British toponymy
144873
226107765
2008-07-16T21:18:33Z
Ghmyrtle
1698793
/* Anglo-Saxon names */
'''British toponymy''' is the study of British place names, their origins and trends in naming. Toponymy is distinct from the study of [[etymology]], which is concerned mainly with the origin of the words themselves.
British toponymy is rich, complex and diverse. Modern interpretations are apt to be inexact and non-empirical. Many British forms and names have been corrupted and broken down over the years due to changes in language and culture which caused the original meanings to be lost. In some cases words used in place names are derived from languages that are [[extinct]], and of which there are no extant known definitions. Many place names are also many compounds between two separate languages from separate periods.
Place names almost always have meanings which were significant to the settlers of a locality (not necessarily the first settlers). Sometimes these meanings are still obvious (Newcastle, Three Oaks), but more often elucidating them requires study of older languages. In general, British place names contain three major types of elements: personal names (or pre-existing names of natural features), natural features and settlement functions. However, these elements derive from the several different languages which have been spoken in the British Isles, and the combinations in a single name may not all date from the same period (or same language). Much of the inferred development of British place name relies on the breaking down and corruption of place names. As the names lose their original meaning (because a new or modified language becomes spoken), the names are either changed, or drift to new forms, or are added to. An interesting example is Torpenhow Hill, in [[Cumbria]]; the name seems to have grown by addition of new elements by people who did not understand the original name. The four syllables; tor, pen, how, and hill, all mean 'hill' in a different language.
==Origins==
The place names of the United Kingdom are unusually rich and diverse, primarily as a result of historical changes in language and culture. These affected different parts of the British Islands to different extents, resulting in a mosaic effect in the names of places. The exact nature of these linguistic/cultural changes is often controversial <ref> Pryor, F. Britain AD, ISBN 9780007181872 </ref>, but the general consensus is as follows.
The British Isles were inhabited during the [[Stone Age|Stone]] and [[Bronze Age]]s by an 'unknown' people; in that we have no historical documentation for them. The language spoken by these people may have been a non [[indo-european]] language (roughly equivalent to [[Basque]]); however, there is no evidence either way. During the [[Iron Age]], we can observe that the population of Britain shared a culture with the so called 'Celtic' peoples inhabiting Northern Europe at the time <ref> Pryor, F. Britain BC. ISBN 9780007126934 </ref>. Land use patterns to do not appreciably change from the Bronze Age period, suggesting that the population remained in situ <ref>''Ibid''</ref>. Although there is little direct evidence, the Romans thought that the Britons were 'celtic', and the names given to historical British rulers of this period are 'celtic'. [[Celtic languages]] are still spoken (or were until recently) in [[Wales]], [[Scotland]], [[Eire]], [[Cumbria]] and [[Cornwall]]. Together with the evidence of shared culture, this suggests that the entire population of the British Isles spoke a Celtic language(s) up to the Roman conquest, possibly since the Stone age.
The 'underlay' of British place names is thus Celtic in origin, and more specifically Brythonic ('British'), to distinguish it from the closely related Gaelic languages of [[Ireland]]. The oldest place names in England appear to be the names of rivers, many of which can easily be interpreted as Brythonic in origin, e.g. Exe/Axe/Usk, Derwent. In the areas of Great Britain in which Brythonic languages were not replaced until relatively late on (Cumbria, Cornwall), or have not been replaced (Wales), most place names are still essentially Brythonic in origin.
After the Roman conquest, many Roman place names appear, particularly associated with military settlements. However, often these were simply latinisation of existing names; e.g. Verulamium for Verlamion ([[St. Albans]]); Derventio for Derwent [[Malton]]. After the collapse of Roman Britain, few of these place names survived. Most Roman sites are known by later names; many are distinguished as Roman sites by the suffix chester/cester/caster (from the latin Castra = camp), but with no reference to the Roman name. The influence of [[Latin]] on British place names is thus only slight.
In the [[dark age]] which followed the end of the [[Roman Empire]], major changes in the part of Britain now called England occurred (plus or minus Cornwall). The language of this region became Anglo-Saxon, a hybrid germanic language originating in north-west Germany. Traditionally, this has been supposed to be due to a mass migration of Angles and Saxon in Britain, 'pushing back the Celts into Wales and Scotland' <ref> Pryor, F. Britain AD, ISBN 9780007181872 </ref>. However, this view is not supported archaelogically, and it is possible that a small population of Anglo-Saxon settlers 'germanised' this region of Britain over a few generations <ref> Thomas MG, Stumpf MP, Härke H. Evidence for an apartheid-like social structure in early Anglo-Saxon England. Proc Biol Sci. 2006 Oct 22;273(1601):2651-7. </ref>. Regardless of the cause, due to this linguistic (if not cultural etc.) replacement most place names in modern England are discernibly Anglo-Saxon. There is a high level of personal names in the these place names, possibly suggesting that they were named after the first Anglo-Saxon to dwell there. Personal names are less common in Brythonic place names.
A few centuries after, in the period c.850-1050 AD, the north and east of England and the islands and coasts of Scotland were settled by Norse and Danish '[[Vikings]]'<ref> Schama S. A History of Britain Volume 1. ISBN: 9780563487142. </ref>. Many place names in these areas are thus of 'Old Norse' origin. Since Old Norse had many similarities to Anglo-Saxon, there are also many hybrid Saxon/Norse names in the so-called '[[Danelaw]]' of England. Again, these names contain a high level of personal names, suggesting they are named for the local Norse/Danish lord or chieftain.
Contemporaneously, the western parts (and eventually all) of Scotland was settled by people from Ireland, the 'Scotti'. Again, the actual details are hazy, and the degree of 'invasion' versus 'cultural spread' is open for debate <ref> Magnusson, M. Scotland: The Story of a Nation. ISBN 9780006531913 </ref>. It is unclear what language was spoken by the [[Picts]], the name given to the people who inhabited Scotland before (and presumably after) the appearance of the Scotti; it is assumed to be a Brythonic language. What is clear however, is that many place names, in modern Scotland derive from the Gaelic family of languages, rather than Brythonic. This suggests that some place names in Scotland (particularly in the Highlands) may have been gradually modified from Brythonic to Gaelic during the 'invasion' of the Scotti.
After the Norman invasion of England in 1066 AD, some Norman French influences can be detected in place names. However, these are usually appendages to denote ownership by a family, or similar; e.g. [[Stoke Mandeville]]. However, extension of the Norman system into the lowlands of Scotland resulted in the development of [[Scots]] as the spoken language, a hybrid based on Anglo-Saxon. Non-celtic place names are therefore common in the southern part of Scotland, for instance [[Edinburgh]].
Place names in Britain have remained relatively stable since the early Norman period, breaking down and 'weathering' to modern forms, but without further dramatic changes. At most, some place names have continued to accrue pre- or suffixes, such as 'Little'; or distinguishing features, such as a local river name.
==Languages==
There are many other languages which have shaped and informed the nomenclature of the [[United Kingdom]]: various [[Celtic language]]s (including [[Brythonic]], [[Gaelic language|Gaelic]] (Old Irish), [[Scottish Gaelic language|Scots Gaelic]], [[Welsh language|Welsh]], [[Cornish language|Cornish]] and [[Pictish language|Pictish]]), [[Latin]], [[Old English language|Anglo-Saxon]], [[Old Norse language|Old Norse]], [[Norman language|Norman French]], [[French language|modern French]] and a few others besides.
===Pre-Celtic, Celtic and Gaelic names===
The oldest and most ancient of place names tend to be rivers, and are assumed to descend from [[Old European hydronymy|Old European]] pre-[[Celt]]ic languages (of which nothing is known), and must be at least [[Neolithic]] in age.
Place names in [[Cornwall]] are largely Celtic, with elements such as ''tre-'', ''pen-'', and ''lan-''. A scattering of names throughout England are of Celtic origin. [[Welsh placenames|Names in Wales]] are mainly of Celtic origin, common elements including ''llan-'', ''pen-'', and ''cwm-''. In southern Scotland, place names are generally Celtic (both [[Goidelic]] and [[Brythonic]]), Anglo-Saxon, or Scandinavian.
In the Scottish Highlands names are generally Gaelic (such as ''loch'', ''glen'', and ''inver''), with Norse influence around the coasts and islands (including island names ending in ''-ay'').
===Roman names===
''Chester'', ''-cester'', ''-caster'', or other similar elements, indicate a Roman fort or settlement. Medieval Latin added various elements such as ''Regis'' (of the King), ''Magna'' (great), and ''Parva'' (little).
===Anglo-Saxon names===
Place names are generally composed of either a single element or a compound of two elements. The Anglo-Saxons contributed many elements such as ''-ing-'', ''-ham-'', ''-ton'', ''-bury'', ''-stead'', ''-ford'', and ''-ley''. These form the majority of place names in England and some in Wales and Scotland.
The terms "[[Old English language|Old English]]" and "Anglo-Saxon" are fundamentally equivalent in meaning, and represent the hybrid West Germanic language in use between the Roman abandonment of Britain and up to about 100 years after the Norman invasion of 1066.<ref>http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/old%20english</ref>
===Norse and Scandinavian names===
Scandinavian place names such as ''-by'', ''thorpe'', and ''toft'' are commonest in the area covered by the [[Danelaw]], the north and east of England north of [[Watling Street]]. Also in this area, ''church'' becomes ''kirk'' and ''ditch'' becomes ''dike''. In the south and west of England, place names are more Anglo-Saxon.
===Norman French names===
Following the [[Norman conquest]], some place names acquired prefixes or suffixes giving their new owners. or example [[Grays Thurrock]] or [[Stoke Mandeville]]. Other names that are suffixed with the name of a landowning family include ''Stanton Lacy'' and ''Newport Pagnell''. Some names reflect a connection with the church, such as ''Monkwearmouth'' and ''Newton Abbot''.
==Processes==
Back-formation is the process whereby names are derived from one another in the opposite direction to that which one would expect - for example rivers that had the original names forgotten, so the river is named after the town or valley rather than vice versa. The river running through [[Rochdale]] became known as the "Roch" through this process.
Many places derive part of their name from the river next to which they were built; but in the 16th century many English rivers were renamed with [[back-formation]]s from towns on their banks. [[Cambridge]], perhaps uniquely, illustrates both effects: originally ''Grontabricc'', a bridge on the Granta, the name became ''Cantebruge'' and then ''Cambrugge'', from which the river was renamed [[river Cam|Cam]].
Note that in comparison to Old English and Old Norse place names, those in the Celtic languages (Cornish, Welsh, etc.) are almost always composed in reverse order, e.g. Tregonebris is ''tre'' + ''Conebris'' i.e. "the settlement of Cunebris". This is not true of all Celtic names: e.g. [[Malvern]], from elements represented by Modern Welsh "Moelfryn" (''moel'' + ''bryn'' - "bald hill").
==Problematic elements==
Some names originally referred to a specific natural feature such as a river, ford or hill, that can no longer be identified. The name of this natural feature survives because it was subsequently applied to a nearby [[Human settlement|settlement]]. For example, [[Whichford]] (Warwickshire) means "the ford on the Hwicce", but the location of the ford is lost<ref>Della Hooke, ''The Landscape of Anglo-Saxon England'' (Leicester University Press, Reprinted 2001, page 9)</ref>.
Factors like changes in spelling over the years, shifts of meaning, and other ambiguities may further complicate the issue. For example, in places where the [[Danelaw]] prevailed and where there is uncertainty over the origin of a place name, it is common sense to prefer the [[Old Norse]] meaning to the [[Old English language|Old English]] one; often, however, they are the same. Taking, for instance, [[Askrigg]] in [[Yorkshire]], 'ash ridge' <ref>http://www.nottingham.ac.uk/english/ins/kepn/detailpop.php?placeno=6084. Retrieved 3/7/08.</ref>: while the first element is indubitably the Norse ''asc'' (pronounced "ask"), ''ask-'' could easily represent a "Norsification" of the Old English form ''æsc'' (pronounced "ash"). In the case however, both ''asc'' and ''æsc'' mean the same - 'ash' (tree).
Sometimes, however, it was a case of incomers changing a name to match their own pronunciation habits without reference to the original meaning. Thus [[Skipton]], [[North Yorkshire]], had it not been for settlement of the area by Norse speakers, would have come down to us as "Shipton" (Old English ''scip(e)tun'' - "sheep farm") <ref>http://www.nottingham.ac.uk/english/ins/kepn/detailpop.php?placeno=5921. Retrieved 3/7/08.</ref>. The Old Norse word for 'sheep' was quite different (it produced the name Faroes - the "sheep islands"), so the new settlers were not ''translating'' the name, but simply reflecting the way the English "sh-" sound regularly corresponded to Norse "sk-" in words which ''were'' cognate (as we already saw with ''asc'' and ''æsc'').
Spellings can be misleading - for example [[Croydon]] is in a valley and [[Willesden]] is on a hill. Their expected spellings might therefore be "Croyden" and "Willesdon".
One problematic element is the Old English ''-ey'', as in "[[Romsey]]". This commonly means "island", including "island in marsh". However, it can have other meanings, so for example in "[[Hornsey]]" ''-ey'' means "enclosure". The elements ''wich'' and ''wick'' can have a variety of meanings, often connected with industry or commerce. Some of the sites are of Roman origin. On the coast, ''wick'' is very often of Norse origin, meaning "bay" or "inlet".
==Toponymy by Region==
==References==
{{Reflist}}
==See also==
*[[Place names in Irish]] for toponymy of Northern Ireland and the Republic of Ireland
*[[List of generic forms in British place names]] with explanations and examples
*[[Welsh placenames]]
*[[Etymological list of counties of the United Kingdom]]
*[[List of places in the United Kingdom]]
*[[List of UK place names with royal patronage]]
*[[List of United Kingdom locations]]
==External links==
*[http://keithbriggs.info/English_placename_element_distribution.html Maps of distribution of final elements in English place-names]
*[http://keithbriggs.info/Bayes_placenames.html Bayesian analysis of UK place-names]
*[http://www.nottingham.ac.uk/english/ins/kepn/ A key to English place-names] from the Institute for Name Studies, Nottingham
*[http://placenames.bangor.ac.uk//English/index.html University of Wales Place-name Research Centre]
[[Category:Toponymy]]
[[Category:British toponymy]]