort St George]] in Madras and the [[Bombay Castle]]—its victory in the [[Battle of Plassey]] in 1757 marked the real beginning of the [[Company rule in India]]. The victory was consolidated in 1764 at the [[Battle of Buxar]] (in [[Bihar]]), when the defeated [[Mughal]] emperor, [[Shah Alam II]], granted the Company the ''Diwani'' ("right to collect land-revenue") in [[Bengal]], [[Bihar]], and [[Orissa]]. The Company soon expanded its territories around its bases in Bombay and Madras: the [[Anglo-Mysore Wars]] (1766–1799) and the [[Anglo-Maratha Wars]] (1772–1818) gave it control over most of India south of the [[Narmada River]].
Earlier, in 1773, the [[Parliament of the United Kingdom|British Parliament]] granted regulatory control over East India Company to the British government and established the post of [[Governor-General of India]], with [[Warren Hastings]] as the first incumbent.<ref>[http://www.indhistory.com/regulating-act.html The Regulating Act - 1773<!-- Bot generated title -->]</ref> In 1784, the British Parliament passed [[Pitt's India Act]] which created a Board of Control for overseeing the administration of East India Company.
Hastings was succeeded in 1784 by [[Cornwallis]], who promulgated the '[[Permanent Settlement|Permanent Settlement of Bengal]]' with the [[zamindar]]s.
<Center>
<Gallery>
Image:India british expansion 1805a.jpg|Map of India showing British Expansion between 1805 and 1910.
Image:Cornwallis.nationalgallery.jpg|[[Charles Cornwallis, 1st Marquess Cornwallis|Lord Cornwallis]], the Governor-General who established the [[Permanent Settlement]] in [[Bengal Presidency|Bengal]].
Image:Richard Colley Wellesley.jpg|[[Richard Wellesley, 1st Marquess Wellesley]], who rapidly expanded the Company's territories with victories in the [[Anglo-Maratha Wars]] and [[Anglo-Mysore Wars]]
Image:Company rule paddy fields madras2.jpg|Paddy fields in the [[Madras Presidency]], ca. 1880. Two-thirds of the presidency fell under the ''[[Ryotwari]]'' land revenue system.
</Gallery>
</Center>
At the turn of the 19th century, Governor-General [[Richard Wellesley, 1st Marquess Wellesley|Wellesley]] began what became two decades of accelerated expansion of Company territories.<ref name=ludden-expansion>{{Harvnb|Ludden|2002|p=133}}</ref> This was achieved either by ''[[subsidiary alliance]]s'' between the Company and local rulers or by direct military annexation. The subsidiary alliances created the [[Princely States]] (or ''Native States'') of the Hindu [[Maharaja]]s and the Muslim [[Nawab]]s, prominent among which were: [[Kingdom of Cochin|Cochin]] (1791), [[Jaipur State|Jaipur]] (1794), [[Travancore]] (1795), [[Hyderabad State|Hyderabad]] (1798), [[Kingdom of Mysore|Mysore]] (1799), [[Cis-Sutlej states|Cis-Sutlej Hill States]] (1815), [[Central India Agency]] (1819), Kutch and Gujarat Gaikwad territories (1819), [[Rajputana]] (1818), and [[Bahawalpur (princely state)|Bahawalpur]] (1833).<ref name=ludden-expansion/> The annexed regions included the ''[[Uttar Pradesh#Modern-colonial|North Western Provinces]]'' (comprising [[Rohilkhand]], [[Gorakhpur]], and the [[Doab]]) (1801), Delhi (1803), and [[Sindh]] (1843). Punjab, [[NWFP|Northwest Frontier Province]], and [[Kashmir]], were annexed after the [[Anglo-Sikh Wars]] in 1849; however, Kashmir was immediately sold under the [[Treaty of Amritsar]] (1850) to the [[Dogra Dynasty]] of [[Jammu]], and thereby became a princely state. In 1854 [[Berar]] was annexed, and the state of [[Awadh|Oudh]] two years later.<ref name=ludden-expansion/>
The East India Company also signed treaties with various Afghan rulers and with [[Ranjit Singh]] of [[Lahore]] to counterbalance the Russian support of [[Iran|Persia's]] plans in western [[Afghanistan]]. In 1839, the Company's effort to more actively support [[Shuja Shah Durrani|Shah Shuja]] as ''Amir'' in [[Afghanistan]], led to the [[First Anglo-Afghan War|First Afghan War]] (1839-42) and resulted in a military disaster for it. As the British expanded their territory in India, so did [[Russia]] in [[Central Asia]] with the taking of [[Bukhara]] and [[Samarkand]] in 1863 and 1868 respectively, and thereby setting the stage for the [[Great Game]] of [[Chinese Turkestan|Central Asia]].<ref>{{Harvnb|Ludden|2002|p=135}}</ref>
In the [[British East India Company#Charter Act 1813|Charter Act of 1813]], the British parliament renewed the Company's charter but terminated its monopoly, opening India to both private investment and missionary work.<ref name=ludden-expansion/> With increased British power in India, supervision of Indian affairs by the [[British Crown]] and [[British parliament|parliament]] increased as well; by the 1820s, British nationals could transact business under the protection of the Crown in the three Company [[presidencies]].<ref name=ludden-expansion/> In the [[British East India Company#Charter Act 1833|Charter Act of 1833]], the British parliament revoked the Company's trade license altogether, making the Company a part of British governance, although the administration of British India remained the province of Company officers.<ref>{{Harvnb|Ludden|2002|p=134}}</ref>
Starting in 1772, the Company began a series of land revenue "settlements," which would create major changes in landed rights and rural economy in India. In 1793, the Governor-General [[Charles Cornwallis, 1st Marquess Cornwallis|Lord Cornwallis]] promulgated the [[Permanent Settlement|permanent settlement]] in the [[Bengal Presidency]], the first socio-economic regulation in colonial India.<ref name=robb-revenue> {{Harvnb|Robb|2004|pp=126-129}}</ref> It was named ''permanent'' because it fixed the land tax in perpetuity in return for landed property rights for a class of intermediaries called [[zamindars]], who thereafter became owners of the land.<ref name=robb-revenue/> It was hoped that knowledge of a fixed government demand would encourage the ''zamindars'' to increase both their average outcrop and the land under cultivation, since they would be able to retain the profits from the increased output; in addition, the land itself would become a marketable form of property that could be purchased, sold, or mortgaged.<ref name=peers47>{{Harvnb|Peers|2006|pp=45-47}}</ref> However, the ''zamindars'' themselves were often unable to meet the increased demands that the Company had placed on them; consequently, many defaulted, and by one estimate, up to one-third of their lands were auctioned during the first three decades following the permanent settlement.<ref>{{Harvnb|Tomlinson|1993|p=43}}</ref> In southern India, [[Thomas Munro]], who would later become Governor of [[Madras Presidency|Madras]], promoted the ''[[ryotwari]]'' system, in which the government settled land-revenue directly with the peasant farmers, or ''ryots''.<ref name=peers47>{{Harvnb|Peers|2006|p=47}}</ref>
Based on the [[utilitarian]] ideas of [[James Mill]], who supervised the Company's land revenue policy during 1819-1830, and [[David Ricardo]]'s [[Law of Rent]], it was considered by its supporters to be both closer to traditional practice and more progressive, allowing the benefits of Company rule to reach the lowest levels of rural society.<ref name=peers47/> However, in spite of the appeal of the ''ryotwari'' system's abstract principles, class hierarchies in southern Indian villages had not entirely disappeared—for example village headmen continued to hold sway—and peasant cultivators came to experience revenue demands they could not meet.<ref> {{Harvnb|Peers|2006|p=47}}, {{Harvnb|Brown|1994|p=65}}</ref>
Land revenue settlements constituted a major administrative activity of the various governments in India under Company rule.<ref name=brown-p67>{{Harvnb|Brown|1994|p=67}}</ref> In all areas other than the [[Bengal Presidency]], land settlement work involved a continually repetitive process of surveying and measuring plots, assessing their quality, and recording landed rights, and constituted a large proportion of the work of [[Indian Civil Service]] officers working for the government.<ref name=brown-p67/> After the Company lost its trading rights, it became the single most important source of government revenue, roughly half of overall revenue in the middle of the 19th century.<ref name=brown-p67/> Since, in many regions, the land tax assessment could be revised, and since it was generally computed at a high level, it created lasting resentment which would later come to a head in the [[Indian Rebellion of 1857|rebellion]] which rocked much of North India in 1857.<ref>{{Harvnb|Metcalf|Metcalf|2006|p=79}}</ref>
===Indian Rebellion of 1857===
{{main|Indian Rebellion of 1857}}
The rebellion began with mutinies by ''[[sepoy]]s'' of the [[Bengal Presidency]] army; in 1857 the presidency consisted of present-day [[Bangladesh]], and the [[India]]n states of [[West Bengal]], [[Bihar]] and [[Uttar Pradesh|UP]]. However, most rebel soldiers were from the [[Uttar Pradesh|UP]] region, and, in particular, from ''Northwest Provinces'' (especially, [[Doab|Ganga-Jumna Doab]]) and [[United Provinces of Agra and Oudh|Oudh]], and many came from landowning families.<ref name=intro-refs>{{Harvnb|Bandyopadhyay|2004|pp=169-172}} {{Harvnb|Bose|Jalal|2003|pp=88-103}} Quote: "The 1857 rebellion was by and large confined to [[Upper Gangetic plains moist deciduous forests|northern Indian Gangetic Plain]] and central India.", {{Harvnb|Brown|1994|pp=85-87}}, and {{Harvnb|Metcalf|Metcalf|2006|pp=100-106}}</ref> Within weeks of the initial mutinies—as the rebel soldiers wrested control of many urban garrisons from the British—the rebellion was joined by various discontented groups in the hinterlands, in both farmed areas and the backwoods. The latter group, forming the ''civilian rebellion'', consisted of feudal nobility, landlords, peasants, rural merchants, and some tribal groups.<ref>{{Harvnb|Metcalf|Metcalf|2006|p=101}}</ref>
<Center>
<Gallery>
Image:Dalhousie.jpg|[[James Broun-Ramsay, 1st Marquess of Dalhousie|Lord Dalhousie]], the Governor-General of India from 1848 to 1856, who devised the [[Doctrine of Lapse]].
Image:1857 rebellion map.jpg|A 1912 map of the Great Uprising of 1857 showing the centres of rebellion including: [[Meerut]], [[Delhi]], [[Cawnpore]] ([[Kanpur]]), [[Lucknow]], [[Jhansi]], and [[Gwalior]].
Image:Rani of jhansi.jpeg|[[Rani Lakshmibai|Lakshmibai, The Rani of Jhansi]], one of the principal leaders of the rebellion who earlier had lost her kingdom as a result of the [[Doctrine of Lapse]].
Image:1857 cashmeri gate delhi2.jpg|Mortar damage to Kashmiri Gate, Delhi, 1858
</Gallery>
</Center>
After the annexation of Oudh by the East India Company in 1856, many sepoys were disquieted both from losing their perquisites as landed gentry in the Oudh courts and from the anticipation of any increased land-revenue payments that the annexation might augur.<ref name=brownp88>{{Harvnb|Brown|1994|p=88}}</ref> Some Indian soldiers, misreading the presence of missionaries as a sign of official intent, were persuaded that the East India Company was masterminding mass conversions of Hindus and Muslims to Christianity.<ref>{{Harvnb|Metcalf|1991|p=48}}</ref> Changes in the terms of their professional service may also have created resentment. As the extent of British jurisdiction expanded with British victories in wars and with annexation of territory, the soldiers were now not only expected to serve in less familiar regions (such as [[Lower Burma]] after the [[Second Burmese War]] in 1852-53), but also make do without the "foreign service," remuneration that had previously been their due.<ref>{{Harvnb|Bandyopadhyay|2004|p=171}}, {{Harvnb|Bose|Jalal|2003|p=90}}</ref>
The civilian rebellion was more multifarious in origin. The rebels consisted of three groups: feudal nobility, rural landlords called ''[[Talukdar|taluqdars]]'', and the peasants. The nobility, many of whom had lost titles and domains under the [[Doctrine of Lapse]], which derecognised adopted children of princes as legal heirs, felt that the British had interfered with a traditional system of inheritance. Rebel leaders such as Nana Sahib and the Rani of Jhansi belonged to this group; the latter, for example, was prepared to accept British [[paramountcy]] if her adopted son was recognized as the heir.<ref>{{Harvnb|Bandyopadhyay|2004|p=172}}, {{Harvnb|Bose|Jalal|2003|p=91}}, {{Harvnb|Brown|1994|p=92}}</ref> The second group, the ''taluqdars'' had lost half their landed estates to peasant farmers as a result of the land reforms that came in the wake of annexation of Oudh. As the rebellion gained ground, the ''taluqdars'' quickly reoccupied the lands they had lost, and paradoxically, in part due to ties of kinship and feudal loyalty, did not experience significant opposition from the peasant farmers, many of whom too now joined the rebellion to the great dismay of the British.<ref>{{Harvnb|Metcalf|Metcalf|2006|p=102}}</ref> Heavy land-revenue assessment in some areas by the British may have resulted in many landowning families either losing their land or going into great debt with money lenders, and providing ultimately a reason to rebel; money lenders, in addition to the British, were particular objects of the rebels' animosity.<ref>{{Harvnb|Bose|Jalal|2003|p=91}}, {{Harvnb|Metcalf|1991|ch=2}}, {{Harvnb|Bandyopadhyay|2004|p=173}}</ref> The civilian rebellion was also highly uneven in its geographic distribution, even in areas of north-central India that were no longer under British control. For example, the relatively prosperous [[Muzaffarnagar]] district, a beneficiary of a British irrigation scheme, and next door to [[Meerut]] where the upheaval began, stayed mostly calm throughout.<ref>{{Harvnb|Brown|1994|p=92}}</ref>
===Effects on economy===
{{Quote box2
|width = 30em
|align = right
|bgcolor = WhiteSmoke
|halign = left
|quote = "A significant fact which stands out is that those parts of India which have been longest under British rule are the poorest today. Indeed some kind of chart might be drawn up to indicate the close connection between length of British rule and progressive growth of poverty."
|source = — [[Jawaharlal Nehru]], on the economic effects of the British rule, in his book ''[[The Discovery of India]]''<ref>{{harvnb|Nehru|1946|p=295}}</ref>}}
In the second half of the 19th century, both the direct administration of [[British India|India]] by the [[British crown]] and the technological change ushered in by the industrial revolution, had the effect of closely intertwining the economies of India and Great Britain.<ref>{{Harv|Stein|2001|p=259}}, {{Harv|Oldenburg|2007}}</ref> In fact many of the major changes in transport and communications (that are typically associated with Crown Rule of India) had already begun before the Mutiny. Since Dalhousie had embraced the technological change then rampant in Great Britain, India too saw rapid development of all those technologies. Railways, roads, canals, and bridges were rapidly built in India and telegraph links equally rapidly established in order that raw materials, such as cotton, from India's hinterland could be transported more efficiently to ports, such as [[Bombay]], for subsequent export to England.<ref>{{Harv|Oldenburg|2007}}, {{Harv|Stein|2001|p=258}}</ref> Likewise, finished goods from England were transported back just as efficiently, for sale in the burgeoning Indian markets.<ref name=oldenburg>{{Harv|Oldenburg|2007}}</ref> However, unlike Britain itself, where the market risks for the [[infrastructure]] development were borne by private investors, in India, it was the taxpayers—primarily farmers and farm-labourers—who endured the risks, which, in the end, amounted to £50 million.<ref>{{Harv|Stein|2001|p=258}}</ref> In spite of these costs, very little skilled employment was created for Indians. By 1920, with the fourth largest railway network in the world and a history of 60 years of its construction, only ten per cent of the "superior posts" in the Indian Railways were held by Indians.<ref>{{Harv|Stein|2001|p=159}}</ref> The Indian railways system, by 1900, provided India with social savings of 9% of India's national income (about 1.2 billion rupees).<ref>Ian J. Kerr, Engines of Change: The Railroads that Made India, page 9 (2006)</ref>
The rush of technology was also changing the agricultural economy in India: by the last decade of the 19th century, a large fraction of some raw materials—not only cotton, but also some food-grains—were being exported to faraway markets.<ref name=stein260>{{Harv|Stein|2001|p=260}}</ref> Consequently, many small farmers, dependent on the whims of those markets, lost land, animals, and equipment to money-lenders..<ref name=stein260/> More tellingly, the latter half of the 19th century also saw an increase in the number of large-scale [[Famine in India|famines in India]]. Although famines were not new to the subcontinent, these were particularly severe, with tens of millions dying,<ref>{{Harv|Bose|Jalal|2003|p=117}}</ref> and with many critics, both British and Indian, laying the blame at the doorsteps of the lumbering colonial administrations.<ref name=stein260/>
Taxes in India decreased during the colonial period for most of India's population; with the land tax revenue claiming 15% of India's national income during Mogul times compared with 1% at the end of the colonial period. The percentage of national income for the village economy increased from 44% during Mogul times to 54% by the end of colonial period. India's per capita GDP decreased from $550 in 1700 to $520 by 1857, although it had increased to $618 by 1947<ref>Angus Maddison, The World Economy, pages 109-112, (2001)</ref>
<!--Some of the modernization associated with the industrial revolution did benefit India during this period. Foreign investors set up jute mills around Calcutta, and Indian merchants set up cotton textile factories in Gujrat and around Bombay. However, this was accompanied by the collapse of traditional industry, which was faced with the ferocious competition of cheap British-made goods. When the British arrived to India for trading, a prosperous India accounted for more than 17% of the world GDP, but when the British left India in 1947, India accounted for less than 1% of the world GDP{{Fact|date=December 2007}}.-->
<!-- Contemporary observers of the famines such as [[Romesh Dutt]] as well as present-day scholars such as [[Amartya Sen]] attributed the famines both to uneven rainfall and British economic and administrative policies, which since 1857 had led to the seizure and conversion of local farmland to foreign-owned plantations, restrictions on internal trade, inflationary measures that increased the price of food, and substantial exports of staple crops from India to the United Kingdom (Dutt, 1900 and 1902; Srivastava, 1968; Sen, 1982; Bhatia, 1985). On the other hand some other scholars have argued that, whilst the famines may have been exacerbated by British policy, they were primarily caused by drought and ecological factors.<ref>{{cite book|first=Niall|last= Ferguson|authorlink=Niall Ferguson|title= Empire: The Rise and Fall of the British World Order and the Lessons for Global Power|locaction=New York|date=2003|publisher=Basic Books|isbn=0-465-02328-2}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|first= Tirthankar|last= Roy|title=The Economic History of India 1857-1947|location=Delhi|publisher=[[Oxford University Press]]|date=2000|isbn=0-19-565154-5|pages=xiv + 318pp}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|first=Michelle Burge|last= MacAlpin|title=Subject to Famine: Food Crises and Economic Change in Western India, 1860-1920|publisher=Princeton University Press|date=1983|pages=304pp|isbn=0691053855}}</ref>
Some British citizens such as [[William Digby (writer)|William Digby]] agitated for policy reforms and better famine relief, but [[Robert Bulwer-Lytton, 1st Earl of Lytton]], son of the poet [[Edward Bulwer-Lytton, 1st Baron Lytton]] and the governing British viceroy in India, opposed such changes in the belief that they would stimulate shirking by Indian workers. The famines continued until independence in 1947, with the [[Bengal famine of 1943|Bengal Famine]] of 1943–44 — among the most devastating — killing 3–4 million Indians during [[World War II]]. Famine relief methods were inefficient as they often involved making undernourished people do heavy labour on public works. However, there were some famines (ex. 1874 and 1907) in which English officials acted effectively. During the famine of 1897-1902 the Curzon administration spent £10,000,000 (money of the day) and at its peak 4,500,000 people were on famine relief. From the 1880s onwards British administrators built a series of irrigation canals in India, much of it for the purpose of famine prevention.<ref>{{cite book |last=Tomlinson |first=B.R. |title=The Economic History of Modern India 1860-1970 |date=1993 |publisher=Cambridge University Press ||isbn=0-521-58939-8 |pages=p. 86 }}</ref> After 1902 there was not a single famine in India until 1943 in Bengal. 'What the British added was above all the power of a unified an authoritarian state, which acted because it saw the danger of drought and famine to its rule'..<ref>{{cite book | last=Marshall | first=PJ | title= The Cambridge Illustrated History of the British Empire | date=2001 | publisher=Cambridge University Press | page= 124}}</ref> After the major famines the British government conducted "serious investigations" (PJ Marshall, Cambridge History of the British Empire) into the famine. Lord Lytton's administration was particularly negligent when it came to famine relief, with disastrous results. It was Lord Lytton's belief that market forces would see that food got into famine stricken areas, therefore government aid would not be necessary and in fact would inhibit famine relief efforts (Niall Ferguson, ''Empire'' and Lady Beatty Balfour, ''Lord Lytton's Indian Administration''). As a result of the calamity of 1877 Lord Lytton lost his job but not before he established the Famine Insurance Grant. The results of this was that the British prematurely assumed that the problem of famine had been solved forever ("The Ruling Caste: Imperial Lives in the Victorian Raj" by David Gilmour page 116). This, sadly, proved not to be the case and the complacency that resulted from it contributed to the lack of action by the Elgin ("The Ruling Caste: Imperial Lives in the Victorian Raj" by David Gilmour page 116). Curzon abhorred the seeming indifference many Britons at home had towards famine in India ("Curzon: Imperial Statesman" by David Gilmour page 261). 'It was the tradegy of 1876-1878 that led to the establishment of a general famine commission under Richard Strachey and the consequent adoption of a famine code' (Dilmour, "Curzon", page 115). A famine code was not adopted in Bengal however, which contributed to the disaster in 1943. In order to limit the effects of famine "Successive British governments were anxious not to add to the burden of taxation" (Robert Johnson, “British Imperialism” page 30). --><!--The 21st century Indian legal system, India's governmental structure, the national capital, and the railway network (the world's biggest employer) all remain substantially influenced by the British period. The predominance of the English language in India, has also proved to be a critical advantage for Indian tourism, call centres and computer software developers. As a direct result of former ties between the UK and India, substantial numbers of Indian nationals have been allowed to emigrate to the UK. For several decades this large community has imported Indian products to sell in the wider British market, has sent remittances home and has invested British earned capital in Indian business ventures.-->
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Image:India railways1909a.jpg|The 1909 Map of [[Indian Railways]], when India had the fourth largest railway network in the world. Railway construction in India began in 1853.
Image:Victoriaterminus1903.JPG|"The most magnificent railway station in the world." Stereographic image of [[Victoria Terminus]], [[Bombay]], which was completed in 1888.
Image:Agra canal headworks1871a.jpg|The [[Agra canal]] (c. 1873), a year away from completion. The canal was closed to navigation in 1904 in order to increase irrigation and aid in famine-prevention.
Image:George Robinson 1st Marquess of Ripon.jpg|[[George Robinson, 1st Marquess of Ripon|Lord Ripon]], the Liberal Viceroy of India, who instituted the Famine Code
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===Beginnings of self-government===<!-- This section is linked from [[Indian independence movement]] -->
The first steps were taken toward self-government in British India in the late 19th century with the appointment of Indian counsellors to advise the British viceroy and the establishment of provincial councils with Indian members; the British subsequently widened participation in legislative councils with the [[Indian Councils Act of 1892]]. [[Municipal Corporation]]s and [[District Boards]] were created for local administration; they included elected Indian members.
The [[Government of India Act of 1909]] — also known as the Morley-Minto Reforms ([[John Morley]] was the secretary of state for India, and [[Gilbert John Elliot-Murray-Kynynmound, 4th Earl of Minto|Gilbert Elliot]], fourth earl of Minto, was viceroy) — gave Indians limited roles in the central and provincial legislatures, known as legislative councils. Indians had previously been appointed to legislative councils, but after the reforms some were elected to them. At the centre, the majority of council members continued to be government-appointed officials, and the viceroy was in no way responsible to the legislature. At the provincial level, the elected members, together with unofficial appointees, outnumbered the appointed officials, but responsibility of the governor to the legislature was not contemplated. Morley made it clear in introducing the legislation to the [[British Parliament]] that parliamentary self-government was not the goal of the British government.
The Morley-Minto Reforms were a milestone. Step by step, the elective principle was introduced for membership in Indian legislative councils. The "electorate" was limited, however, to a small group of upper-class Indians. These elected members increasingly became an "opposition" to the "official government". The Communal electorates were later extended to other communities and made a political factor of the Indian tendency toward group identification through religion.
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Image:John Morley, 1st Viscount Morley of Blackburn - Project Gutenberg eText 17976.jpg|[[John Morley]], the [[Secretary of State for India]] from 1905 to 1910, and Gladstonian Liberal. The [[Government of India Act of 1909]], also known as the ''Minto-Morley Reforms'' allowed Indians to be elected to the Legislative Council.
Image:Delhidurbar pc1911.jpg|Picture post card of the Gordon Highlanders marching past [[George V of the United Kingdom|King George V]] and Queen Mary at the [[Delhi Durbar]] on December 12, 1911, when the King was crowned [[Emperor of India]].
Image:Indiantroops medical ww1.jpg|Indian medical orderlies attending to wounded soldiers with the ''Mesopotamian Expeditionary Force'' in [[Mesopotamia]] during [[World War I]].
Image:Khudadad khan vc1915.jpg|Sepoy [[Khudadad Khan]], the first Indian to be awarded the [[Victoria Cross]], the British Empire's highest war-time medal for gallantry. Khan, who hailed from [[Chakwal District]], Punjab, in present-day [[Pakistan]], died in 1971.
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===World War I and its aftermath===
[[World War I]] would prove to be a watershed in the imperial relationship between Britain and India. 1.4 million Indian and British soldiers of the [[British Indian Army]] would take part in the war and their participation would have a wider cultural fallout: news of Indian soldiers fighting and dying with British soldiers, as well as soldiers from [[dominion]]s like Canada and Australia, would travel to distant corners of the world both in newsprint and by the new medium of the radio.<ref name=brown-p197-198>{{Harvnb|Brown|1994|pp=197-198}}</ref> India’s international profile would thereby rise and would continue to rise during the 1920s.<ref name=brown-p197-198/> It was to lead, among other things, to India, under its own name, becoming a [[League of Nations members#1920: founder members|founding member]] of the [[League of Nations]] in 1920 and participating, under the name, "Les Indes Anglaises" (The British Indies), in the [[1920 Summer Olympics]] in [[Antwerp]].<ref> [http://www.la84foundation.org/6oic/OfficialReports/1920/1920.pdf Olympic Games Antwerp 1920: Official Report], Nombre de bations representees, p. 168. Quote: "31 Nations avaient accepté l'invitation du Comité Olympique Belge: ... la Grèce - la Hollande
Les Indes Anglaises - l'Italie - le Japon ..." </ref> Back in India, especially among the leaders of the [[Indian National Congress]], it would lead to calls for greater self-government for Indians.<ref name=brown-p197-198/>
In 1916, in the face of new strength demonstrated by the nationalists with the signing of the [[Lucknow Pact]] and the founding of the [[Home Rule Movement|Home Rule leagues]], and the realization, after the disaster in the [[Mesopotamian campaign]], that the war would likely last longer, the new Viceroy, [[Frederic Thesiger, 1st Viscount Chelmsford|Lord Chelmsford]], cautioned that the Government of India needed to be more responsive to Indian opinion.<ref name=brown-p203-204/> Towards the end of the year, after discussions with the government in London, he suggested that the British demonstrate their good faith – in light of the Indian war role – through a number of public actions, including awards of titles and honors to princes, granting of commissions in the army to Indians, and removal of the much-reviled cotton excise duty, but most importantly, an announcement of Britain's future plans for India and an indication of some concrete steps.<ref name=brown-p203-204/> After more discussion, in August 1917, the new Liberal [[Secretary of State for India]], [[Edwin Montagu]], announced the British aim of “increasing association of Indians in every branch of the administration, and the gradual development of self-governing institutions, with a view to the progressive realization of responsible government in India as an integral part of the British Empire.”<ref name=brown-p203-204/> Although the plan envisioned limited self-government at first only in the provinces – with India emphatically within the British Empire – it represented the first British proposal for any form of representative government in a non-white colony.<ref name=brown-p203-204/>
Earlier, at the onset of World War I, the reassignment of most of the British army in India to Europe and [[Mesopotamian campaign|Mesopotamia]] had led the previous Viceroy, [[Charles Hardinge, 1st Baron Hardinge of Penshurst|Lord Harding]], to worry about the “risks involved in denuding India of troops.”<ref name=brown-p197-198/> [[Revolutionary movement for Indian independence|Revolutionary violence]] had already been a concern in British India; consequently in [[1915]], to strengthen its powers during what it saw was a time of increased vulnerability, the Government of India passed the [[Defence of India Act]], which allowed it to intern politically dangerous dissidents without due process and added to the power it already had – under the 1910 Press Act – both to imprison journalists without trial and to censor the press.<ref name=brown-p201-203>{{Harvnb|Brown|1994|pp=201-203}}</ref> Now, as constitutional reform began to be discussed in earnest, the British began to consider how new moderate Indians could be brought into the fold of constitutional politics and simultaneously, how the hand of established constitutionalists could be strengthened.<ref name=brown-p201-203/> However, since the Government of India wanted to ensure against any sabotage of the reform process by extremists,{{Fact|date=January 2008}} and since its reform plan was devised during a time when extremist violence had ebbed as a result of increased governmental control, it also began to consider how some of its war-time powers could be extended into peace time.<ref name=brown-p201-203/>
[[Image:Montagu left.jpg|left|thumb|[[Edwin Montagu]], left, the [[Secretary of State for India]], whose report led to the [[Government of India Act of 1919]], also known as the Montford Reforms or the Montagu-Chelmsford Reforms.]]
Consequently in 1917, even as Edwin Montagu announced the new constitutional reforms, [[Rowlatt Committee|a sedition committee]] chaired by a British judge, Mr. S. A. T. Rowlatt, was tasked with investigating [[Hindu-German Conspiracy|revolutionary conspiracies]] and the [[Imperial Germany|German]] and [[Bolshevik]] links to the violence in India,<ref name=Lovett>{{Harvnb|Lovett|1920|p=94, 187-191}}</ref><ref name=Sarkar1921>{{Harvnb|Sarkar|1921|p=137}}</ref><ref name=Tinker92>{{Harvnb|Tinker|1968|p=92}}</ref> with the unstated goal of extending the government's war-time powers.<ref name=brown-p203-204>{{Harvnb|Brown|1994|pp=203-204}}</ref> The Rowlatt committee presented its report in July 1918 and identified three regions of conspiratorial insurgency: [[Bengal]], the [[Bombay presidency]], and the Punjab.<ref name=brown-p203-204>{{Harvnb|Brown|1994|pp=203-204}}</ref> To combat subversive acts in these regions, the committee recommended that the government use emergency powers akin to its war-time authority, which included the ability to try cases of sedition by a panel of three judges and without juries, exaction of securities from suspects, governmental overseeing of residences of suspects,<ref name=brown-p203-204/> and the power for provincial governments to arrest and detain suspects in short-term detention facilities and without trial.<ref name=spear190/>
With the end of World War I, there was also a change in the economic climate. By year’s end 1919, 1.5 million Indians had served in the armed services in either combatant or non-combatant roles, and India had provided £146 million in revenue for the war.<ref name=brown195-196>{{Harvnb|Brown|1994|pp=195-196}}</ref> The increased taxes coupled with disruptions in both domestic and international trade had the effect of approximately doubling the index of overall prices in India between 1914 and 1920.<ref name=brown195-196/> Returning war veterans, especially in the Punjab, created a growing unemployment crisis<ref name=stein304> {{Harvnb|Stein|2001|p=304}}</ref> and post-war inflation led to food riots in Bombay, Madras, and Bengal provinces,<ref name=stein304/> a situation that was made only worse by the failure of the 1918-19 monsoon and by profiteering and speculation.<ref name=brown195-196/> The [[Spanish flu|global influenza epidemic]] and the [[Bolshevik Revolution]] of 1917 added to the general jitters; the former among the population already experiencing economic woes,<ref name=stein304/> and the latter among government officials, fearing a similar revolution in India.<ref>{{Harvnb|Ludden|2002|p=208}}</ref>
To combat what it saw as a coming crisis, the government now drafted the Rowlatt committee's recommendations into two [[Rowlatt Acts|Rowlatt Bills]].<ref name=spear190>{{Harvnb|Spear|1990|p=190}}</ref> Although the bills were authorised for legislative consideration by Edwin Montagu, they were done so unwillingly, with the accompanying declaration, “I loathe the suggestion at first sight of preserving the Defence of India Act in peace time to such an extent as Rowlatt and his friends think necessary.”<ref name=brown-p203-204/> In the ensuing discussion and vote in the Imperial Legislative Council, all Indian members voiced opposition to the bills. The Government of India was nevertheless able to use of its "official majority" to ensure passage of the bills early in 1919.<ref name=brown-p203-204/> However, what it passed, in deference to the Indian opposition, was a lesser version of the first bill, which now allowed extra-judicial powers, but for a period of exactly three years and for the prosecution solely of “anarchical and revolutionary movements,” dropping entirely the second bill involving modification of the [[Indian Penal Code]].<ref name=brown-p203-204/> Even so, when it was passed the new [[Rowlatt Act]] aroused widespread indignation throughout India and brought [[Mohandas Gandhi]] to the forefront of the nationalist movement.<ref name=spear190/>
Meanwhile, Montagu and Chelmsford themselves finally presented their report in July 1918 after a long fact-finding trip through India the previous winter.<ref name=brown-p205-207>{{Harvnb|Brown|1994|pp=205-207}}</ref> After more discussion by the government and parliament in Britain, and another tour by the Franchise and Functions Committee for the purpose of identifying who among the Indian population could vote in future elections, the [[Government of India Act of 1919]] (also known as the [[Montagu-Chelmsford Reforms]]) was passed in December 1919.<ref name=brown-p205-207/> The new Act enlarged both the provincial and [[Imperial Legislative Council|Imperial]] legislative councils and repealed the Government of India’s recourse to the “official majority” in unfavorable votes.<ref name=brown-p205-207/> Although departments like defense, foreign affairs, criminal law, communications and income-tax were retained by the [[Governor-General of India|Viceroy]] and the central government in [[New Delhi]], other departments like public health, education, land-revenue and local self-government were transferred to the provinces.<ref name=brown-p205-207/> The provinces themselves were now to be administered under a new [[Diarchy|dyarchical]] system, whereby some areas like education, agriculture, infrastructure development, and local self-government became the preserve of Indian ministers and legislatures, and ultimately the Indian electorates, while others like irrigation, land-revenue, police, prisons, and control of media remained within the purview of the British governor and his executive council.<ref name=brown-p205-207/> The new Act also made it easier for Indians to be admitted into the civil service and the army officer corps.
A greater number of Indians were now enfranchised, although, for voting at the national level, they constituted only 10% of the total adult male population, many of whom were still illiterate.<ref name=brown-p205-207/> In the provincial legislatures, the British continued to exercise some control by setting aside seats for special interests they considered cooperative or useful. In particular, rural candidates, generally sympathetic to British rule and less confrontational, were assigned more seats than their urban counterparts.<ref name=brown-p205-207/> Seats were also reserved for non-Brahmins, landowners, businessmen, and college graduates. The principal of “communal representation,” an integral part of the [[Minto-Morley Reforms|Minto-Morley reforms]], and more recently of the Congress-Muslim League Lucknow Pact, was reaffirmed, with seats being reserved for [[Muslims]], [[Sikhs]], [[Christianity in India|Indian Christians]], [[Anglo-Indians]], and domiciled Europeans, in both provincial and Imperial legislative councils.<ref name=brown-p205-207/> The Montagu-Chelmsford reforms offered Indians the most significant opportunity yet for exercising legislative power, especially at the provincial level; however, that opportunity was also restricted by the still limited number of eligible voters, by the small budgets available to provincial legislatures, and by the presence of rural and special interest seats that were seen as instruments of British control.<ref name=brown-p205-207/>
===1930s: Government of India Act (1935)===
[[Image:Second round tableconf.gif|left|thumb|British Prime Minister [[Ramsay MacDonald]] to the right of [[Mahatma Gandhi]] at the Second Round Table Conference in London, October 1931.]]
In 1935, after the Round Table Conferences, the British Parliament approved the [[Government of India Act of 1935]], which authorised the establishment of independent legislative assemblies in all provinces of British India, the creation of a central government incorporating both the British provinces and the princely states, and the protection of Muslim minorities.<ref name=oldenburg/> The future [[Constitution of India|Constitution of independent India]] would owe a great deal to the text of this act.<ref>{{Harv|Low|1993|pp=40, 156}}</ref> The act also provided for a [[bicameral]] national parliament and an executive branch under the purview of the British government. Although the national federation was never realised, nationwide elections for provincial assemblies were held in 1937. Despite initial hesitation, the Congress took part in the elections and won victories in seven of the eleven provinces of British India,<ref name=low-1935-elections>{{Harv|Low|1993|p=154}}</ref> and Congress governments, with wide powers, were formed in these provinces. In Great Britain, these victories were to later turn the tide for the idea of Indian independence.<ref name=low-1935-elections/>
=== World War II ===
With the outbreak of World War II in 1939, the viceroy, [[Victor Hope, 2nd Marquess of Linlithgow|Lord Linlithgow]], declared war on India’s behalf without consulting Indian leaders, leading the Congress provincial ministries to resign in protest. The Muslim League, in contrast, supported Britain in the war effort; however, it now took the view that Muslims would be unfairly treated in an independent India dominated by the Congress.
The British government—through its [[Cripps' mission]]—attempted to secure Indian nationalists' cooperation in the war effort in exchange for independence afterwards; however, [[Cripps' mission|the negotiations]] between them and the Congress broke down. Gandhi, subsequently, launched the “[[Quit India movement|Quit India]]” movement in August 1942, demanding the immediate withdrawal of the British from India or face nationwide civil disobedience. Along with all other Congress leaders, Gandhi was immediately imprisoned, and the country erupted in violent demonstrations led by students and later by peasant political groups, especially in Eastern [[United Provinces of Agra and Oudh|United Provinces]], [[Bihar]], and western Bengal. The large war-time British Army presence in India led to most of the movement being crushed in a little more than six weeks;<ref name=metcalf-quit-india>{{Harv|Metcalf|Metcalf|2006|pp=206-207}}</ref> nonetheless, a portion of the movement formed for a time an underground provisional government on the border with Nepal.<ref name=metcalf-quit-india/> In other parts of India, the movement was less spontaneous and the protest less intensive, however it lasted sporadically into the summer of 1943.<ref name=Bandypadhya420>{{Harvnb|Bandyopadhyay|2004|pp=418-420}}</ref>
With Congress leaders in jail, attention also turned to [[Subhas Bose]], who had been ousted from the Congress in 1939 following differences with the more conservative high command;<ref name=Nehru>{{Harvnb|Nehru|1942|p=424}}</ref> Bose now turned to the [[Axis powers of World War II|Axis]] powers for help with liberating India by force.<ref name=low-bose>{{Harv|Low|1993|pp=31-31}}</ref> With Japanese support, he organised the [[Indian National Army]], composed largely of Indian soldiers of the British Indian army who had been captured [[Battle of Singapore|at Singapore]] by the Japanese. From the onset of the war, the Japanese [[F Kikan|secret service]] had promoted unrest in South east Asia to destabilise the British War effort,<ref>{{Harvnb|Lebra|1977|p=23}}</ref> and came to support a number of puppet and provisional governments in the captured regions, including those in [[Japanese occupation of Burma|Burma]], the [[Philippines]] and [[Vietnam]], the Provisional Government of [[Azad Hind]] (Free India), presided by Bose.<ref>{{Harvnb|Lebra|1977|p=31}}, {{Harv|Low|1993|pp=31-31}}</ref> Bose's effort, however, was short lived; after the reverses of 1944, the reinforced British Indian Army in 1945 first halted and then reversed the Japanese [[U Go offensive]], beginning the successful part of the [[Burma Campaign]]. Bose's Indian National Army surrendered with the recapture of [[Singapore]], and Bose died in a plane crash soon thereafter. The [[INA trials|trials]] of the INA soldiers at [[Red Fort]] in late 1945 however caused widespread public unrest and nationalist violence in India.<ref>{{Harvnb|Chaudhuri|1953|p=349}}, {{Harvnb|Sarkar|1983|p=411}},{{Harvnb|Hyam|2007|p=115}}</ref>
===Post-war developments: Transfer of Power===
[[Image:Brit IndianEmpireReligions3.jpg|left|thumb|'''1909 Prevailing Religions''', Map of British Indian Empire, 1909, showing the prevailing majority religions of the population for different districts.]]
[[Image:India Pakistan1947a.jpg|thumb|left|Map of India and Pakistan as envisaged in the Partition Plan]]
[[Image:Mountbatten 4 august 1947.jpg|left|thumb|Viceroy [[Louis Mountbatten]] eleven days before the Transfer of Power.]]
In January 1946, a number of mutinies broke out in the armed services, starting with [[Royal Air Force Mutiny of 1946|that of RAF servicemen]] frustrated with their slow repatriation to Britain.<ref name=judd-mutiny>{{Harv|Judd|2004|pp=172-173}}</ref> The mutinies came to a head with [[The Royal Indian Navy Mutiny|mutiny of the Royal Indian Navy]] in Bombay in February 1946, followed by others in Calcutta, Madras, and Karachi. Although the mutinies were rapidly suppressed, they found much public support in India and had the effect of spurring the new Labour government in Britain to action, and leading to the Cabinet Mission to India led by the Secretary of State for India, [[Frederick Pethick-Lawrence, 1st Baron Pethick-Lawrence|Lord Pethick Lawrence]], and including [[Stafford Cripps|Sir Stafford Cripps]], who had visited four years before.<ref name=judd-mutiny/>
Also in early 1946, new elections were called in India in which the Congress won electoral victories in eight of the eleven provinces.<ref>{{Harv|Judd|2004|p=172}}</ref> The negotiations between the Congress and the Muslim League, however, stumbled over the issue of the partition. Jinnah proclaimed August 16, 1946, [[Direct Action Day]], with the stated goal of highlighting, peacefully, the demand for a Muslim homeland in [[British India]]. The following day Hindu-Muslim riots broke out in Calcutta and quickly spread throughout India. Although the Government of India and the Congress were both shaken by the course of events, in September, a Congress-led interim government was installed, with Jawaharlal Nehru as united India’s prime minister.
Later that year, the [[Labour Party (UK)|Labour]] government in Britain, its exchequer exhausted by the recently concluded World War II,<ref>{{Harvnb|Brown|1994|p=330}} Quote: "India had always been a minority interest in British public life; no great body of public opinion now emerged to argue that war-weary and impoverished Britain should send troops and money to hold it against its will in an empire of doubtful value. By late 1946 both Prime Minister and Secretary of State for India recognized that neither international opinion no their own voters would stand for any reassertion of the ''raj'', even if there had been the men, money, and administrative machinery with which to do so." {{Harvnb|Sarkar|1983|p=418}} Quote: "With a war weary army and people and a ravaged economy, Britain would have had to retreat; the Labour victory only quickened the process somewhat." {{Harvnb|Metcalf|Metcalf|2006|p=212}} Quote: "More importantly, though victorious in war, Britain had suffered immensely in the struggle. It simply did not possess the manpower or economic resources required to coerce a restive India." </ref> decided to end British rule of India, and in early 1947 Britain announced its intention of transferring power no later than June 1948.
As independence approached, the violence between Hindus and Muslims in the provinces of Punjab and Bengal continued unabated. With the British army unprepared for the potential for increased violence, the new viceroy, [[Louis Mountbatten]], advanced the date for the transfer of power, allowing less than six months for a mutually agreed plan for independence. In June 1947, the nationalist leaders, including Nehru and [[Abul Kalam Azad]] on behalf of the Congress, Jinnah representing the Muslim League, [[B. R. Ambedkar]] representing the [[Dalit|Untouchable]] community, and [[Master Tara Singh]] representing the [[Sikhs]], agreed to a [[Partition of India|partition of the country]] along religious lines. The predominantly Hindu and Sikh areas were assigned to the new India and predominantly Muslim areas to the new nation of [[Pakistan]]; the plan included a partition of the Muslim-majority provinces of Punjab and Bengal.
Many millions of Muslim, Sikh, and Hindu refugees trekked across the [[Radcliffe Line|newly drawn borders]]. In Punjab, where the new border lines divided the Sikh regions in half, massive bloodshed followed; in Bengal and Bihar, where Gandhi's presence assuaged communal tempers, the violence was more limited. In all, anywhere between 250,000 and 500,000 people on both sides of the new borders died in the violence.<ref>{{Harv|Khosla|2001|p=299}}</ref> On August 14, 1947, the new [[Dominion of Pakistan]] came into being, with Muhammad Ali Jinnah sworn in as its first Governor General in [[Karachi]]. The following day, August 15, 1947, India, now a smaller ''Union of India'', became an independent country with official ceremonies taking place in [[New Delhi]], and with Jawaharlal Nehru assuming the office of the [[Prime Minister of India|prime minister]], and the viceroy, Louis Mountbatten, staying on as its first [[Governor-General of India|Governor General]].
<!--==Provinces of British India==
{{main |Provinces of British India}}
At the time of independence, British India consisted of the following provinces:
* [[Ajmer-Merwara-Kekri]]
* [[Andaman and Nicobar Islands]]
* [[Assam]]
* [[Baluchistan (Chief Commissioners Province)|Baluchistan]]
* [[Bengal]]
* [[Bihar]]
* [[Bombay Province]] - [[Bombay]]
* [[Central Provinces and Berar]]
* [[Delhi Province]] - [[Delhi]]
* [[Madras Province]] - [[Madras]]
* [[North-West Frontier Province]]
* [[Panth-Piploda]]
* [[Orissa]]
* [[British Punjab]]
* [[Sindh]]
* [[United Provinces (India)|United Provinces]] ([[Agra]] and [[Oudh]])
Eleven provinces (Assam, Bengal, Bihar, Bombay, Central Provinces, Madras, North-West Frontier, Orissa, Punjab, and Sindh) were headed by a governor. The remaining six (Ajmer Merwara, Andaman and Nicobar Islands, Baluchistan, Coorg, Delhi, and Panth-Piploda) were governed by a chief commissioner.
There were also several hundred [[Indian Princely States|Princely States]], under British protection but ruled by native rulers. Among the most notable of these were [[Jaipur]], [[Gwalior]], [[Hyderabad State|Hyderabad]], [[Kingdom of Mysore|Mysore]], [[Travancore]] and [[Jammu and Kashmir]].
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Image:Madras Prov South 1909.jpg|Map of the [[Madras Presidency]], 1909
Image:Baroda state 1909.jpg|Map of the [[Vadodara|Baroda State]], 1909
Image:Hyderabad state 1909.jpg|Map of the [[Hyderabad State]], 1909
Image:Bombay Prov north 1909.jpg|Map of the Northern [[Bombay Presidency]], 1909
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==See also==
{{portalpar|British Empire|British Empire 1897.jpg}}
* [[British rule in India]] for other periods when parts of India were under British rule.
* [[Colonial India]]
* [[Indian independence movement]]
* [[Anglo-Indian]]
* [[Anglo-Burmese people]]
* [[British Empire]]
* [[Imperialism in Asia]]
* [[India Office]]
* [[List of Indian Princely States]]
* [[Governor-General of India]]
* [[Commander-in-Chief, India|Commander-in-Chief of India]]
* [[Indian Civil Service]]
==Notes==
{{reflist|2}}
==References==
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*{{Harvard reference | last = Anderson | first = Clare | year = 2007 | title = Indian Uprising of 1857–8: Prisons, Prisoners and Rebellion| publisher = New York: Anthem Press, Pp. 217 | isbn = 9781843312499 | url = http://atlantis.terrassl.net/anthempress.com/product_info.php?cPath=52&products_id=293&osCsid=9a2s9o8mdu8066m551rr407123 }}
*{{Harvard reference | last = Ansari | first = Sarah | year = 2005 | title = Life after Partition: Migration, Community and Strife in Sindh: 1947–1962 | publisher = Oxford and London: Oxford University Press, Pp. 256 | isbn = ISBN 019597834X}}
*{{Harvard reference | last = Baker | first = David | title = Colonialism in an Indian Hinterland: The Central Provinces, 1820–1920 | publisher = Delhi and Oxford: Oxford University Press. Pp. xiii, 374 | isbn =0195630491 | url = http://www.jstor.org/stable/2059781?origin=JSTOR-pdf}}
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*{{Harvard reference| last1=Bayly| first1=C. A. | authorlink1=Christopher Alan Bayly
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*{{Harvard reference | last1 = Brown | first1 = Judith M. (ed.) | last2 = Louis (ed.) | first2 = Wm. Roger | year = 2001 | title = Oxford History of the British Empire: The Twentieth Century | publisher = Oxford and New York: Oxford University Press. Pp. 800 | isbn = 0199246793 | url = http://www.amazon.com/Oxford-History-British-Empire-Twentieth/dp/0199246793}}
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* Gilmartin, David. 1988. ''Empire and Islam: Punjab and the Making of Pakistan''. Berkeley: University of California Press. 258 pages. ISBN 0520062493.
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| publisher=(Cambridge Studies in Indian History and Society). Cambridge and London: [[Cambridge University Press]]. Pp. 320
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*{{Harvard reference | last = Metcalf | first = Thomas R. | year = 1997 | title = Ideologies of the Raj | publisher = Cambridge and London: Cambridge University Press, Pp. 256 | isbn = 0521589371}}
* {{Harvard reference | last = Pandey | first = Gyanendra | year = 2002 | title = Remembering Partition: Violence, Nationalism and History in India | publisher: Cambride, UK: Cambridge University Press. Pp. 232 | isbn = 0521002508}}
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| url = http://links.jstor.org/sici?sici=0026-749X%28199705%2931%3A2%3C245%3ATCSACO%3E2.0.CO%3B2-K
}}
*{{Harvard reference
| last = Roy
| first = Tirthankar
| year = 2002
| title = Economic History and Modern India: Redefining the Link
| journal = The Journal of Economic Perspectives
| volume = 16
| issue = 3
| pages = 109-130
| url = http://links.jstor.org/sici?sici=0895-3309%28200222%2916%3A3%3C109%3AEHAMIR%3E2.0.CO%3B2-F}}
*{{Harvard reference
| last = Simmons
| first = Colin
| year = 1985
| title = 'De-Industrialization', Industrialization and the Indian Economy, c. 1850-1947
| journal = Modern Asian Studies
| volume = 19
| issue = 3
| pages = 593-622
| url = http://links.jstor.org/sici?sici=0026-749X%281985%2919%3A3%3C593%3A%27IATIE%3E2.0.CO%3B2-K
}}
*{{Harvard reference
| last1=Talbot
| first1=Ian
| last2=
| first2=
| chapter=Pakistan's Emergence
| pages = 253-263
| date=
| year=2001
| editor1-last=Winks
| editor1-first=Robin
| editor2-last=
| editor2-first=
| title=Oxford History of the British Empire: Historiography
| volume=
| place=
| publisher=Oxford and New York: Oxford University Press
| publication-year=2001
| isbn=0199246807
}}
* {{Harvard reference
| Surname1 = Tinker
| Given1 = Hugh
| Year = 1968
| Title = India in the First World War and after. Journal of Contemporary History, Vol. 3, No. 4, 1918-19: From War to Peace. (Oct., 1968), pp. 89-107
| URL =
| Publisher = Sage Publications
| ID = ISSN: 00220094
}}.
*{{Harvard reference
| last1=Tomlinson
| first1=B. R.
| last2=
| first2=
| chapter=Economics and Empire: The Periphery and the Imperial Economy
| pages = 53-74
| date=
| year=2001
| editor1-last=Porter
| editor1-first=Andrew
| editor2-last=
| editor2-first=
| title=Oxford History of the British Empire: The Nineteenth Century
| volume=
| place=
| publisher=Oxford and New York: Oxford University Press
| publication-year=2001
| isbn=0199246785
}}
*{{Harvard reference
| last1=Washbrook
| first1=D. A.
| last2=
| first2=
| chapter=India, 1818-1860: The Two Faces of Colonialism
| pages = 395-421
| date=
| year=2001
| editor1-last=Porter
| editor1-first=Andrew
| editor2-last=
| editor2-first=
| title=Oxford History of the British Empire: The Nineteenth Century
| volume=
| place=
| publisher=Oxford and New York: Oxford University Press
| publication-year=2001
| isbn=0199246785
}}
*{{Harvard reference
| last = Watts
| first = Sheldon
| year = 1999
| title = British Development Policies and Malaria in India 1897-c. 1929
| journal = Past and Present
| volume =
| issue = 165
| pages = 141-181
| url = http://links.jstor.org/sici?sici=0031-2746%28199911%290%3A165%3C141%3ABDPAMI%3E2.0.CO%3B2-1
}}
*{{Harvard reference
| last1=Wylie
| first1=Diana
| last2=
| first2=
| chapter=Disease, Diet, and Gender: Late Twentieth Century Perspectives on Empire
| pages = 277-289
| date=
| year=2001
| editor1-last=Winks
| editor1-first=Robin
| editor2-last=
| editor2-first=
| title=Oxford History of the British Empire: Historiography
| volume=
| place=
| publisher=Oxford and New York: Oxford University Press
| publication-year=2001
| isbn=0199246807
}}
===Classic Histories and Gazetteers===
*{{Harvard reference | last = Imperial Gazetteer of India vol. III | first =
| title = The Indian Empire, Economic (Chapter X: Famine, pp. 475–502 | publisher = Published under the authority of His Majesty's Secretary of State for India in Council, Oxford at the Clarendon Press. Pp. xxx, 1 map, 552. | year = 1907}}
*{{Harvard reference
| last = Imperial Gazetteer of India vol. IV
| first =
| title = The Indian Empire, Administrative
| publisher = Published under the authority of His Majesty's Secretary of State for India in Council, Oxford at the Clarendon Press. Pp. xxx, 1 map, 552.
| year = 1907
}}
*{{Harvard reference
| Surname1 = Lovett
| Given1 = Sir Verney
| Year = 1920
| Title = A History of the Indian Nationalist Movement
| URL =
| Publisher = New York, Frederick A. Stokes Company
| ISBN = 81-7536-249-9
}}
*{{Harvard reference
| last1=Majumdar
| first1=R. C.
| authorlink1
| last2=Raychaudhuri
| first2=H. C.
| authorlink2=
| last3=Datta
| first3=Kalikinkar
| year=1950
| title=An Advanced History of India
| place=
| publisher=London: Macmillan and Company Limited. 2nd edition. Pp. xiii, 1122, 7 maps, 5 coloured maps.
| isbn=
| url=
}}.
*{{Harvard reference
| last1=Smith
| first1=Vincent A.
| authorlink1
| year=1921
| title=India in the British Period: Being Part III of the Oxford History of India
| place=
| publisher=Oxford: At the Clarendon Press. 2nd edition. Pp. xxiv, 316 (469-784)
| isbn=
| url=
}}.
===Tertiary Sources===
*{{Harvard reference
| last1=Oldenburg
| first1=Philip
| chapter=[http://encarta.msn.com/encyclopedia_761557562_13/India.html#S133 "India: Movement for Freedom"]
| date=[[2007]]
| year=2007
| editor1-last=
| editor1-first=
| editor2-last=
| editor2-first=
| title=Encarta Encyclopedia
| url=
| isbn=
}}.
*{{Harvard reference
| last1=Wolpert
| first1=Stanley
| chapter=[http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-47042/India India: British Imperial Power 1858-1947 (Indian nationalism and the British response, 1885-1920; Prelude to Independence, 1920-1947)]
| date=[[2007]]
| year=2007
| title=Encyclopædia Britannica
| url=
| isbn=
}}.
{{refend}}
===Related Reading===
* Bairoch, Paul, ''Economics and World History'', [[University of Chicago Press]], 1995
* Bhatia, B. M., ''Famines in India: A study in Some Aspects of the Economic History of India with Special Reference to Food Problem'', Delhi: Konark Publishers Pvt. Ltd, 1985
* [[John Edward Bowle|Bowle, John]], ''The Imperial Achievement'', [[Secker & Warburg]], London, 1974, ISBN-13: 978-0316104098
* Coates, Tim, (series editor), ''The Amritsar Massacre 1919 - General Dyer in the Punjab'' (Official Reports, including Dyer's Testimonies), Her Majesty's Stationary Office ([[HMSO]]) 1925, abridged edition, 2000, ISBN 0-11-702412-0
* Davis, Mike, ''[[Late Victorian Holocausts]]: El Niño Famines and the Making of the Third World'' 2001, ISBN 1-85984-739-0
* Dutt, Romesh C. ''Open Letters to Lord Curzon on Famines and Land Assessments in India'', first published 1900, 2005 edition by Adamant Media Corporation, Elibron Classics Series, ISBN 1-4021-5115-2
* Dutt, Romesh C. ''The Economic History of India under early British Rule'', first published 1902, 2001 edition by [[Routledge]], ISBN 0-415-24493-5
* Forbes, Rosita, ''India of the Princes', London, 1939
* Forrest, G. W., [[CIE]], (editor), ''Selections from The State Papers of the Governors-General of India - Warren Hastings'' (2 vols), [[Blackwell's]], Oxford, 1910
* James, Lawrence, ''Raj - The Making and Unmaking of British India'', London, 1997, ISBN 0-316-64072-7
* Keay, John, ''The Honourable Company - A History of the English East India Company'', [[HarperCollins]], London, 1991, ISBN 0-00-217515-0
* Moorhouse, Geoffrey, ''India Britannica'', Book Club Associates, UK, 1983
* Morris, Jan, with Simon Winchester, ''Stones of Empire - The Buildings of the Raj'', [[Oxford University Press]], 1st edition 1983 (paperback edition 1986, ISBN 0-19-282036-2
* [[Amartya Sen|Sen, Amartya]], ''Poverty and Famines: An Essay on Entitlements and Deprivation'', Oxford, Clarendon Press, 1982
* Srivastava, H.C., ''The History of Indian Famines from 1858-1918'', Sri Ram Mehra and Co., Agra, 1968
* Voelcker, John Augustus, ''Report on the Improvement of Indian Agriculture'', Indian Government publication, [[Calcutta]], 2nd edition, 1897.
* Woodroffe, Sir John, ''Is India Civilized - Essays on Indian Culture'', Madras, 1919.
===Fiction===
*[[Frances Hodgson Burnett|Burnett, Frances Hodgeson]], ''[[The Secret Garden]]''
* [[E. M. Forster|Forster, E.M.]], ''[[A Passage to India]]''
* [[Rudyard Kipling|Kipling, Rudyard]]:
** ''[[Plain Tales from the Hills]]'' (1888, short stories)
** ''The Phantom Rickshaw and other Eerie Tales'' (1888, short stories, containing [[Man Who Would Be King]])
** ''Departmental Ditties and Barrackroom Ballads'' (1890, poetry, containing ''[[Mandalay (poem)|Mandalay]]'' and ''[[Gunga Din]]'')
** ''[[The Jungle Book]]'' (1894, short stories)
** ''[[The Second Jungle Book]]'' (1895, short stories)
** ''[[Kim (novel)|Kim]]'' (1901, novel)
* [[John Masters|Masters, John]]
**''[[The Deceivers]]'' (A novel about [[Thuggee]]).
**''[[Nightrunners of Bengal]]'' (The [[Sepoy Mutiny]] of [[1857]]).
**''[[The Lotus and the Wind]]'' ([[The Great Game]] of British and [[Russia]]n spies on the [[Northwest Frontier]]).
**''[[Bhowani Junction]]'' (Britain's exodus and the [[Partition of India]]).
* [[George Orwell|Orwell, George]], ''[[Burmese Days]]''
* [[Paul Scott|Scott, Paul]]
** ''[[Raj Quartet]]'' comprising of:
*** ''[[The Jewel in the Crown (novel)|The Jewel in the Crown]]'' – (1966)
*** ''[[The Day of the Scorpion]]'' – (1968)
*** ''[[The Towers of Silence]]'' – (1971)
*** ''[[A Division of the Spoils]]'' – (1975)
**''[[Staying On]]'' – (1977)
==External links==
* [http://www.sscnet.ucla.edu/southasia/History/British/BrIndia.html British India Website]
* [[:s:The New Student's Reference Work/India|The New Student's Reference Work/India]] (1914)
* [http://www.imagesofempire.com/ Images of Empire Library, Bristol, UK]
* [http://www.houseofdavid.ca/in_o_off.htm October Offer regarding India’s constitution, of His Majesty's Government 18 October 1939]
* [http://www.houseofdavid.ca/in_a_off.htm August Offer regarding India’s constitution, of His Majesty's Government 8 August 1940]
*[http://www.houseofdavid.ca/Ind_uni.htm#Bibliography British Ruled India (1757-1947) Bibliography of Books Articles and Dissertations Concentrating on 1914-1947]
{{Territories of the British Empire}}
[[Category:British rule in India| ]]
[[ar:الهند البريطانية]]
[[bn:ব্রিটিশ ভারত]]
[[bg:Британска Индия]]
[[cs:Britská Indie]]
[[da:Britisk Indien]]
[[de:Britisch-Indien]]
[[es:Raj Británico]]
[[eo:Brita Hindio]]
[[fr:Raj britannique]]
[[hi:ब्रिटिश राज]]
[[id:Kemaharajaan Britania]]
[[it:Raj Britannico]]
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[[ml:ബ്രിട്ടീഷ് രാജ്]]
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[[ja:イギリス領インド帝国]]
[[no:Britisk India]]
[[nn:Britisk India]]
[[pl:Indie Brytyjskie]]
[[pt:Índia britânica]]
[[ro:India Britanică]]
[[ru:Британская Индия]]
[[simple:British Raj]]
[[fi:Brittiläinen Intia]]
[[sv:Brittiska Indien]]
[[th:บริติชราช]]
[[tr:Britanya Hindistanı]]
[[wuu:英属印度]]
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