Bukovina 224692 223913068 2008-07-06T13:59:36Z Adriatikus 957416 /* Kingdom of Romania */ ro diacritical [[Image:Flag of Bukowina.svg|thumb|Flag (''Landesfarben'') of Bukovina in [[Austria-Hungary]]]] [[Image:Regions of Moldavia.png|thumb|right|Bukovina within historic Moldavia]] [[Image:Bucovina.JPG|thumb|right|Bukovina in 1901]] '''Bukovina''' ([[Romanian language|Romanian]]: ''Bucovina''; {{lang-uk|Буковина}}/''Bukovyna''; [[German language|German]] and [[Polish language|Polish]]: ''Bukowina''; see also [[List of European regions with alternative names#B|other languages]]) is a historical region on the northern slopes of the northeastern [[Carpathian Mountains]] and the adjoining plains. It is currently split between [[Romania]] and [[Ukraine]]. ==Name== The name ''Bukovina'' came into official use in 1775 with the region's annexation from the [[Principality of Moldavia]] to the possessions of the [[Habsburg Monarchy]], which became [[Austrian Empire]] in 1804, and [[Austria-Hungary]] in 1867. The official [[German language|German]] name, ''die Bukowina'', of the province under Austrian rule (1775–1918), was derived from the [[Polish language|Polish]] form ''Bukowina'', which in turn comes from the [[Slavic languages|Slavic]] word for [[beech]] tree (''бук'' [buk] in [[Ukrainian language|Ukrainian]]).<ref>[http://www.encyclopediaofukraine.com/display.asp?AddButton=pages\B\U\Bukovyna.htm Display Page<!-- Bot generated title -->]</ref> This was due to the fact that from 1775 until 1849, <!--- and for some years prior, :This contradicts the rest of the text, and no source is given---> '''Bukovina''' was administered as an integral part of neighbouring [[Galicia (Central Europe)|Galicia]], whose internal government was, by active Austrian policy, controlled by Polish bureaucrats and nobles ([[szlachta]]). Another German name for region, ''das Buchenland'', is mostly used in poetry, and means ''"beech land"'', or ''"the land of beech trees"''. During the Middle Ages, the region was the northwestern third <!---northern half : It was LESS than half, maybe even less than 1/3, 2 out of 7 "lands". The other 5 are: Hotin, Dorohoi, Harlau, Neamt, and Bacau. "Upper country" comes as a geographic designation of an already made political divide: two sons of Alexander the Kind had split the country into what seemed to them two halves: one got 7 lands and fortress of Suceava, the other got 16 lands and fortress of Cetatea Alba. But they fought again the next year, and the country was united again. Yet, this provided a motive for creating boyar positions of "Vornic" of Lower and Upper countries, the 3rd resp 4th political positions in the country. The 16 were NOT that bigger than the 7, since they were less populous, some were very small (Carligatura, Tecuci, Covurlui), some where losely connected to the Principality (Putna/Vrancea until Stephen the Great, Budjak was populated by Crimean Tatars), some where just created (Tighina was split from Lapusna), and some (Soroca, Orhei, Lapusna) had free peasants, hence practically no income.---> of "Ţara de Sus" (''Upper Country'' in Romanian) part of the [[Moldavian Principality]], as opposed to "Ţara de Jos" (Lower Country). The region was the cradle of the [[Moldavian Principality]], and remained its political center until 1574, when its capital was moved from [[Suceava]] to [[Iaşi]]. Nowadays in Ukraine it is common to use the terms ''[[Chernivtsi Oblast]]'' and ''Bukovina'' interchangeably, since over 2/3 of [[Oblast]] (province) is Northern Bukovina. In Romania the term ''Northern Bucovina'' is synonymous to Chernivtsi Oblast of Ukraine, and ''(Southern) Bucovina'' to [[Suceava County]] of Romania, although 10% of the Suceava County covers territory not included in historical Southern Bukovina. In English, an alternate form is ''The Bukovina'', increasingly an archaism, which, however, is found in older literature. ==History== ===Before the 14th century=== During [[Stone age]], Bukovina was populated by [[Cucuteni culture|Cucuteni-Trypillian]] culture of early [[settler]]s ([[4500 BC]] &ndash; [[3000 BC]]), which was overrun, around [[2000 BC]], by the migration of [[Indo-European people|Indo-Europeans]]. Starting with the [[2nd millennium BC]], it was inhabited by the [[Dacians|Dacian tribes]], such as [[Costoboci]] and [[Carpians]], for a period cohabitated also by the Celto-Germanic tribe of [[Bastarnae]]. From approx. [[70 BC]] to [[44 BC]], the region was incorporated in the Dacian polity of [[Burebista]]. When the Dacian Kingdom of [[Decebal]], which included the territories just on the other side of the Carpathian Mountains from what is today Bukovina, fell to the Romans in [[106]], the area came under linguistic and cultural influence of the [[Roman Empire]]. In [[3rd century]] (240s–270s) the region was plundered by the [[Goths]], in the [[4th century]] by the [[Huns]] (370s–380s), and in the [[6th century]] (560s–570s) by the [[Eurasian Avars|Avars]]. Beginning with the [[6th century]], [[Slavic peoples|Slavic populations]] entered the region and influenced the locals in respect to language and certain agricultural methods (e.g. burning the forests to increase the cultivated land). In [[797]] the [[Eurasian Avars|Avars]], who settled in today's [[Hungary]] and collected regular tribute from the peasants all over south-eastern Europe, were defeated by [[Charlemagne]]. The low-land teritorry of the present-day Bukovina was included in a Vlach polity{{Fact|date=February 2007}}, which had its center at [[Dorohoi]] (approx. 20 km east of Bukovina), then at [[Siret]] (in the center of Bukovina). The villages of the [[Câmpulung Moldovenesc|Campulung]] Valley formed a "republic" that preserved its autonomy even under the [[Principality of Moldavia]]. Immediately to the north of Bukovina, in 12th to early 14th century was the [[East Slavic]] Principality of [[Halych-Volhynia]], formely a part [[Kievan Rus]] ([[880]]–[[12th century]]), which expanded over parts of the region. {{Fact|date=February 2007}} The Vlach voivodes and the Slavic Princes were often allied in defending against the [[Tatars]] in 1240s–1340s, but were defeated. ===Moldavian Principality=== In the mid-14th century, the Moldavian state appeared, eventually expanding its territory all the way to the [[Black Sea]]. The Bukovina and neighboring regions were the nucleus of the [[Moldavian Principality]], with the city of [[Suceava]] as its capital from 1388 (after [[Baia]] and [[Siret]]). The name of [[Moldavia]] (''Moldova'') is derived from a river ([[Moldova River]]) flowing in Bukovina. In the 15th century, [[Pokuttya]], the region immediately to the north, became the subject of disputes between the Moldavian Principality and the [[History of Poland (1385–1569)|Polish Kingdom]], and in 1497 a batlle took place at the [[Battle of the Cosmin Forest|Cosmin Forest]] (the hilly forests separating [[Chernivtsi]] and [[Siret]] valleys), at which [[Stephen III of Moldavia]] managed to defeat the much-stronger but demoralized army of King [[John I Albert of Poland]], known in Polish popular culture as "''the battle when the knights have perished''". In this period, the patronage of [[Stephen III of Moldavia]] and his successors on the throne of Moldavia saw the construction of the famous painted monasteries of [[Moldoviţa]], [[Suceviţa]], [[Putna]], [[Humor]], [[Voroneţ]], [[Dragomirna]], [[Arbore]], and others. With their renowned exterior [[fresco]]es, these monasteries remain some of the greatest cultural treasures of [[Romania]]; some of them are [[World Heritage Site]]s, part of the [[painted churches of northern Moldavia]]. Stephen also settled the first [[Ruthenia]]ns in Bukovina with the hope of having a loyal and more numerous population that would contribute with taxes.{{Fact|date=April 2008}} In [[Suceava]], in the 16th century, two percent of the population (i.e. about 500–1000 people) was Ruthenian.{{Fact|date=April 2008}} In 1538, the Moldavian Principality came under the control of the [[Ottoman Turks]], but it remained autonomous and was governed as before by a native [[Voivode|Voivod]]. For short periods of time (during wars), the Polish Kingdom occupied parts of northern Moldavia. However, the old border was re-established every time after, as for example on [[14 October]] [[1703]] the Polish delegate Martin Chometowski acknowledges "Between us and [[Vlachs|Wallachia]] (i.e. Moldavia) God himself set [[Dniester]] as the border" (''Inter nos et Valachiam ipse Deus flumine Tyras dislimitavit''). In the course of the [[Russo-Turkish War, 1768-1774|Russo-Turkish War of 1768–1774]], the Ottoman armies were defeated by the [[Russian Empire]], that occupied the region during [[15 December]] [[1769]] – September 1774, and previously during [[14 September]]–October 1739. Bukovina was the reward the Habsburgs received for aiding (saving) the Ottomans in that war. Prince [[Grigore III Ghica]] of [[Moldavia]] protested and was prepared to take action to recover the territory, but was assassinated, and a Greek-[[Phanar]]iot foreigner was put on the throne of [[Moldavia]] by the Ottomans. ===Austrian Empire=== [[Image:Bukovina 1910.jpg|thumb|Ethnic map of the Austrian province of ''Bukowina'']] The [[Habsburg Monarchy|Austrian Empire]] occupied Bukovina in October 1774. Following the first [[partition of Poland]] in 1772, the Austrians claimed that they needed it for ''a road between Galicia and Transylvania''. Bukovina was formally annexed in January 1775. On [[2 July]] [[1776]], at Palamutka, Austrians and Ottomans signed a border convention, Austrians giving back 59 of the previously occupied villages, and remaining with 278 villages. Bukovina was a closed military district (1775&ndash;1786), then the largest district, ''[[Kreis]] Czernowitz'' (after its capital [[Czernowitz]]) of the Austrian constituent [[Galicia (Central Europe)|Kingdom of Galicia and Lodomeria]] (1787&ndash;1849), and, finally, on [[4 March]] [[1849]], became a separate Austrian [[Kronland]] 'crown land' under a ''[[Landespräsident]]'' (not a ''Statthalter'', as in other crown lands) and declared ''Herzogtum Bukowina'' (nominal duchy, as part of the official full style of the Austrian Emperors). In 1860 it was again amalgamated with Galicia, but reinstated as a separate province once again [[26 February]] [[1861]], a status that would last until 1918.<ref name="historyofukraine">Paul Robert Magocsi. ''A History of Ukraine.'' Toronto: University of Toronto Press (1996), p. 420 ISBN 0-8020-0830-5</ref> In 1849 Bukovina got a representative assembly, the ''Landtag'' (diet). The [[Moldavian]] nobility had traditionally formed the ruling class in that territory. In 1867 it remained part of the [[Cisleithania]]n or Austrian territories of the [[Austria-Hungary|Austro-Hungarian Empire]] until 1918. According to the 1775 Austrian census, the province had the total population of 86,000, made up mostly of Romanians (Moldovans), and up to 10,000 Slavs (Polish, Ruthenians and Hutzuls). <!---The name Ukrainian can not be used before middle 1800s, so the name Ruthenian must be used instead, which is the same, but is accurate historically. Also you forgot the important Polish community of Bukovina. In which order to list then, I don't know--->During the 19th century the Austrian Empire policies encouraged the influx of many immigrants such as Germans, Poles, Jews, Hungarians, and [[Ukrainians]] (that time referred to as [[Ruthenians]]) from [[Galicia (Central Europe)|Galicia]]. By 1900 the Romanian population decreased to roughly 40% of Bukovina, with significant Ukrainian (including [[Hutzul]]s) (especially in villages in the northern half), [[Germany|German]], [[Jewish]], [[Poland|Polish]] (especially in towns), and [[Hungarian people|Hungarian]] (several villages) minorities. To reflect this ethnicity shift, in 1843 the [[Ruthenian language]] was recognized, along with the [[Romanian language]], as 'the language of the people and of the Church in Bukovina'<ref> ''[http://www.jewishgen.org/yizkor/bukovina/buk001.html#Decline%20of%20Rumanian%20Nationality Bukovina Handbook]'', prepared under the Direction of the Historical Section of the British Foreign Office No.6. Published in London, Feb.1919.</ref> ===Late-19th to early-20th centuries=== The 1871 and 1904 jubilees held at [[Putna Monastery]], near the tomb of [[Stephen III of Moldavia|Ştefan cel Mare]], have constituted tremendous moments for Romanian national identity in Bukovina. Since gaining its independence, [[Kingdom of Romania|Romania]] envisioned to incorporate this historic province which, as a core of [[Moldavian Principality]], was of a great historic significance to its [[History of Romania|history]] and contained many prominent monuments of its [[Art of Romania|art]] and architecture. [http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9017989?query=bukovina] Despite the influx of migrants encouraged under the Austrian rule, Romanians continued to be the largest ethnic group in the province until 1880, when Ruthenians (Ukrainians) outnumbered the Romanians 5:4. According to the 1880 census there were 239,690 Ruthenians and [[Hutzul]]s, or roughly 41.5% of the population of the region, while Romanians were second with 190,005 people or 33%, a ratio that remained unchanged until [[World War I]]. [[Ruthenia]]n is an archaic name for [[Ukrainians|Ukrainian]], while the [[Hutsul]]s are nowadays considered as an ethnic group of Ukrainian stock (ethnically [[Vlach]] shepherds who acquired a Slavic (Ukrainian) language). Under Austrian rule Bukovina remained ethnically mixed: predominantly [[Romanians|Romanian]] in the south, [[Ukrainians|Ukrainian]] (commonly referred to as [[Ruthenians]] in the Empire) in the north, with small numbers of Hungarian [[Székely]], [[Slovaks|Slovak]] and [[Poland|Polish]] peasants, and [[Germans]], [[Poles]] and [[Jews]] in the towns. The 1910 census counted 800 198 people, of which: [[Ruthenian]] 38.88%, [[Romanians|Romanian]] 34.38%, [[Ethnic German|German]] 21.24%, [[Jews]] 12.86%, [[Polish people|Polish]] 4.55%, [[Hungarian people|Hungarian]] 1.31%, [[Slovaks|Slovak]] 0.08%, [[Slovenes|Slovene]] 0.02%, [[Italian people|Italian]] 0.02%, and a few [[Armenians|Armenian]], [[Croat]], [[Roma people|Gypsy]], [[Serbs|Serbian]], and [[Turkish people|Turkish]]. [[Romanians]] were still present in all settlements of the region, but their number decreased in the villages in the north. Many of Bukovina's Germans, and a few Romanians, emigrated in 19th and 20th century to North America. [http://www.bukovinasociety.org] [http://freepages.genealogy.rootsweb.com/~bakerroots/bukovina.html] [http://www.bukovinasociety.org/ellingson-brzl-2001-a.html] In 1783, by an [[Imperial Decree|imperial decree]] [[Greek Orthodox]] eparchies in Bukovina and [[Dalmatia]] form an Archbishopric with seat in [[Czernowitz]], later rased to the rank of ''Metropolitanate'' [http://www.putna.ro/istorie/cronologia.htm]. Some friction appeared in time between the Serb archbishops, and the Romanians complaining that [[Old East Slavic|Old Slavonic]] is favored to [[Romanian language|Romanian]], and that family names are being [[Slavic peoples|slavicized]]. In spite of Romanian-Slav frictions over the influence in the local [[Eastern Orthodoxy|Orthodox]] clerical hierarchy, there was no Romanian-Ukrainian inter-ethnic tension, and both cultures developed in educational and public life. Moreover, at the end of the 19th century, the development of [[Ukrainian culture]] in Bukovina surpassed [[Galicia (Central Europe)|Galicia]] and the rest of Ukraine with a network of Ukrainian educational facilities. In the early 20th century, a group of scholars surrounding the Austrian [[Archduke Franz Ferdinand]] created a plan (that never came to pass) of [[United States of Greater Austria]]. The specific proposal was published in Aurel C. Popovici's book „Die Vereinigten Staaten von Groß-Österreich“ [The United States of Greater Austria], Leipzig, 1906. According to it, most of Bukovina (including [[Czernowitz]]) would form, with [[Transylvania]], a Romanian state, while the north-western portion (Zastavna, Kozman, Waschkoutz, Wiznitz, Gura Putilei, and Seletin districts) would form with the bigger part of [[Galicia (Central Europe)|Galicia]] a Ukrainian state, both in a federation with 13 other states under the Austrian crown. [http://terkepek.adatbank.transindex.ro/legbelso.php3?nev=127] <ref>-thth-://www.bukovinasociety.org/#What%20and%20Where%20is%20Bukovina</ref> ===Kingdom of Romania=== In [[World War I]], several battles were fought in Bukovina between the [[Austria-Hungary|Austro-Hungarian]], [[German Empire|German]], and [[Imperial Russia|Russian]] armies, which resulted in the Russian army being driven out in 1917. With the collapse of [[Austria-Hungary]] in 1918, both the local [[Romanian National Council]] and the [[Ukrainian National Council]] based in Galicia claimed the region. A Consitituent Assembly on 14/27 October 1918 formed an Executive Committee, to whom the Austrian governor of the province handed power. The Executive Committee called a [[General Congress of Bukovina]] for 15/28 November 1918, where 74 Romanians, 13 Ruthenians, 7 Germans, and 6 Poles were elected (this is the linguistic composition, and Jews were not recorded as a separate group). A popular enthusiasm sprang throughout the region, and a large number of people gathered in the city to wait for the resolution of the Congress. [http://www.cimec.ro/Istorie/Unire/inainte.htm]<ref>Ion Bulei, Scurta istorie a românilor, Editura Meronia, Bucuresti, 1996, pp. 104-107</ref> The Congress elected the Romanian Bukovinian politician [[Iancu Flondor]] as chairman, and voted for the union with the [[Kingdom of Romania]], with the support of the Romanian, German, Jewish, and Polish representatives, and the opposition of the Ukrainian ones. The reasons stated were that, until its takeover by the Habsburg in 1775, Bukovina was the heart of the [[Principality of Moldavia]], where the ''"gropniţele domneşti"'' (voivods' burial sites) are located, and ''"dreptul de liberă hotărâre de sine"'' (right of self-determination).<ref>''"Congresul general al Bucovinei, intrupand suprema putere a tarii si fiind investiti cu puterea legiuitoare, in numele suveranitatii nationale, hotaram: Unirea neconditionata si pe vecie a Bucovinei in vechile ei hotare pana la Ceremuş, Colacin si Nistru cu Regatul Romaniei".'' The General congress of Bukovina, embodying the supreme power of the country [Bukovina], and invested with legislative power, in the name of national sovereignty, we decide: Unconditional and eternal union of Bukovina, in its old boundaries up to Ceremuş [river], Colachin and Dniester [river] with the Kingdom of Romania.</ref> After an official request by [[Iancu Flondor]], Romanian troops swiftly moved in to take over the territory, against Ukrainian protest.<ref name=EncUkr>[http://encyclopediaofukraine.com/display.asp?AddButton=pages\B\U\Bukovyna.htm Bukovyna], Encyclopedia of Ukraine</ref> Although local Ukrainians attempted to incorporate parts of northern Bukovina into the short-lived [[West Ukrainian People's Republic]], this attempt was defeated by the Polish and Romanian troops. Romanian control of the province was recognized internationally in the [[Treaty of St. Germain]] in 1919. During the [[interwar period]] Romanian authorities directed [[Rumanization]] policies at the Ukrainian population of the region. [[Romanian language]] was introduced into ethnic minority schools in 1923, and by 1926 all Ukrainian schools in Bukovina were closed. At the same time, the Ukrainian enrollment in the [[Chernivtsi University|Cernăuţi University]] fell from 239 out of 1671, in 1914, to 155 out of 3,247, in 1933, while Romanian enrollment in the same period increased several times to 2,117 out of 3,247.<ref>A. Zhukovsky, [http://www.encyclopediaofukraine.com/pages/C/H/ChernivtsiUniversity.htm Chernivtsi University], ''Encyclopedia of Ukraine'', 2001, Canadian Institute of Ukrainian Studies. Accessed 11 February 2006.</ref> This was partly due to attempts to switch to mostly Romanian language, and partly to the fact that the university was one of only five in Romania, and was considered prestigious. From 1928, as Romania tried to improve its relations with [[Soviet Union]] during 1928&ndash;1938, Ukrainian culture was given some limited means to redevelop, though the gains were sharply reversed in 1938. According to the 1930 Romanian census, [[Romanians]] made up almost 45% of the total population of Bukovina and Ruthenians (Ukrainians) 29.2%. However, in the northern part of the region, which subsequently was ceded to the [[USSR]] following the [[June 1940 Soviet Ultimatum]], Romanians made up only 32.6% of the population, while Ukrainians slightly outnumbered Romanians. In 1940, when the region was occupied by the [[Soviet Union]], [[Chernivtsi Oblast]] (2/3 of which is Northern Bukovina) had a population of circa 805,000, out of which 47.5% were Ukrainians in 1940, and 28.3% were Romanians, with Germans, Jews, Poles, Hungarians and Russians comprising the rest{{Fact|date=February 2007}}. Some Romanian intellectuals fled the region before the Soviet occupation. The prevailing Ukrainian population was a motivation for inclusion of the region into the [[Ukrainian SSR]], but not into the newly-formed [[Moldavian SSR]]. Whether the region would have been included in the [[Ukrainian SSR]], if the commission presiding over the division had been led by someone else than the Ukrainian communist leader [[Nikita Khrushchev]], remains a debate among scholars. ===Preceding events and Second World War === Following the [[Ribbentrop-Molotov Pact]], the [[June 1940 Soviet Ultimatum]] demanded from [[Romania]] the northern part of Bukovina, a region bordering [[Galicia (Central Europe)|Galicia]] (the latter annexed by the [[Soviet Union]] at [[1939]] [[Invasion of Poland (1939)|Poland's partition in 1939]]). The Soviet demand for Bukovina surprised [[Nazi Germany]], though it did not formally oppose it. In the first Soviet ultimatum addressed to the Romanian government, the partly Ukrainian populated northern Bukovina was "demanded" as a minor ''"reparation for the great loss produced to the Soviet Union and [[Bassarabia]]'s population by twenty-two years of Romanian domination of [[Bassarabia]]"''. On [[28 June]] [[1940]], the Romanian government evacuated Northern Bukovina, and the [[Red Army]] moved in, with the new Soviet-Romanian border being traced less than 20 kilometers north of [[Putna Monastery]]. In the course of the [[Operation Barbarossa|1941 attack on the Soviet Union]] by the [[Axis forces]], the [[Romanian Third Army]] led by General [[Petre Dumitrescu]] (operating in the north) and the Romanian Fourth Army (operating in the south) re-occupied Northern Bukovina, as well as [[Hertsa Raion|Hertsa district]], and [[Bassarabia]], during June–July 1941. However, then it continued the war, and occupied during 1941–1944 proper <!---It is important to distinguish that Romania occupied in 1941–1944 territoties that were not Romanian before 1940, therefore the word "proper" is more appropriate than "other"--->Soviet territories in the south of [[Ukrainian SSR]] — the [[Odessa Oblast]], and parts of [[Mykolaiv Oblast|Mykolaiv]] and [[Vinnytsia Oblast|Vinnytsia]] [[oblast]]s. <!---It is known exactly which territories---> During 1940–1950, major demographic changes occurred in northern Bukovina. These demographic shifts are explained by several separate but concurrent phenomena: #fleeing of a part of the population to Romania (mainly, but not exclusively, ethnic Romanians) #repatriation of Germans, Hungarians and Poles #systematic repression, mass deportation and exterminations by the Soviet regime (again mainly, although not exclusively, directed against Romanians) #deportation of the Jewish population by the Romanian authorities to the Romanian and German run [[extermination camp]]s{{Fact|date=April 2008}}. In the first year of Soviet occupation, the population of the region decreased by more than 250,000. According to [[NKVD]] orders, tens of thousands of Romanian families were deported to [[Siberia]] during this period [http://noinu.rdscj.ro/article.php?articleID=149&document=3#_ftn2], with 12,191 people deported on [[2 August]] [[1940]] (less than a month after the occupation) [http://noinu.rdscj.ro/article.php?articleID=149&document=3#_ftn2], and another 2,057 persons deported to Siberia in December 1940, together with their families [http://www.ziua.ro/display.php?id=183159&data=2005-08-20&ziua=40514329d9c319e3a6c30e040e4a40d9]. The largest action took place on [[13 June]] [[1941]], when about 13,000 people were deported to Siberia and Kazakhstan. [http://www.unhcr.md/article/masspop_ro.htm] Until the repatriation convention{{Fact|date=February 2007}}<!--what convention? it probably talks about re-patriation -- see also older version, I will correct---> of [[15 April]] [[1941]], NKVD troops killed hundreds of Romanian peasants of Northern Bukovina as they tried to cross the border into Romania in order to escape from Soviet authorities.<!-- [http://noinu.rdscj.ro/article.php?articleID=149&document=10] ref not needed here, it's in the Fântâna Albă massacre article --> This culminated on [[1 April]] [[1941]] with the [[Fântâna Albă massacre]]. Almost the entire German population of northern Bukovina was forcebly resettled in 1940–1941 (''Umsiedlung'') to the Reichland, during [[15 September]] – [[15 November]] [[1940]]. About 45,000 ethnic Germans had left Northern Bukovina by November 1940.<ref>Leonid Ryaboshapko. Pravove stanovishche natsionalnyh menshyn v Ukraini (1917–2000), P. 259 (in Ukrainian).</ref> This figure, higher than the size of the German minority, included also a couple thousand Romanians, Ukrainian, etc., posing as Germans to flee the Soviet rule.{{Fact|date=February 2007}} In July 1941, the new Romanian military government counted at least 36,000 missing persons. After the war the [[Soviet Union|Soviet]] government deported or killed about 41,000 [[Romanians]]. [http://www.observatorul.com/articles_main.asp?action=articleviewdetail&ID=1951] Almost the entire Jewish community of Northern Bukovina was [[the Holocaust#Who was directly involved in the killings.3F|destroyed]] by the [[Romania during World War II#Romania and the Holocaust|deportations]] to the [[death camps]] (see [[Bogdanovka]]) over the [[Dniester River]]. Despite his promise that he would treat Jews from territories not occupied by the Soviets differently, Romanian leader [[Ion Antonescu]] ordered deportation of Jews also from [[Suceava]] county. Consequently, in 1941 and 1942, 21,229 Jews from southern Bukovina were deported.{{Fact|date=February 2007}} <!---same as above, this is not an expression of doubt, just request for the source---> === After the war === In 1944 the [[Red Army]] drove the [[Axis forces]] out and re-established the Soviet control over the territory. Romania was forced to formally cede the northern part of Bukovina to the [[USSR]] by the 1947 [[Paris peace treaty]]. The territory became part of the [[Ukrainian SSR]] as [[Chernivtsi Oblast]] ([[oblast|province]]). After the war, the [[Soviet]] government deported or killed about 41,000 [[Romanians]].{{Fact|date=February 2007}} As a result of killings and mass deportations, entire villages, mostly inhabited by Romanians, were abandoned (Albovat, Frunza, I.G.Duca, Buci — completely erased, Prisaca, Tanteni and Vicov — destroyed to a large extent).<ref name=Tara>Ţara fagilor: Almanah cultural-literar al românilor nord-bucovineni. Cernăuţi-Târgu-Mureş, 1994, p. 160. </ref> Men of military age (and sometimes above) were conscripted into the Soviet Army. That did not protect them, however, from being arrested and deported for being "anti-Soviet elements". As a reaction, partisan groups (composed of both Romanians and Ukrainians) began to operate against the Soviets in the woods around [[Cernăuţi]], Crasna and [[Codrii Cosminului]].<ref>Dragoş Tochiţă. Români de pe Valea Siretului de Sus, jertfe ale ocupaţiei nordului Bucovinei şi terorii bolşevice. - Suceava, 1999. - P. 35.(in Romanian)</ref> In Crasna (in the former [[Storozhynets]] county) villagers attacked Soviet soldiers who were sent to "temporarily resettle" them, since they feared deportation. This resulted in dead and wounded among the villagers, who had no firearms. Spring 1945 saw the formation of transports of Polish repatriates who (voluntarily or by coercion) had decided to leave. Between March 1945 and July 1946, 10,490 inhabitants left northern Bukovina for Poland, including 8,140 Poles, 2,041 Jews and 309 of other nationalities. Overall, between 1930 (last Romanian census) and 1959 (first Soviet census), the population of northern Bukovina decreased by 31,521 people. According to official data from those two censuses, the Romanian population had decreased by 75,752 people, and the Jewish population by 46,632, while the Ukrainian and Russian populations increased by 135,161 and 4,322 people, respectively. After 1944, the human and economic connections between the northern (Soviet) and southern (Romanian) parts of Bukovina were severed. While the northern part is the nucleus of the Ukrainian [[Chernivtsi Oblast]], the southern part is tightly integrated with Romanian historic regions. ==Population== ===Historical population=== The ethnic composition of Bukovina changed dramatically after 1774, when the region was occupied by the Austrian Empire. The population of Bukovina increased steadily, primarily through immigration, which Austrian authorities encouraged in order to develop the economy.<ref name="ansiedlungswesen_bukowina">Raimund Friedrich Kaindl. ''Das Ansiedlungswesen in der Bukowina seit der Besitzergreifung durch Österreich.'' Innsbruck (1902), pp. 1-71</ref> In 1774 the Romanians constituted an overwhelming majority, roughly 64,000 (85%) of the 75,000 total population, while about 8,000 (10%) were Ruthenians/Ukrainians and 3,000 (4%) others.<ref name="romanians1774-1866">Keith Hitchins. ''The Romanians 1774-1866.'' Oxford: Clarendon Press (1996), pp. 226</ref> By 1810 the Romanian share had fallen from 85% to 75% and in 1848 to only 55%. In the same period, the Ukrainian population rose from 8,000 in 1774 to 108,907 in 1848 and the Jewish population from 526 in 1774 to 11,600 in 1848.<ref name="romanians1774-1866">Keith Hitchins. ''The Romanians 1774-1866.'' Oxford: Clarendon Press (1996), pp. 226</ref> This dramatic change in Bukovina's ethnic composition changed the proportion of Romanians from an overwhelming absolute majority (more than 85% before 1774) to a relative majority (40.5% in 1869) and then a minority (33.4% in 1880). According to the census data of [[Austria-Hungary]], the population of Bukovina was: {| class="wikitable" ! Year ! colspan=2 | Romanians ! colspan=2 | Ukrainians ! colspan=2 | Other |- | 1774 | 64,000 | 85.33% | 8,000 | 10.66% | 3,000 | 4.0% |- | 1786 | 91,823 | 67.8% | 31,671 | 23.4% | 12,000 | 8.8% |- | 1848 | 209,293 | 55.4% | 108,907 | 28.8% | 59,381 | 15.8% |- | 1869 | 207,000 | 40.5% | 186,000 | 36.4% | 118,364 | 23.1% |- | 1880 | 190,005 | 33.4% | 239,960 | 42.2% | 138,758 | 24.4% |- | 1890 | 208,301 | 32.4% | 268,367 | 41.8% | 165,827 | 25.8% |- | 1900 | 229,018 | 31.4% | 297,798 | 40.8% | 203,379 | 27.8% |- | 1910 | 273,254 | 34.1% | 305,101 | 38.4% | 216,574 | 27.2% |} ===Current population=== [[Image:Bucovethn.png|thumb|right|250px|Ethnic divisions in modern Bukovina with Ukrainians, Romanians and Russians areas depicted in light yellow, green, and red respectively. The [[Moldovans]], counted separately in the [[Ukrainian census]] are included in this map as Romanians.]] The present demographic situation in Bukovina hardly resembles the one of the times of the [[Austrian Empire]]. The Northern (Ukrainian) and Southern (Romanian) parts became significantly dominated by their Ukrainian and Romanian majorities, respectively, with the representation of other ethnic groups being decreased significantly. According to the [[Ukrainian Census (2001)]] data [http://www.ukrcensus.gov.ua/eng/], the [[Ukrainians]] represent about 75% (689,100) of the population of [[Chernivtsi Oblast]], which is the closest, although not an exact, approximation of the territory of the historic Northern Bukovina. The census also identified a fall in the [[Romanians|Romanian]] and [[Moldavians|Moldovan]] populations to 12.5% (114.6 thousand) and 7.3% (67.2 thousand), respectively. [[Russians]] are the next largest ethnic group with 4.1%, while [[Poles]], [[Belarusians]], and [[Jews]] comprise the rest 1.2%. The languages of the population closely reflect the ethnic composition, with over 90% within each of the major ethnic groups declaring their national language as the mother tongue ([[Ukrainian language|Ukrainian]], [[Romanian language|Romanian]], and [[Russian language|Russian]], respectively). The fact that [[Romanians]] and [[Moldovans]] were ''presented'' as separate categories in the census ''results'', has been criticized by the [[Romanian Community of Ukraine - Interregional Union]], which complains that this old [[Soviet]]-era practice, results in the Romanian population being undercounted, as being divided between [[Romanians]] and [[Moldovans]]. <!---The two sentances do not contradict each other---> A compact [[Romanians|Romanian]] majority inhabits the southern part of Chernivtsi region, in [[Hertsaivskyi Raion|Hertsa]], [[Novoselytskyi Raion|Novoselitsa]], [[Hlybotskyi Raion|Hlyboka]], and [[Storozhynetskyi Raion|Storozhinets]] [[raion]]s (districts). In [[Putylskyi Raion|Putyla]] and [[Vyzhnytskyi Raion|Vyzhnytsia]] raions [[Ukrainians]] [[Hutzuls]] form the majority. In the other five districts, and the city of [[Chernivtsi]], non-Hutzul [[Ukrainians]] are in the majority. The southern, or Romanian Bukovina has a significant Romanian majority (97.5%), largest minority group being the Ukrainians, who make up 1.2% of the population (2002 census). The Romanian 2002 census was subject to a criticism of undercounting of ethnic minorities in Romania brought up by the Ukrainian communities inside and outside [[Romania]]. {{Fact|date=February 2007}} == Cities and towns == ===Northern Bukovina=== * [[Berehomet]] (Romanian: Berhomete pe Siret) * [[Boyany]] (Romanian: Boian) * [[Chernavka]] (Romanian: Cernauca) * [[Chernivtsi]] (Romanian: Cernăuţi, German:Czernowitz) * [[Hlyboka]] (Romanian: Adâncata) * [[Kitsman]] (Romanian: Cozmeni; German: Kotzman) * [[Krasnoilsk]] (Romanian: Crasna) * [[Luzhany]] (Romanian: Lujeni) * [[Mikhalcha]] * [[Nepolokivtsi]] (Romanian: Nepolocăuţi/Grigore-Ghica Vodă) * [[Novoselytsia]] (Romanian: Suliţa-Târg/Suliţa Nouă/Nouă Suliţi) * [[Putyla]] (Romanian: Putila) * [[Sadhora]] (Romanian: Sădăgura; Polish: Sadagóra) * [[Storozhynets]] (Romanian: Storojineţ) * [[Vashkivtsi]] (Romanian: Văşcăuţi; German: Waschkautz) * [[Voloka, Hlybotskyi Raion]] (Romanian: Voloca; Ukrainian: Волока) * [[Vyzhnytsia]] (Romanian: Vijniţa; German: Wiznitz) * [[Zastavna]] (Romanian: Zastavna) ===Southern Bukovina=== * [[Cajvana]] (Ukrainian: Кажване) * [[Câmpulung Moldovenesc]] (Ukrainian: Кимпулунґ; historic Довгопілля) * [[Frasin]] (Ukrainian: Фрасин) * [[Gura Humorului]] (Ukrainian: Ґура-Гумора) * [[Milişăuţi]] (Ukrainian: Милишівці) * [[Rădăuţi]] (Ukrainian: Радівці; German: Radautz) * [[Siret]] (Ukrainian: Сирет) * [[Solca]] (Ukrainian: Солька) * [[Suceava]] (Ukrainian: Сучава; historic Сочава) * [[Vatra Dornei]] (Ukrainian: Ватра Дорни) * [[Vicovu de Sus]] (Ukrainian: Верхнє Викове) ==See also== {{Wikisourcelang|ro|La Bucovina|La Bucovina (Mihai Eminescu original poem in Romanian)}} *[[Moldavian Principality]] *[[Galicia (Central Europe)]] *[[Székelys of Bukovina]] ==Footnotes== {{reflist}} == References == {{Wikisource1911Enc|Bukovina}} *{{cite book | author=edited by O. Derhachov | title=Українська державність у ХХ столітті. (Ukrainian statehood of the twentieth century) | publisher= Politychna Dumka | year = 1996 | language=Ukrainian }} *[http://www.deutsche-schutzgebiete.de/kuk_bukowina.htm] (original version, in German - use English and French versions with caution) *[http://www.worldstatesmen.org/Ukraine.html#Bukovina WorldStatesmen (under Ukraine)] * Dumitru Covălciuc. Românii nord-bucovineni în exilul totalitarismului sovietic * Victor Bârsan "Masacrul inocenţilor", Bucuresti, 1993, pp.18–19 * Ştefan Purici. Represiunile sovietice... P. 255–258; * Vasile Ilica. Fântâna Albă: O mărturie de sânge (istorie, amintiri, mărturii). - Oradea: Editura Imprimeriei de Vest, 1999. * Marian Olaru. Consideraţii preliminare despre demografie si geopolitica pe teritoriul Bucovinei. Analele Bucovinei. Tomul VIII. Partea I. Bucuresti: Editura Academiei Române, 2001 * Ţara fagilor: Almanah cultural-literar al românilor nord-bucovineni. Cernăuţi-Târgu-Mureş, 1994 * Aniţa Nandris-Cudla. Amintiri din viaţă. 20 de ani în Siberia. Humanitas, Bucharest, 2006 (second edition), (in Romanian) [[ISBN 973-50-1159-X]] *[http://www.bukovinasociety.org The '''Bukovina''' Society of the Americas] *[http://www.thomasgraz.net/glass/map-popov.htm United States of Greater Austria] *[http://terkepek.adatbank.transindex.ro/legbelso.php3?nev=127 United States of Greater Austria] ==External links== {{Commonscat|Bukovina}} *{{ro icon}} [http://www.bucovina.net Traditions, History and Monasteries from Bucovina] *{{ro icon}} [http://iongramada.weblog.ro/page!15.html Life in the old Bukovina - photos] *{{de icon}} [http://www.czernowitz.de Books and news about Chernivtsi and Bukovina] *{{en icon}} [http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9017989?query=bukovina&ct= Bukovina], in [[Encyclopædia Britannica]] *{{en icon}} [http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9017989?query=bukovina&ct= Bukovina], in [[Encyclopædia Britannica]] *{{en icon}} [http://www.bukovinasociety.org Bukovina Society of the Americas] *{{ro icon}} [http://suceavapress.blogspot.com Suceava Press] - Bukovina press review *{{en icon}}/{{ro icon}} [http://www.mmb.ro/index-en.php The Metropolitanate of Moldavia and Bukovina (Romanian Orthodox Church)] *{{en icon}}/{{uk icon}} [http://www.ukrcensus.gov.ua/eng/results/general/nationality/Chernivtsi/ Ukrainian Census] *{{ro icon}} [http://www.unibuc.ro/eBooks/istorie/istorie1918-1940/13-4.htm Soviet Ultimatum Notes (University of Bucharest site)] *{{ro icon}} [http://www.bucovinatravel.ro Romanian Bucovina's Association for Tourism] *{{en icon}}/{{uk icon}} [http://www.city.cv.ua/English/SportTourism/ Chernivtsy city sport and tourism] *{{en icon}} [http://www.eliznik.org.uk/RomaniaHistory/maps/moldavia-bucovina-ukraine.gif Ukrainians in Bukovina] (map) *{{ro icon}} [http://noinu.rdscj.ro/article.php?articleID=149&document=1 detailed article about WWII and aftermath] *{{en icon}} [http://www.romaniatravel.com/media/downloads/filme/bucovina.avi Short movie about the romanian culture in Bukovina] *{{en icon}} http://radautz-jewisheritage.org *{{cs icon}} [http://www.bukovina.cz Present and past of a lovely small Czech village Bukovina u Ciste] * [http://ukrstor.com/bukowina.html Bukovina in UkrStor.com] (the web library of historical documents & publicism about Malorussia/Ukraine) {{Romanian historical regions}} {{Ukrainian historical regions}} -- [[Category:Bukovina]] [[Category:History of Austria]] [[Category:Romanian historical regions]] [[Category:Ruthenia]] [[Category:Ukrainian historical regions]] [[Category:Divided regions]] [[Category:History of Austria-Hungary]] [[bg:Буковина]] [[ca:Bucovina]] [[cs:Bukovina (země)]] [[da:Bukovina]] [[de:Bukowina]] [[es:Bucovina]] [[eo:Bukovino]] [[fr:Bucovine]] [[gl:Bucovina]] [[it:Bucovina]] [[he:בוקובינה]] [[lt:Bukovina]] [[hu:Bukovina]] [[nl:Boekovina]] [[ja:ブコビナ]] [[nds:Bukowina]] [[pl:Bukowina (kraina)]] [[no:Bukovina]] [[pt:Bucovina]] [[ro:Bucovina]] [[ru:Буковина]] [[sk:Bukovina (krajina)]] [[sr:Буковина]] [[fi:Bukovina]] [[sv:Bukovina]] [[uk:Буковина]] [[yi:בוקאווינא]]