Cannabis (drug) 1481886 225945065 2008-07-16T03:40:22Z Halogenated 2087233 /* Health issues */ Changed caption to joint and smoking - "least healthful" is a poor choice of statement, essentialy meaningless in this context [[Image:Macro cannabis bud.jpg|thumb|200px|A dried flowered bud of the ''Cannabis sativa'' plant.]] '''Cannabis''', also known as '''marijuana'''<ref>[http://www.askoxford.com/results/?view=dict&freesearch=marijuana&branch=13842570&textsearchtype=exact Compact Oxford Ditctionary definition] </ref> or '''ganja''' (from [[Hindi]]/[[Sanskrit]]: गांजा ''gānjā, hemp''),<ref>The [[Oxford English Dictionary]]. Any of various preparations of different parts of the hemp-plant which are smoked, chewed, sniffed or drunk for their intoxicating or hallucinogenic properties and were formerly used medicinally; bhang (marijuana), ganja, and charas (hashish) are different forms of these preparations." It is also notes that "cannabis" was elliptical reference (i.e. slang) for ''Cannabis sativa''.</ref> is a [[psychoactive drug|psychoactive]] product of the plant ''[[Cannabis sativa]]''. The herbal form of the drug consists of dried mature [[flower]]s and subtending leaves of pistillate (female) plants. The resinous form, known as [[hashish]],<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.idmu.co.uk/can.htm|title=Types of Cannabis Available in the UK|author=Matthew J. Atha - Independent Drug Monitoring Unit |accessdate=2007-09-13}}</ref> consists primarily of glandular [[trichome]]s collected from the same plant material. The major biologically active [[chemical compound]] in cannabis is Δ<sup>9</sup>-[[tetrahydrocannabinol]] (delta-9-tetrahydrocannabinol), commonly referred to as THC. Humans have been consuming cannabis since prehistory,<ref name=rudgley1999>{{cite book|author=Rudgley, Richard|year=1999|title=The Lost Civilizations of the Stone Age| editor=Touchstone|id=ISBN 0-6848-5580-1}}</ref> although in the 20th century there was a rise in its use for [[Recreational drug use|recreational]], [[religious]] or [[Spiritual use of cannabis|spiritual]], and medicinal purposes. It is estimated that about four percent<ref name="WDR2006chap2">{{citation|author=United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime|year=2006|url=http://www.unodc.org/pdf/WDR_2006/wdr2006_chap2_biggest_market.pdf|title=Cannabis: Why we should care|journal=World Drug Report|volume=1|id=ISBN 9-2114-8214-3|accessdate=2006-10-10}} p.14</ref> of the world's adult population use cannabis annually and 0.6 percent daily. Cannabis is the world's most often used illegal drug.<ref name="Raetsch">Raetsch, Christian. Enzyklopedie der Psychoaktiven Pflanzen</ref> The possession, use, or sale of psychoactive cannabis products became [[Legal issues of cannabis|illegal]] in most parts of the world in the early 20th century. Since then, some countries have intensified the enforcement of cannabis [[Prohibition (drugs)|prohibition]] while others have reduced the priority of enforcement. [[Image:Cannabis flowering.jpg|thumb|right|200px|Cannabis plant]] ==Forms == ===Marijuana=== [[Image:Marijuana small.jpg|thumb|right|Marijuana]] * ''Marijuana'' or ''ganja'': the flowering tops of female plants,<ref> {{cite web |url=http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/Marijuana |title=Marijuana- Definitions from Dictionary.com |publisher=dictionary.reference.com |accessdate=2008-06-23 |last= |first= }} </ref> from less than 1% [[THC]] to 22% THC; the wide range is probably one of the reasons for the conflicting results from different studies. Psychoactive potency by cannabis plant part is approximately as follows (descending order):<ref> {{cite web |url=http://64.233.167.104/search?q=cache:XN8MfdrQC5MJ:www.greenmanspage.com/guides/thcpotency.html+cannabis+plant+parts+by+potency&hl=en&ct=clnk&cd=2&gl=us |title=Marijuana Potency |publisher=64.233.167.104 |accessdate=2008-07-13 |last= |first= }} </ref> # [[Trichomes]] # Female flowering buds # Male flowering buds # New shoots # Leaves from flower buds # Leaves in ascending order of size # Stems of leaves ([[petiole]]s) in ascending order of size # Stems in ascending order of size # Roots and seeds ===Hashish=== {{Main article|Hashish}} [[Image:Hashish-2.jpg|thumb|right|100px|Hashish]] * ''[[Hashish]]'' (pressed keif) or ''[[charas]]'': a concentrated resin composed of heated glandular trichomes that have been physically extracted,<ref> {{cite web |url=http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/Hashish |title=Hashish - Definitions from Dictionary.com |publisher=dictionary.reference.com |accessdate=2008-06-23 |last= |first= }} </ref> usually by rubbing, sifting, or with ice. ===Kief=== {{Main article|Kief}} [[Image:Kief.jpg|thumb|right|Kief]] * ''[[Kief]]'': (1) The sticky resin saturated bits of plant before pressed into hashish. It's chopped flowering tops of female cannabis plants, often mixed with tobacco;<br/> (2) Moroccan hashish produced in the Rif mountains;<ref name=kif>{{cite web|author=Zijlma, Anouk|url=http://goafrica.about.com/od/morocco/a/moroccokif.htm|title=Smoking hashish in Morocco|publisher=About.com|accessdate=2007-02-27}}</ref><br/> (3) sifted cannabis trichomes consisting of only the glandular "heads" (often incorrectly referred to as "crystals" or "pollen");<br/> (4) the crystal (trichomes) left at the bottom of a grinder after grinding marijuana, then smoked. ===Hash oil=== {{main|Honey oil}} [[Image:Golden Cannabis Oil.JPG|thumb|right|100px|Golden cannabis oil (hash oil) on a card]] For example, an ethanol extract of cannabis that has had the ethanol evaporated from it, to leave hash oil. ==Methods of consumption== ===Smoking=== {{main|Cannabis smoking}} [[Image:Joint(detail).jpg|thumb|right|150px|Man smoking a cannabis [[Joint (cannabis)|joint]]]] Cannabis can be smoked in a variety of ways, some of which are more popular than others. The most common methods of smoking cannabis involve the use of implements such as [[bong]]s, [[chillum]]s and smoking pipes, or by rolling [[joint]]s or [[blunt]]s. These methods differ by the preparation of the cannabis plant before use, the parts of the cannabis plant which are used, and the treatment of the smoke before inhalation. In some parts of Africa, a pile of cannabis is simply thrown onto a fire and the smoke inhaled.<ref> {{cite web |url=http://www.erowid.org/plants/cannabis/cannabis_spirit2.shtml |title=Erowid Cannabis Vault : Spiritual Use #2 |publisher=www.erowid.org |accessdate=2008-07-13 |last= |first= }} </ref> === Vaporization === [[Image:VaporizedCannabis.jpg|thumb|left|Cannabis after vaporization]] {{main article|vaporizer}} A ''[[vaporizer]]'' heats herbal cannabis to 365&ndash;410 °F (185&ndash;210 °C), which causes the active ingredients to evaporate into a [[gas]] without burning the plant material (the boiling point of THC is 392 °F (200°C) at 0.02 mm Hg pressure, and somewhat higher at standard atmospheric pressure),<ref name=volcano>{{cite web|url=http://www.storz-bickel.com/pics/down/Lufttemperaturtabelle%20-%20Air%20temperatur%20table.pdf|title=Air Temperature Table|accessdate=2007-09-22}}. Volcano<sup>tm</sup> Operating Manual. Storz & Bickel, Tuttlingen, Germany.</ref><ref name=merck1989>1989. ''The Merck Index'', 11th ed., Merck & Co., Rahway, New Jersey</ref> A lower proportion of toxic chemicals are released than by smoking, although this may vary depending on the design of the vaporizer and the temperature at which it is set. A [[Multidisciplinary Association for Psychedelic Studies|MAPS]]-[[NORML]] study using a Volcano vaporizer reported 95% THC and no toxins delivered in the vapor.<ref name="norml1">{{cite journal | quotes = | last = Gieringer | first = Dale H. | authorlink = | coauthors = Joseph St. Laurent, Scott Goodrich | date = | year = 2004 | month = | title = Cannabis Vaporizer Combines Efficient Delivery of THC with Effective Suppression of Pyrolytic Compounds | journal = Journal of Cannabis Therapeutics | volume = 4 | issue = 1 | pages = 7-27 | doi = 10.1300/J175v04n01_02 | id = | url = http://www.maps.org/mmj/Gieringer-vaporizer.pdf | language = | format = pdf | accessdate = 2006-04-21 }}</ref> However, an older study using less sophisticated vaporizers found some toxins.<ref name="norml2">{{cite web|url=http://www.maps.org/news-letters/v06n3/06359mj1.html|title=Marijuana Water Pipe and Vaporizer Study|last=Gieringer|first=Dale|accessdate=2006-04-21}}</ref> The effects obtained from a vaporizer are noticeably different to that of smoking cannabis. Users have reported a more euphoric hallucinogen type high, because the vapor contains more pure THC.{{Fact|date=May 2008}} === Oral consumption === {{main article|Cannabis foods}} [[Image:Three space brownies.jpg|thumb|right|[[Hashish]] brownies]] [[Image:Amsterdam-420-cannabis-products-window.jpg|thumb|left|Various types of cannabis foods on display in a shop window in [[Amsterdam]]]] As an alternative to smoking, cannabis may be consumed orally. Although [[hashish]] is sometimes eaten raw or mixed with water, THC and other cannabinoids are more efficiently absorbed into the bloodstream when dissolved in [[ethanol]], or combined with butter or other [[lipid]]s.{{Fact|date=April 2008}} The time to onset of effects is usually about an hour and may continue for a considerable length of time, whereas the effects of smoking herbal cannabis are almost immediate.{{Fact|date=April 2008}} Smoking cannabis results in a significant loss of THC and other cannabinoids in the exhaled smoke, by decomposition on burning, and in smoke that is not inhaled. In contrast, all of the active constituents enter the body when cannabis is ingested. It has been shown that the primary active component of cannabis, Δ9-THC, is converted to the more psychoactive [[11-hydroxy-THC]] by the liver.<ref name="11-hydroxy">{{cite journal| author=Paulo Borini; Romeu Cardoso Guimarães; Sabrina Bicalho Borini| year=2004| month=May| title= ''Possible hepatotoxicity of chronic marijuana usage''| journal=Sao Paulo Medical Journal| volume=122| issue=3| doi=10.1590/S1516-31802004000300007| url=http://www.scielo.br/scielo.php?pid=S1516-31802004000300007&script=sci_arttext&tlng=en| accessdate=2006-05-02}}</ref> [[Titration]] to the desired effect by ingestion is much more difficult than through inhalation. Cannabis material can be [[Leaching|leached]] in high-proof [[Herbalism#Routes_of_administration|spirits]] (often [[neutral grain spirit|grain alcohol]]) to create “[[Green Dragon (drink)|Green Dragon]]”. This process is often employed to make use of low-potency stems and leaves.{{Fact|date=April 2008}} Cannabis can also be consumed as a [[cannabis tea]]. Although THC is [[lipophilic]] and only slightly [[water]] [[solubility|soluble]] (with a solubility of 2.8 grams per liter),<ref name="water solubility">{{cite web|url=http://lib1.bmcc.cuny.edu/studres/projectsakinde.html|title=The Medical Applications of Cannabinoids|author=Akinde Omotayo|publisher=[[Borough of Manhattan Community College]]|accessdate=2006-09-15}}</ref> enough THC can be dissolved to make a mildly psychoactive tea. However, water-based infusions are generally considered to be an inefficient use of the herb. ==History== [[Image:Chinese-ma-hemp.png|thumb|right|The use of cannabis, at least as fiber, has been shown to go back at least 10,000 years in [[Taiwan]]. Má ([[Pinyin]] pronunciation), the Chinese expression for hemp, is a pictograph of 2 cannabis plants being raised in a sheltered area.]] Evidence of the inhalation of cannabis smoke can be found as far back as the [[Neolithic]] age (the age began about 10,000 B.C. in the [[Middle East]] and somewhat later elsewhere),<ref> {{cite web |url=http://www.answers.com/topic/neolithic |title=Neolithic: Definition and Much More from Answers.com |publisher=www.answers.com |accessdate=2008-06-16 |last= |first= }} </ref> as indicated by charred cannabis seeds found in a ritual [[brazier]] at an ancient burial site in present day [[Romania]].<ref name=rudgley1999/> The most famous users of cannabis were the ancient [[Hindu]]s of India and Nepal. The herb was called ''[[ganjika]]'' in [[Sanskrit]] (गांजा/গাঁজা ''ganja'' in modern [[Indic languages]]).<ref name=leary1990>{{cite book|author=Leary, Thimothy|year=1990|title=Flashbacks|editor=Tarcher/Putnam|id=ISBN 0-8747-7870-0}}</ref><ref name="ganjikaEB">{{Citation|year=1911|url=http://57.1911encyclopedia.org/H/HE/HEMP.htm|title=Encyclopædia Britannica|edition=11th|accessdate=2006-06-15|month=Dec|author=Miller, Ga|volume=34|issue=883|pages=761–762|pmid=17759460|doi=10.1126/science.34.883.761|journal=Science (New York, N.Y.)}}</ref> The ancient drug [[soma]], mentioned in the [[Veda]]s as a sacred intoxicating [[hallucinogen]], was sometimes associated with cannabis.<ref name=rudgley1998>{{cite book|author=Rudgley, Richard|year=1998|url=http://www.huxley.net/soma/index.html|title=The Encyclopedia of Psychoactive Substances|editor=Little, Brown and Company|accessdate=2007-02-25}}</ref> Cannabis was also known to the [[History of the Assyrian people|ancient Assyrians]], who discovered its psychoactive properties through the [[Aryans]].<ref>{{cite book | author=Franck, Mel | title=Marijuana Grower's Guide| publisher=Red Eye Press | year=1997| id=ISBN 0-9293-4903-2}} p.3</ref> Using it in some religious ceremonies, they called it ''qunubu'' (meaning "way to produce smoke"), a probable origin of the modern word 'Cannabis'.<ref>{{cite book | author=Rubin, Vera D.| title=Cannabis and Culture| publisher=Campus Verlag | year=1976| id=ISBN 3-5933-7442-0}} p.305</ref> Cannabis was also introduced by the Aryans to the [[Scythia]]ns and [[Thracians]]/[[Dacia]]ns, whose [[shamanism|shamans]] (the ''[[kapnobatai]]''—“those who walk on smoke/clouds”) burned cannabis flowers to induce a state of [[trance]].<ref>{{cite book | author=Cunliffe, Barry W.| title=The Oxford Illustrated History of Prehistoric Europe| publisher=Oxford University Press | year=2001| id=ISBN 0-1928-5441-0}} p.405</ref> Members of the cult of [[Dionysus]], believed to have originated in [[Thrace]] ([[Bulgaria]], [[Greece]] and [[Turkey]]), are also thought to have inhaled cannabis smoke. In 2003, a leather basket filled with cannabis leaf fragments and seeds was found next to a 2,500- to 2,800-year-old [[mummy|mummified]] [[shaman]] in the northwestern [[Xinjiang]] Uygur Autonomous Region of [[China]].<ref name=peoplesdaily>{{cite web|year=2006|url=http://english.peopledaily.com.cn/200612/23/eng20061223_335258.html|title=Lab work to identify 2,800-year-old mummy of shaman|publisher=People's Daily Online|accessdate=2007-02-25}}</ref><ref name=jiang2006a>{{cite journal|author=Hong-En Jiang ''et al.''|year=2006|url=http://www.sciencedirect.com/science?_ob=ArticleURL&_udi=B6T8D-4K7WC0F-2&_user=10&_coverDate=12%2F06%2F2006&_rdoc=17&_fmt=summary&_orig=browse&_srch=doc-info(%23toc%235084%232006%23998919996%23636769%23FLA%23display%23Volume)&_cdi=5084&_sort=d&_docanchor=&view=c&_ct=23&_acct=C000050221&_version=1&_urlVersion=0&_userid=10&md5=3e6ac8940b4b86b94935cd7a7d7bc19d|title=A new insight into ''Cannabis sativa'' (Cannabaceae) utilization from 2500-year-old Yanghai tombs, Xinjiang, China|journal=Journal of Ethnopharmacology|volume=108|issue=3|pages=414–422|accessdate=2007-02-25|doi=10.1016/j.jep.2006.05.034}}</ref> [[Image:Cannabissativadior.jpg|thumb|left|''[[Cannabis sativa]]'' from [[Vienna Dioscurides]], 512 A.D.]] [[Cannabis]] has an ancient history of ritual use and is found in [[pharmacological cult]]s around the world. Hemp seeds discovered by archaeologists at [[Pazyryk]] suggest early ceremonial practices like eating by the [[Scythians]] occurred during the 5th to 2nd century BCE, confirming previous historical reports by [[Herodotus]].<ref>{{cite book | author=Walton, Robert P. | title=Marijuana, America's New Drug Problem| publisher=J. B. Lippincott | year=1938| id=}} p.6</ref> Some historians and etymologists have claimed that cannabis was used as a religious sacrament by ancient [[Jews]] and early [[Christians]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/health/2633187.stm|title=Cannabis linked to Biblical healing|accessdate=2007-08-20}}</ref> It was also used by [[Muslims]] in various [[Sufi]] orders as early as the [[Mamluk]] period, for example by the [[Qalandar]]s.<ref>{{cite book|title=Le haschich et l'extase|author=[[Ibn Taymiyya]]|id=ISBN 2-8416-1174-4}}</ref> == Medical use == {{main|Medical cannabis}} {| class="wikitable sortable" align="right" width="300" |- |+ Annual number of deaths in U.S. from various causes ! Substance(s) !! Number |- | Tobacco | 440,000<ref name="norml-number"> {{cite web |url=http://norml.org/index.cfm?Group_ID=5801 |title=International - NORML |publisher=norml.org |accessdate=2008-06-30 |last= |first= }} </ref> |- | Hospital administered drugs | 106,000<ref> {{cite web |url=http://jama.ama-assn.org/cgi/content/abstract/279/15/1200 |title=JAMA -- Abstract: Incidence of Adverse Drug Reactions in Hospitalized Patients: A Meta-analysis of Prospective Studies, April 15, 1998, Lazarou et al. 279 (15): 1200 |publisher=jama.ama-assn.org |accessdate=2008-07-08 |last= |first= }} </ref> |- | Alcohol | 46,000<ref name="norml-number"/> |- | Marijuana (toxicity) | 0<ref name="norml-number"/> |} A synthetic form of one chemical in marijuana, delta-9 tetrahydrocannabinol (THC), is a controversial treatment for medical use. The American [[Marijuana Policy Project]], a pro-cannabis organization, claims that cannabis is an ideal therapeutic drug for cancer and [[AIDS]] patients, who often suffer from clinical depression, and from nausea and resulting weight loss due to [[chemotherapy]] and other aggressive treatments.<ref><references/http://www.mpp.org/news/low-dose-pot-eases-pain-while.html></ref> Other medical uses may included fighting cancer, according to an isolated study by scientists in Italy. This study states that [[cannabidiol]] (CBD), a chemical found in marijuana, inhibits growth of cancer cells in animals.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.norml.org/index.cfm?Group_ID=6917|title=Cannabidiol Dramatically Inhibits Breast Cancer Cell Growth, Study Says|accessdate=2007-08-20}}</ref> The [[FDA]] and comparable authorities in Western Europe, including the [[Netherlands]], have not approved smoked marijuana for any condition or disease. The current view of the United States [[Food and Drug Administration]] is that if there is any future of marijuana as a medicine, it lies in its isolated components, the cannabinoids and their synthetic derivatives.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.fda.gov/ola/2004/marijuana0401.html|title=Testimony before the Subcommittee on Criminal Justice, Drug Policy, and Human Resources, Committee on Government Reform|author=Meyer, Robert J.|publisher=U.S. Food and Drug Administration|accessdate=2007-09-15}}</ref> A synthetic version of the cannabinoid THC named [[dronabinol]] has been shown to relieve symptoms of anorexia and reduce agitation in elderly Alzheimer's patients.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/health/3169901.stm|title=Cannabis lifts Alzheimer appetite|publisher=BBC|accessdate=2007-09-15}}</ref> Dronabinol has been approved for use with anorexia in patients with HIV/[[AIDS]] and chemotherapy-related nausea. This drug, while demonstrating the effectiveness of cannabis at combating several disorders, is more expensive and less available than "pot" and has not been shown to be effective or safe.<ref name="Respectable Reefer">{{cite news|last=Greenberg|first=Gary|title=Respectable Reefer|publisher=Mother Jones|date=[[2005-11-01]]|url=http://www.motherjones.com/news/feature/2005/11/Respectable_Reefer-3.html|accessdate = 2007-04-03}}</ref> Glaucoma, a condition of increased pressure within the eyeball causing gradual loss of sight, can be treated with medical marijuana to decrease this intraocular pressure. There has been debate for 25 years on the subject. Some data exist, showing a reduction of IOP in glaucoma patients who smoke marijuana,<ref>{{cite journal|author=Merritt JC, Crawford WJ, Alexander PC, et al.|title=Effect of marihuana on intraocular and blood pressure in glaucoma|journal=Ophthalmol|year=1980|issue=87|pages=222–8|id=ISSN 0007-1161}}</ref> but the effects are short-lived, and the frequency of doses needed to sustain a decreased IOP can cause systemic toxicity. There is also some concern over its use since it can also decrease blood flow to the optic nerve. Marijuana lowers IOP by acting on a cannabinoid receptor on the ciliary body called the CB receptor.<ref>{{cite journal|author=|Goldberg J, Flowerdew G, Smith E, et al.|title=Factors associated with age-related macular degeneration|journal=Am J Epidemiol|year=1988|issue=128|pages=700–10}}</ref> Although marijuana is not a good therapeutic choice for glaucoma patients, it may lead researchers to more effective, safer treatments. A promising study shows that agents targeted to ocular CB receptors can reduce IOP in glaucoma patients who have failed other therapies.<ref>{{cite journal|author=Porcella A, Maxia C, Gessa GL, Pani L.|title=The synthetic cannabinoid WIN55212-2 decreases the intraocular pressure in human glaucoma resistant to conventional therapies|journal=Eur J Neurosci|year=2001|issue=13|pages=409–12|doi=10.1046/j.0953-816X.2000.01401.x|volume=13}}</ref> Medical marijuana is used for [[Analgesic|analgesia]], or pain relief. “Marijuana is used for analgesia only in the context of a handful of illnesses (e.g., headache, dysentery, menstrual cramps, and depression) that are often cited by marijuana advocates as medical reasons to justify the drug being available as a prescription medication.”<ref>{{citation|author=Blanchard Randall|publisher=Library of Congress, Congressional Research Service|title=Medical Use of Marijuana: Policy and Regulatory Issues|year=1992}}</ref> It is also reported to be beneficial for treating certain neurological illnesses such as epilepsy, and bipolar disorder.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.medboardwatch.com/wb/pages/therapeutic-effects.php|title=Review of Therapeutic Effects|accessdate=2007-08-20}}</ref> Case reports have found that cannabis can relieve [[tic]]s in people with [[obsessive compulsive disorder]] and [[Tourette syndrome]]. Patients treated with [[tetrahydrocannabinol]], the main psychoactive chemical found in cannabis, reported a significant decrease in both motor and vocal tics, some of 50% or more.<ref name="ocd-ts-99">{{cite journal|author=K.R. Muller, U. Schneider, H. Kolbe, H.M. Emrich|title=Treatment of Tourette's Syndrome With Delta-9-Tetrahydrocannabinol|journal=American Journal of Psychiatry|year=1999|volume=156|issue=3|url=http://www.marijuana.org/AmJoPsychMarch99.html|accessdate=2007-09-15}}</ref><ref name="ocd-ts-02">{{cite journal|author=K.R. Muller, U. Schneider, A. Koblenz, M. Jöbges, H. Kolbe, T. Daldrup, H.M. Emrich|title=Treatment of Tourette's Syndrome with Δ9-Tetrahydrocannabinol (THC): A Randomized Crossover Trial |journal=Pharmacopsychiatry|year=2002|volume=35|issue=2|url=http://www.thieme-connect.com/ejournals/abstract/pharmaco/doi/10.1055/s-2002-25028|accessdate=2007-09-15|doi=10.1055/s-2002-25028|pages=57}}</ref><ref name="ocd-ts-88">{{cite journal|author=R. Sandyk, G. Awerbuch|title=Marijuana and Tourette's Syndrome|journal=Journal of Clinical Psychopharmacology|year=1988|volume=8|issue=6|url=http://www.druglibrary.org/schaffer/hemp/medical/mjtouret.htm|accessdate=2007-09-15|doi=10.1097/00004714-198812000-00021|pages=444}}</ref> Some decrease in obsessive-compulsive behavior was also found.<ref name="ocd-ts-99">{{cite journal|author=K.R. Muller, U. Schneider, H. Kolbe, H.M. Emrich|title=Treatment of Tourette's Syndrome With Delta-9-Tetrahydrocannabinol|journal=American Journal of Psychiatry|year=1999 |volume=156|issue=3|url=http://www.marijuana.org/AmJoPsychMarch99.html}}</ref> A recent study has also concluded that cannabinoids found in cannabis might have the ability to prevent Alzheimer's disease.<ref name="ADBlock">{{cite journal|author=Ramíirez, B. G., C. Blázquez, T. Gómez del Pulgar, M. Guzmán, and M. L. de Ceballos|year=2005|url=http://www.jneurosci.org/cgi/content/abstract/25/8/1904|title=Prevention of Alzheimer's disease pathology by cannabinoids: neuroprotection mediated by blockade of microglial activation|journal=Journal of Neuroscience|volume=25|issue=8^|pages=1904–1913|accessdate=2007-02-27|doi=10.1523/JNEUROSCI.4540-04.2005|pmid=15728830}}</ref> THC has been shown to reduce arterial blockages.<ref name=steffens2005>{{cite journal|author=Steffens, S.,Veillard, N.R., ''et al.''|url=http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v434/n7034/abs/nature03389.html|title=Low dose oral cannabinoid therapy reduces progression of atherosclerosis in mice|journal=Nature|volume=474|issue=7034|pages=782–786|acecssdate=2007-02-27}}</ref> Another use for medical marijuana is movement disorders. Marijuana is frequently reported to reduce the muscle spasms associated with [[multiple sclerosis]]; this has been acknowledged by the [[Institute of Medicine]], but it noted that these abundant anecdotal reports are not well-supported by clinical data. Evidence from animal studies suggests that there is a possible role for cannabinoids in the treatment of certain types of epileptic seizures.<ref>{{cite book | author=Randall, Blanchard| title=Medical use of marijuana policy and regulatory issues| publisher=Congressional Research Service, Library of Congress| year=1992| id=OCLC 29975643}}</ref> Marijuana "numbs" the nervous system slightly, possibly preventing shock. A synthetic version of the major active compound in cannabis, THC, is available in capsule form as the prescription drug dronabinol (Marinol) in many countries. The prescription drug Sativex, an extract of cannabis administered as a [[sublingual]] spray, has been approved in Canada for the treatment of multiple sclerosis.<ref name="SativexC">{{cite web|author=Koch, W.|date=2005-06-23|url=http://www.usatoday.com/news/health/2005-06-23-pot-spray_x.htm|title=Spray alternative to pot on the market in Canada|publisher=USA Today|accessdate=2007-02-27}}</ref> == New breeding and cultivation techniques == {{main|Cannabis (drug) cultivation}} [[Image:Orange Crush1.jpg|thumb| Cannabis Strain: Orange Kush]] It is often claimed by growers and breeders of herbal cannabis that advances in breeding and cultivation techniques have increased the potency of cannabis since the late 1960s and early '70s, when delta-9-tetrahydrocannabinol was discovered and understood. However, potent seedless marijuana such as "[[Thai sticks]]" were already available at that time. In fact, the [[Cannabis (drug) cultivation#Sinsemilla|''sinsemilla'' technique]] of producing high-potency marijuana has been practiced in India for centuries.{{Fact|date=April 2008}} Sinsemilla (Spanish for "without seed") is the dried, seedless inflorescences of female cannabis plants. Because [[tetrahydrocannabinol|THC]] production drops off once pollination occurs, the male plants (which produce little THC themselves) are eliminated before they shed pollen to prevent pollination. Advanced cultivation techniques such as [[Cannabis (drug) cultivation#Hydroponic cultivation|hydroponics]], [[Cannabis (drug) cultivation#Feminized seeds|cloning]], [[Cannabis (drug) cultivation#Lighting|high-intensity artificial lighting]], and [[Cannabis (drug) cultivation#Sea of green|the sea of green method]] are frequently employed as a response (in part) to prohibition enforcement efforts that make outdoor cultivation more risky. These intensive horticultural techniques have led to fewer seeds being present in cannabis and a general increase in potency over the past 20 years. The average levels of THC in marijuana sold in United States rose from 3.5% in 1988 to 7% in 2003 and 8.5% in 2006.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.msnbc.msn.com/id/18310976/|publisher=MSNBC|title=Marijuana sold in U.S. stronger than ever|accessdate=2007-09-21}}</ref> "Skunk" cannabis is a potent strain of cannabis, grown through selective breeding and usually hydroponics, that is a cross-breed of ''Cannabis sativa'' and ''C. indica''. Skunk cannabis potency ranges usually from 6% to 15% and rarely as high as 20%. The average THC level in [[cannabis coffee shop|coffeehouse]]s in the [[Netherlands]] is about 18–19%.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.unodc.org/unodc/en/data-and-analysis/WDR-2006.html|title=World Drug Report 2006|publisher=United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime|accessdate=2008-02-25}} Ch. 2.3</ref> The average THC content of Skunk #1 is 8.2%; it is a 4-way combination of the cannabis strains Afghani indica, Mexican Gold, Colombian Gold, and Thai: 75% ''sativa'', 25% ''indica''.{{Fact|date=April 2008}} This was done via extensive breeding by cultivators in California in the 1970s using the traditional outdoor cropping methods used for centuries.{{Fact|date=April 2008}} In proposed revisions to [[Cannabis reclassification in the United Kingdom|cannabis rescheduling]] in the UK, the government is considering rescheduling cannabis back from C to B. One of the reasons is the high-potency marijuana.<ref>[http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/uk_politics/7386889.stm BBC: Cannabis laws to be strengthened.May 2008 20:55 UK]</ref> A Dutch double-blind, randomized, placebo-controlled, cross-over study examining male volunteers aged 18–45 years with a self-reported history of regular cannabis use concluded that smoking of cannabis with high THC levels (marijuana with 9–23% THC), as currently sold in coffee shops in the Netherlands, may lead to higher THC blood-serum concentrations. This is reflected by an increase of the occurrence of impaired psychomotor skills, particularly among younger or inexperienced cannabis smokers, who do not adapt their smoking-style to the higher THC content.<ref>{{citation|author=Tj. T. Mensinga et al.|url=http://www.rivm.nl/bibliotheek/rapporten/267002002.pdf|title=A double-blind, randomized, placebo-controlled, cross-over study on the pharmacokinetics and effects of cannabis|publisher=[[RIVM]]|accessdate=2007-09-21}}</ref> High THC concentrations in cannabis was associated with a dose-related increase of physical effects (such as increase of heart rate, and decrease of blood pressure) and psychomotor effects (such as reacting more slowly, being less concentrated, making more mistakes during performance testing, having less motor control, and experiencing drowsiness). It was also observed during the study that the effects from a single [[joint (cannabis)|joint]] lasted for more than eight hours. Reaction times remained impaired five hours after smoking, when the THC serum concentrations were significantly reduced, but still present. When subjects smoke on several occasions per day, accumulation of THC in blood-serum may occur. Another study showed that consumption of 15 mg of Delta(9)-THC resulted in no learning whatsoever occurring over a three-trial selective reminding task after two hours. In several tasks, delta(9)-THC increased both speed and error rates, reflecting “riskier” speed–accuracy trade-offs.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/sites/entrez?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_uids=12373420&dopt=AbstractCurranCurran|author=Curran H.V., et al.|title=Cognitive and subjective dose-response effects|year=2002|publisher=[[NCBI|National Center for Biotechnology Information]]|accessdate=2007-09-21}}</ref> ==Legal status== {{main|Legality of cannabis}} {{See also|Drug prohibition|Drug liberalization}} [[Image:Killerdrug.jpg|right|thumb|200px|U.S. Federal Bureau of Narcotics [[propaganda]] used in 1935]] Since the beginning of the 20th century, most countries have enacted [[prohibition (drugs)|laws]] against the cultivation, possession, or transfer of cannabis for recreational use. These laws have impacted adversely on the cannabis plant's cultivation for non-recreational purposes, but there are many regions where, under certain circumstances, handling of cannabis is legal or licensed. Many jurisdictions have lessened the penalties for possession of small quantities of cannabis, so that it is punished by [[confiscation]] or a [[fine]], rather than [[imprisonment]], focusing more on those who [[illegal drug trade|traffic]] the drug on the black market. There are also changes in a more restrictive direction such as the closing of ''[[Cannabis coffee shop|coffee shops]]'' in the [[Netherlands]], the closing of the open drug market in [[Freetown Christiania|Christiania]], [[Copenhagen]], the [[Gonzales v. Raich]] rule in 2005 that the Commerce Clause of the United States Constitution allow the federal government to ban the use of marijuana, including medical use anywhere in the [[United States]]. Some jurisdictions use free voluntary treatment programs and/or mandatory treatment programs for frequent known users. Simple possession can carry long [[prison]] terms in some countries, particularly in [[East Asia]], where the sale of cannabis may lead to a sentence of [[life in prison]] or even [[execution]]. ==Effects== {{main|Health issues and effects of cannabis}} [[Image:Tetrahydrocannabinol.svg|thumb|right|Tetrahydrocannabinol (THC) is the main active compound in cannabis]] Cannabis has [[Psychoactive drug|psychoactive]] and [[physiological]] effects when consumed, usually by smoking or ingestion. The minimum amount of [[THC]] required to have a perceptible psychoactive effect is about 10 micrograms per kilogram of body weight<ref> http://www.marijuanalibrary.org/brain2.txt </ref> (which, in practical terms, is a varying amount, dependent upon potency). A related compound, Δ<sup>9</sup>-[[tetrahydrocannabivarin]], also known as [[THCV]], is produced in appreciable amounts by certain drug strains. This [[cannabinoid]] has been described in the popular literature as having shorter-acting, flashier effects than THC, but recent studies suggest that it may actually inhibit the effects of THC. Relatively high levels of THCV are common in African dagga (marijuana), and in hashish from the northwest Himalayas.{{Fact|date=April 2008}} ===Health issues=== <!---This section is designed to be a summary of the "Health issues and the effects of cannabis" article. Please do not add specific studies here.-------> [[Image:Rational scale to assess the harm of drugs (mean physical harm and mean dependence).svg|thumb|right|350px|Comparison of physical harm and dependence regarding various drugs (the British medical journal [[The Lancet]] [http://www.antiproibizionisti.it/public/docs/thelancet_20070323.pdf]) ]] Smoking of cannabis is the most harmful method of consumption, since [[combustion]] of material and inhalation of [[smoke]] in itself from [[organic compound|organic materials]] such as tobacco, wood, gasoline and cannabis causes various health problems. By using a [[vaporizer]] or orally consuming cannabis, many health problems and many objections to using cannabis as medicine can be eliminated. A recent study by the Canadian government found cannabis smoke contained more toxic substances than tobacco smoke.<ref name="Cannabis smoke 'has more toxins'">{{cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/health/7150274.stm|publisher=BBC|date=2007-12-19|title=Cannabis smoke 'has more toxins'}}</ref> The study determined that marijuana smoke contained 20 times more [[ammonia]], and five times more [[hydrogen cyanide]] and [[nitrogen oxide]]s than tobacco smoke. [[Image:Joint and smoke.jpg|thumb|left|Smoking cannabis is a potentially harmful method of consuming cannabis, yet the most practiced.]] In spite of this, a recent large-scale study found no correlation between heavy marijuana use and lung cancer, despite noting that cannabis contains the same carcinogens as tobacco. The same study found a 20-fold increase in lung-cancer rates of smokers who consumed two or more packs of cigarettes per day.<ref name="Study Finds No Link Between Marijuana Use And Lung Cancer">{{cite news |url=http://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2006/05/060526083353.htm |publisher=Science Daily |date=[[2006-05-26]] |title=Study Finds No Link Between Marijuana Use And Lung Cancer}}</ref> These researchers postulated that the THC present may have a "protective effect" by causing aging cells to die before they become cancerous.<ref name="Study finds no marijuana-cancer connection">{{cite news |url=http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2006/05/25/AR2006052501729_pf.html |publisher=Washington Post |date=[2006-5-26] |title=Study Finds No Cancer-Marijuana Connection}}</ref> Other recent research suggest the cannabinoid CBD may stop certain cancers from spreading, although not in concentrations consumed during smoking.<ref name="Marijuana compound may stop spread of breast cancer">{{cite news |url=http://www.foxnews.com/story/0,2933,312132,00.html |publisher=Fox News |date=[[2007-11-19]] |title=Marijuana compound may stop spread of breast}}</ref> [[Image:Corn Stover Tar from Pyrolysis by Microwave Heating.jpg|right|thumb|[[Tar]], a sticky incomplete combustion product from smoking, clogs the lungs of both tobacco and cannabis smokers; [[vaporizer|vaporization]] is a much healthier alternative.]] In contrast, a study published in the January 2008 edition of the journal Respirology found that "regular" cannabis smokers who developed bullous [[lung disease]][http://www.ctsnet.org/sections/clinicalresources/clinicalcases/article-1.html] did so on average 24 years sooner than tobacco smoking counterparts.<ref>http://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2008/01/080123104017.htm |publisher=Science Daily |date=[[2008-01-27]] |title=Marijuana Smokers Face Rapid Lung Destruction -- As Much As 20 Years Ahead Of Tobacco Smokers}}</ref> Researchers attributed this to the inhalation of a larger volume of smoke, and typically holding it for four times longer than tobacco smokers. Bullous lung disease is considered an uncommon cause of respiratory distress.<ref>[http://www.ctsnet.org/sections/clinicalresources/clinicalcases/article-1.html Bullous Lung Disease<!-- Bot generated title -->]</ref> In general, habitual inhalation of any kind of smoke is detrimental to lung health.<ref>[http://www.hc-sc.gc.ca/hl-vs/tobac-tabac/res/news-nouvelles/herb_e.html]</ref> Cannabis use has been linked to exacerbating the effects of [[Clinical depression|depression]], [[psychosis]], [[schizophrenia]], [[bronchitis]], and [[emphysema]] by several [[peer-reviewed]] studies for those who are vulnerable to such illnesses based on personal or family history.<ref>[http://www.erowid.org/plants/cannabis/references/journal/1998_hall_lancet_1/1998_hall_lancet_1.pdf PII: S0140-6736(98)05021-1<!-- Bot generated title -->]</ref> More recently, the [[Dunedin Multidisciplinary Health and Development Study]] published research showing an increased risk of psychosis for cannabis users with a certain genetic predisposition, held by 25% of the population.<ref name="Dunedin study">{{cite news|url=http://www.nzherald.co.nz/section/1/story.cfm?c_id=1&objectid=10122930|title=Cannabis study finds gene linked to psychosis}}</ref> [[Image:Vaporization-pipe-w-flame-filter2.png|thumb|left|350px|[[vaporizer|Vaporization pipe]] with flame filter<br/> 28. Tobacco, herbs or essential oils<br/> 36. Flame filter made of a stack of metal screens (5+) or a heat resistant porous material]] Studies have also shown links between heavy long-term use (over five joints daily over several years) and incidence of heart attacks, strokes, as well as abnormalities in the [[amygdala]] and [[hippocampus]] regions of the brain.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.cbc.ca/health/story/2008/05/13/pot-stroke.html|title=Heavy pot smoking could raise risk of heart attack, stroke |publisher=CBC}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.ctv.ca/servlet/ArticleNews/story/CTVNews/20080602/marijuana_effects_080602/20080602?hub=Health |title=Long-term marijuana use linked to brain abnormalities |publisher=CBC}}</ref> In July 2007, British medical journal [[The Lancet]] published a study that indicates that cannabis users have, on average, a 41% greater risk of developing psychosis than non-users. The risk was most pronounced in cases with an existing risk of psychotic disorder, and was said to grow up to 200% for the most-frequent users.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.thelancet.com/journals/lancet/article/PIIS0140673607611623/abstract |title=Cannabis could increase risk of psychotic illness later in life by 40% |publisher=The Lancet}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=Prospective cohort study of cannabis use, predisposition for psychosis, and psychotic symptoms in young people|url=http://www.bmj.com/cgi/rapidpdf/bmj.38267.664086.63v1?ehom|publisher=BMJ}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.ctv.ca/servlet/ArticleNews/story/CTVNews/20070727/marijuana_psychosis_070727?s_name=&no_ads=|title=Marijuana may increase psychosis risk|publisher=CTV}}</ref> [[Image:Aspergillus.jpg|thumb|right|''[[Aspergillus fumigatus]]'']] To kill potentially dangerous ''[[Aspergillus]]'' and other microorganisms, researchers "Levitz and Diamond (1991) suggested baking marijuana in home ovens at 150&nbsp;°C [302&nbsp;°F], for five minutes before smoking. Oven treatment killed [[conidia]] of A. fumigatus, A. flavus and A. niger, and did not degrade the active component of marijuana, tetrahydrocannabinol (THC)."<ref> {{cite web |url=http://www.hempfood.com/IHA/iha01205.html |title=Microbiological contaminants of marijuana |publisher=www.hempfood.com |accessdate=2008-06-22 |last= |first= }} </ref> ===Gateway drug theory=== {{Main|Gateway drug theory}} [[Image:Cannabis use among adults (aged 15-64).svg|thumb|right|350px|Lifetime cannabis use in Europe]] Since its origin in the 1950s, the "[[Gateway drug theory|gateway drug]]" hypothesis has been one of the central pillars of cannabis drug policy in the United States. One variant is that people, upon trying cannabis for the first time and not finding it dangerous, are then tempted to try other, harder drugs. The validity and implications of these hypotheses are debated.<ref name=Rand>{{cite web|date=2002-12-02 |url=http://www.rand.org/news/press.02/gateway.html|title=RAND study casts doubt on claims that marijuana acts as "gateway" to the use of cocaine and heroin|publisher=RAND Corporation|accessdate=2007-02-27}}</ref> A 2005 comprehensive review of the literature on the cannabis gateway hypothesis found that pre-existing traits may predispose users to addiction in general, the availability of multiple drugs in a given setting confounds predictive patterns in their usage, and drug sub-cultures are more influential than cannabis itself. The study called for further research on "social context, individual characteristics, and drug effects" to discover the actual relationships between cannabis and the use of other drugs.<ref> {{cite web |url=http://espace.library.uq.edu.au/view/UQ:75835 |title=Is cannabis a gateway drug? Testing hypotheses about the relationship between cannabis use and the use of other illicit drugs - UQ eSpace |publisher=espace.library.uq.edu.au |accessdate=2008-06-19 |last= |first= }} </ref> Some argue that the purported relationship between marijuana and more illicit drugs, as proposed by the "gateway theory", is methodologically flawed. A common argument is that a new user of cannabis who doesn't find it dangerous will see the difference between public information regarding the drug and their own experiences, and apply this distrust to public knowledge of other, more powerful drugs. Some studies support the "gateway drug" model.<ref name=journalwatch>{{cite web|author=Saitz, Richard|date=2003-02-18|url=http://general-medicine.jwatch.org/cgi/content/full/2003/218/1|title=Is marijuana a gateway drug?|publisher=Journal Watch|accessdate=2007-02-27}}</ref> An example from 2007: A stratified, random sample of 1943 adolescents was recruited from secondary schools across [[Victoria, Australia|Victoria]], [[Australia]], at age 14–15 years. This cohort was interviewed on eight occasions until the age of 24–25 years. At age 24 years, 12% of the sample had used amphetamines in the past year, with 1–2% using at least weekly. Young adult amphetamine use was predicted strongly by adolescent drug use and was associated robustly with other drug use and dependence in young adulthood. Associations were stronger for more frequent users. Among young adults who had not been using amphetamines at age 20 years, the strongest predictor of use at age 24 years was the use of other drugs, particularly cannabis, at 20 years.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.blackwell-synergy.com/doi/abs/10.1111/j.1360-0443.2007.01906.x|author=Degenhardt, Louisa et al|title=Who are the new amphetamine users? A 10-year prospective study of young Australians|year=2007|accessdate=2007-09-22}}</ref> Those who were smoking cannabis at the age of 15 were as much as 15 times more likely to be using amphetamines in their early 20s.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.abc.net.au/news/stories/2007/07/18/1981329.htm|publisher=ABC News Australia|title=Cannabis linked to use of amphetamines|date=2007-07-18|accessdate=2007-09-22}}</ref> Analysts have hypothesized that the illegal status of cannabis is a possible cause of a gateway drug effect, reasoning that cannabis users are likely to become acquainted with people who use and sell other illegal drugs in order to acquire cannabis. But it is said that Marijuana is not as harmful or addicting as any other drug.<ref name=morral2002>{{cite journal |author=Morral AR, McCaffrey DF, Paddock SM |title=Reassessing the marijuana gateway effect |journal=[[Addiction (journal)|Addiction]] |volume=97 |issue=12 |pages=1493–504 |year=2002 |pmid=12472629 |doi=10.1046/j.1360-0443.2002.00280.x}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.mpp.org/site/c.glKZLeMQIsG/b.1146183/k.AE54/FAQ.htm|title=Marijuana Policy Project- FAQ|accessdate=2006-12-24}}</ref> Some contend that by this argument, alcohol and tobacco may also be regarded as gateway drugs. Studies have shown that tobacco smoking is a better predictor of concurrent illicit hard drug use than smoking cannabis.<ref name=Torabi1993>{{cite journal |author=Torabi MR, Bailey WJ, Majd-Jabbari M |title=Cigarette smoking as a predictor of alcohol and other drug use by children and adolescents: evidence of the "gateway drug effect" |journal=The Journal of school health |volume=63 |issue=7 |pages=302–6 |year=1993 |pmid=8246462 |doi=}}</ref> A current doctoral thesis from Karolinska Institutet, Stockholm, on the neurobiological effects of early life cannabis exposure, gives support for the cannabis gateway hypothesis in relation to adult opiate abuse. THC exposed rats showed increased motivation for opiate drug use under conditions of stress. However, the cannabis exposure did not correlate to amphetamine use.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://diss.kib.ki.se/2007/978-91-7357-064-0/|author=Ellgren, Maria|title=Neurobiological effects of early life cannabis exposure in relation to the gateway hypothesis|year=2007|publisher=[[Karolinska Institutet]]|accessdate=2007-09-22}}</ref> A study<ref>{{cite journal |author=Nutt D, King LA, Saulsbury W, Blakemore C |title=Development of a rational scale to assess the harm of drugs of potential misuse |journal=Lancet |volume=369 |issue=9566 |pages=1047–53 |year=2007 |pmid=17382831 |doi=10.1016/S0140-6736(07)60464-4}}</ref> published in The Lancet on [[24 March]] [[2007]] was twenty drugs were assigned a risk from zero to three. Dr. David Nutt et al. asked medical, scientific and legal experts to rate 20 different drugs on nine parameters: * Physical harm (acute, chronic, and intravenous harm) * Dependence (intensity of pleasure, psychological dependence, physical dependence) * Social harms (intoxication, other social harms, health-care costs) Cannabis was ranked seventeenth of twenty for mean physical harm score and eleventh for mean dependence score. Not shown is the mean social harm score, which rated ninth, in a tie with amphetamine. [[Poly drug use]] is not unusual among established users; statistics from Spain show that cannabis users aged 15 -34 also used [[amphetamine]] (9%), [[Methylenedioxymethamphetamine|ecstasy]] (11%) or [[cocaine]] (18%) the same year.<ref>[http://ar2006.emcdda.europa.eu/en/page012-en.html?CFID=7908701&CFTOKEN=472a97577904fd31-16A12971-F8FA-A4BE-70FBED3F5065929B&jsessionid=2e30fd1d0c7948157239 EMCDDA Annual report 2006: the state of the drugs problem in Europe, ch. 8]</ref> ===Classification=== {{main article|Psychoactive drug}} While many drugs clearly fall into the category of either [[stimulant]], [[depressant]], [[hallucinogen]], or [[antipsychotic]], cannabis, containing both [[THC]] and [[Cannabidiol|CBD]], exhibits a mix of all properties, leaning towards hallucinogen properties due to THC being the primary constituent.<ref name="mckim">{{cite book | author=McKim, William A | title=Drugs and Behavior: An Introduction to Behavioral Pharmacology (5th Edition)| publisher=Prentice Hall| year=2002| pages=400| id=ISBN 0-13-048118-1 }}</ref><ref name="nida">{{cite web | title=Information on Drugs of Abuse | work=Commonly Abused Drug Chart | url=http://www.nida.nih.gov/DrugPages/DrugsofAbuse.html | accessmonthday=July 15 | accessyear=2007}}</ref><ref name="Stafford">{{cite book | author=Stafford, Peter | title=Psychedelics Encyclopedia| year=1992 | id=ISBN 0914171518 }}</ref> ==Religious use== {{main|Spiritual use of cannabis}} In [[India]] and [[Nepal]], cannabis has been used by some of the wandering Hindu spiritual [[sadhu]]s for centuries, and in modern times the [[Rastafari movement]] has embraced it as a sacrament.<ref>{{cite book|title=Dread, The Rastafarians of Jamaica|author=[[Joseph Owens]]|id=ISBN 0-4359-8650-3}}</ref> Elders of the modern [[religious movement]] known as the [[Ethiopian Zion Coptic Church]] consider cannabis to be the [[Eucharist]], claiming it as an oral tradition from [[Ethiopia]] dating back to the time of [[Christ]], even though the movement was founded in the [[United States]] in 1975 and has no ties to either Ethiopia or the Coptic Church.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.druglibrary.org/schaffer/hemp/potbible.htm|title=Marijuana and the Bible|publisher=Schaffer Library of Drug Policy|author=The Ethiopian Zion Coptic Church|accessdate=2007-09-13}}</ref> Like the Rastafari, some modern [[Gnostic]] Christian sects have asserted that cannabis is the [[Tree of Life (Judeo-Christian)|Tree of Life]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://rastafari.tribe.net/thread/0838144c-cce9-45ac-982b-5f0e5fccd07d|title=Zion Light Ministry|accessdate=2007-08-20}}</ref><ref>{{cite book | author=Chris Bennett, Lynn & Osburn, Judy Osburn| title=Green Gold: the Tree of LifeMarijuana in Magic & Religion| publisher=Access Unlimited|pages=418 | year=1938| id=ISBN 0-9629-8722-0}}</ref> Other organized [[religions]] founded in the 20th century that treat cannabis as a [[sacrament]] are the [[THC Ministry]],<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.thc-ministry.org/|title=The Hawai'i Cannabis Ministry|accessdate=2007-09-13}}</ref> the [[Way of Infinite Harmony]], [[Cantheism]],<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.ebeneezer.net/ritual/vegetable/offsite/Cantheist.html|title=Cantheism|accessdate=2007-09-13}}</ref> the [[Cannabis Assembly]]<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.cannabisassembly.org/|title=Cannabis Assembly|accessdate=2007-09-13}}</ref> and the [[Church of Cognizance]]. ==Truth serum== Cannabis was used as [[truth serum]] by the [[Office of Strategic Services]] (OSS), a US government [[intelligence agency]] formed during World War II. In the early 1940's, it was the most effective [[truth drug]] developed at the OSS labs at [[St. Elizabeths Hospital]]; it caused a subject "to be loquacious and free in his impartation of information."<ref name='Whiteout'>{{cite book | last = [[Alexander Cockburn]] | first = | authorlink = | coauthors = [[Jeffrey St. Clair]] | title = Whiteout: The CIA, Drugs and the Press | publisher = Verso | date = 1998 | location = | pages = 117-118| url = http://books.google.co.uk/books?id=s5qIj_h_PtkC&printsec=frontcover#PPA118,M1 | doi = | id = | isbn = 1859841392 }}</ref> In May 1943, Major George Hunter White, head of OSS [[counter-intelligence]] operations in the US, arranged a meeting with Augusto Del Gracio, an enforcer for gangster [[Lucky Luciano]]. Del Gracio was given cigarettes spiked with [[THC]] concentrate from cannabis, and subsequently talked openly about [[Lucky Luciano]]'s [[heroin]] operation. On a second occasion the dosage was increased such that Del Gracio passed out for two hours.<ref name='Whiteout'/> ==See also== <div style="-moz-column-count:2; column-count:2; -webkit-column-count:2;"> *[[1937 Marihuana Tax Act]] *[[Cannabis political parties]] *[[Cannabis use disorders]] *[[Emerald Triangle]] *[[Fitz Hugh Ludlow]] ("The Hasheesh Eater") *[[Global Marijuana March]] *[[Head shop]] *[[International Opium Convention]] *[[Intravenous Marijuana Syndrome]] *[[Legality of cannabis by country]] *[[List of cannabis strains]] *[[Marc Emery]] *[[Marijuana Policy Project]] *[[National Organization for the Reform of Marijuana Laws (United States)|National Organization for the Reform of Marijuana Laws]] *[[Proposition 215]] *[[Hemp]] *[[Hemp oil]] *[[THC]] </div> ==References== {{reflist|2}} *[http://www.druglibrary.org/schaffer/hemp/taxact/mjtaxact.htm] Marijuana Tax Act of 1937 == Further reading == * {{cite news|url=http://select.nytimes.com/gst/abstract.html?res=F10E1FFB35580C748EDDA90994DA404482|author=Howard Markel|title=For Addicts, Relief May Be an Office Visit Away|publisher=New York Times|date=[[2002-10-27]]}} * {{cite journal|url=http://www.ukcia.org/research/CannabisUseInAdolescenceAndRiskForAdultPsychosis.pdf|author=Louise Arsenault, Mary Cannon, Richie Poulton, Robin Murray, Avshalom Caspi, and Terrie E. Moffitt|title=Cannabis use in adolescence and risk for adult psychosis: longtudinal prospective study|year=2002|journal=British Medical Journal|volume=325|pages=1212 &ndash; 1213|doi=10.1136/bmj.325.7374.1212|pmid=12446537}} * {{cite journal|url=http://www.ukcia.org/research/COMTgene.pdf|author=Avshalom Caspi, Terrie E. Moffitt, Mary Cannon, Joseph McClay, Robin Murray, HonaLee Harrington, Alan Taylor, Louise Arsenault, Ben Williams, Antony Braithwaite, Richie Poulton, and Ian W. Craig|title=Moderation of the effect of adult-onset cannabis use on adult psychosis by a functional polymorphism in the Catchol-O-Methyltransferase gene: Longitudinal evidence of a gene X environment interaction|year=2005|journal=Biol Psychiatry|volume=25|pages=1117 &ndash; 1127}} * {{cite news|url=http://www.timesonline.co.uk/article/0,,3561-1565337,00.html|title=One in four at risk of cannabis psychosis|first=Mark|last=Henderson|publisher=The Times|date=[[2005-04-12]]}} * Bruce Mirken and Neel Makwana (Aston Birmingham): {{cite news|url=http://www.alternet.org/drugreporter/21436/|date=[[2005-03-07]]|title=Psychosis, Hype And Baloney|publisher=AlterNet}} * {{cite journal |url=http://ehp.niehs.nih.gov/docs/2000/108-10/correspondence.html#thc |title=Antitumor Effects of THC |journal=Environmental Health Perspectives |volume=108 |issue=10 |month=October |year=2000 |pages=Correspondence |author=James Huff and Po Chan |pmid=11097557}} * {{cite book |title=Cannabis: A History |year=2005 |first=Martin |last=Booth |isbn=0-312-32220-8}} * Long term impact of Cannabis use of 16 year olds {{cite news|url=http://www.highbeam.com/doc/1G1-113852471.html?refid=hbw_sw|date=[[2004-01-01]]|title=Long-term impact of the Gatehouse Project on Cannabis use of 16-year-olds in Australia. (Research Papers)|publisher=journal of school health}} ==External links== {{wiktionarypar|marijuana}} *[http://www.my-island-jamaica.com/marijuana_in_jamaica.html Marijuana in Jamaica] *[http://www.mpp.org Marijuana Policy Project] *[http://www.norml.org National Organization for the Reform of Marijuana Laws] *[[wikt:Wiktionary Appendix:Cannabis Slang|Wiktionary appendix of cannabis slang]] *[http://parentingteens.about.com/cs/marijuana/l/bldicmarijuana.htm Various slang terms for cannabis] *[http://cannabis.com/faqs/ Comprehensive Cannabis Faqs and Marijuana information] *[http://www.friendsofcannabis.com/ Extensive list of notable cannabis users] *[http://www.veryimportantpotheads.com/ Debunking Myths about Marijuana Since 2002] *[http://freemo.syncleus.com/marijuana.pdf Research paper on the effects of marijuana] *[http://www.druglibrary.org/schaffer/Library/studies/ledain/ldctoc.html The Report of the Canadian Government Commission of Inquiry into the Non-Medical Use of Drugs - 1972] - [http://www.druglibrary.org/ DRCNet Online Library of Drug Policy] *[http://lois.justice.gc.ca/en/C-38.8/SOR-2001-227/index.html Marihuana Medical Access Regulations in Canada] *[http://www.alternet.org/story/9257 Pot Shrinks Tumors; Government Knew in '74] *[http://www.cesar.umd.edu/cesar/drugs/marijuana.pdf University of Maryland, CECAR: Marijuana] *[http://www.whitehousedrugpolicy.gov/drugfact/marijuana/index.html www.whitehousedrugpolicy.gov/drugfact/marijuana] {{Cannabis resources}} {{Cannabinoids}} <!-- currently unused, need to merge back into the article == History == [[Image:Seed_close_up.jpg|right|thumb|A close up picture of a cannabis seed]] Cannabis was known as a medicinal and psychoactive compound in some early societies, and has been used continuously in many parts of the world. Other societies have developed a social [[stigma]] surrounding the drug. <!-- repression in various Islamic centuries (11th, 13th, and others), early modern (ex-Ottoman) Greece, Egypt under Mehemet Ali (19th century), need sections --> [[Category:Psychedelics, dissociatives and deliriants]] [[Category:Medicinal use of cannabis]] [[Category:Cannabis]] [[bg:Марихуана]] [[cs:Marihuana]] [[cy:Cannabis (cyffur)]] [[de:Drogenhanf]] [[es:Cannabis (droga)]] [[eo:Mariĥuano]] [[fr:Cannabis]] [[gl:Cannabis (droga)]] [[ko:대마초]] [[hr:Marihuana]] [[id:Ganja]] [[it:Marijuana]] [[he:מריחואנה]] [[lv:Marihuāna]] [[lt:Marihuana]] [[jbo:marna snexu'i]] [[mk:Марихуана]] [[ml:കഞ്ചാവ്]] [[ms:Ganja]] [[nl:Marihuana]] [[ja:大麻]] [[no:Cannabis (rusmiddel)]] [[pl:Marihuana]] [[pt:Maconha]] [[ru:Марихуана]] [[sk:Marihuana]] [[sl:Marihuana]] [[sr:Уживалачка употреба конопље]] [[fi:Kannabis]] [[sv:Cannabis]] [[tt:Kinder]] [[tr:Esrar]] [[uk:Марихуана]] [[vls:Marihuana]] [[zh:大麻]]