Carboniferous
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2008-07-17T03:39:41Z
Wilson44691
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/* Rocks and coal */ Added an image.
{{Geological period
|image=LateCarboniferousGlobal.jpg
|o2=32.5
|co2=800
|temp=14
}}
[[Image:PrehistoricParkCarboniferousScene.jpg|thumb|260px|Although Earth's poles were covered by [[ice cap]]s, the equatorial regions of the planet were dominated by vast [[swamp]] lands during most of the Carboniferous. ''(Screenshot of the [[Prehistoric Park]]-series)'']]
The '''Carboniferous''' is a [[geologic period|geologic period and system]] that extends from the end of the [[Devonian]] period, about 359.2 ± 2.5 [[annum|Ma]] (million years ago), to the beginning of the [[Permian]] period, about 299.0 ± 0.8 Ma {{ICS 2004}}.
The Carboniferous was a time of glaciation, low sea level and mountain building; a minor marine extinction event occurred in the middle of the period.
==Subdivisions==
The Carboniferous is usually broken into Pennsylvanian (later) and Mississippian (earlier) Epochs. The [[Faunal stage]]s from youngest to oldest, together with some of their subdivisions, are:
'''Late Pennsylvanian: Gzhelian (most recent)'''
*Noginskian/Virgilian''(pars)''
'''Late Pennsylvanian: Kasimovian'''
*Klazminskian
*Dorogomilovksian/Virgilian''(pars)''
*Chamovnicheskian/Cantabrian/Missourian
*Krevyakinskian/Cantabrian/Missourian
'''Middle Pennsylvanian: Moscovian'''
*Myachkovskian/Bolsovian/Desmoinesian
*Podolskian/Desmoinesian
*Kashirskian/Atokan
*Vereiskian/Bolsovian/Atokan
'''Early Pennsylvanian: Bashkirian/Morrowan'''
*Melekesskian/Duckmantian
*Cheremshanskian/Langsettian
*Yeadonian
*Marsdenian
*Kinderscoutian
'''Late Mississippian: Serpukhovian'''
*Alportian
*Chokierian/Chesterian/Elvirian
*Arnsbergian/Elvirian
*Pendleian
'''Middle Mississippian: Visean'''
*Brigantian/St Genevieve/Gasperian/Chesterian
*Asbian/Meramecian
*Holkerian/Salem
*Arundian/Warsaw/Meramecian
*Chadian/Keokuk/Osagean''(pars)''/Osage''(pars)''
'''Early Mississippian: Tournaisian (oldest)'''
*Ivorian/Osagean''(pars)''/Osage''(pars)''
*Hastarian/Kinderhookian/Chouteau
==Paleogeography==
A global drop in [[sea level]] at the end of the Devonian reversed early in the Carboniferous; this created the widespread epicontinental seas and [[carbonate]] deposition of the Mississippian.<ref>Steven M. Stanley, ''Earth System History.'' (New York: W.H. Freeman and Company, 1999), 414.</ref> There was also a drop in south polar temperatures; southern [[Gondwana]]land was [[glaciation|glaciated]] throughout the period, though it is uncertain if the ice sheets were a holdover from the Devonian or not.<ref>Stanley, 414.</ref> These conditions apparently had little effect in the deep tropics, where lush coal swamps flourished within 30 degrees of the northernmost [[glaciers]].<ref>Stanley, 416.</ref>
[[Image:US pennsylvanian general.jpg|thumb|270px|left|Generalized geographic map of the [[United States]] in Middle [[Pennsylvanian]] time.]]
A mid-Carboniferous drop in sea-level precipitated a major marine extinction, one that hit [[crinoids]] and [[ammonites]] especially hard.<ref>Stanley, 414.</ref> This sea-level drop and the associated [[unconformity]] in North America separate the Mississippian period from the Pennsylvanian period.<ref>Stanley, 414.</ref>
The Carboniferous was a time of active [[orogeny|mountain-building]], as the [[supercontinent]] [[Pangaea]] came together. The southern [[continent]]s remained tied together in the supercontinent Gondwana, which collided with North America-Europe ([[Laurussia]]) along the present line of eastern North America. This continental collision resulted in the [[Variscan orogeny|Hercynian orogeny]] in Europe, and the [[Alleghenian orogeny]] in North America; it also extended the newly-uplifted [[Appalachian Mountains|Appalachians]] southwestward as the [[Ouachita Mountains]].<ref>Stanley, 414-6.</ref> In the same time frame, much of present eastern [[Eurasian plate]] welded itself to Europe along the line of the [[Ural mountains]]. Most of the [[Mesozoic]] supercontinent of Pangea was now assembled, although North China (which would collide in the Latest Carboniferous), and [[South China (continent)|South China]] continents were still separated from [[Laurasia]]. The Late Carboniferous Pangaea was shaped like an "O".
There were two major oceans in the Carboniferous—[[Panthalassa]] and [[Paleo-Tethys]], which was inside the "O" in the Carboniferous Pangaea. Other minor oceans were shrinking and eventually closed - [[Rheic Ocean]] (closed by the assembly of [[South America|South]] and [[North America]]), the small, shallow [[Ural Ocean]] (which was closed by the collision of [[Baltica]] and Siberia continents, creating the [[Ural Mountains]]) and [[Proto-Tethys Ocean]] (closed by [[North China (continent)|North China]] collision with [[Siberia (continent)|Siberia]]/[[Kazakhstania]].
==Climate==
The early part of the Carboniferous was mostly warm; in the later part of the Carboniferous, the [[climate]] [[global cooling|cooled]]. Glaciations in [[Gondwana]], triggered by Gondwana's southward movement, continued into the [[Permian]] and because of the lack of clear markers and breaks, the deposits of this glacial period are often referred to as [[Permo-Carboniferous]] in age.
==Rocks and coal==
[[Image:MississippianMarbleUT.JPG|thumb|right|Lower Carboniferous marble in Big Cottonwood Canyon, [[Wasatch Mountains]], [[Utah]].]]
Carboniferous rocks in Europe and eastern North America largely consist of a repeated sequence of [[limestone]], [[sandstone]], [[shale]] and [[coal]] beds, known as "[[cyclothems]]" in the U.S. and "coal measures" in Britain.<ref>Stanley, 426.</ref> In North America, the early Carboniferous is largely marine limestone, which accounts for the division of the Carboniferous into two periods in North American schemes. The Carboniferous coal beds provided much of the fuel for power generation during the [[Industrial Revolution]] and are still of great economic importance.
The large coal deposits of the Carboniferous primarily owe their existence to two factors. The first of these is the appearance of [[bark]]-bearing trees (and in particular the [[evolution]] of the bark fiber [[lignin]]). The second is the lower sea levels that occurred during the Carboniferous as compared to the [[Devonian]] period. This allowed for the development of extensive lowland [[swamp]]s and [[forest]]s in North America and Europe. Some hypothesize that large quantities of [[wood]] were buried during this period because animals and decomposing [[bacterium|bacteria]] had not yet [[Evolution|evolved]] that could effectively digest the new lignin. Those early plants made extensive use of lignin. They had bark to wood ratios of 8 to 1, and even as high as 20 to 1. This compares to modern values less than 1 to 4. This bark, which must have been used as support as well as protection, probably had 38% to 58% lignin. Lignin is insoluble, too large to pass through cell walls, too heterogeneous for specific enzymes, and toxic, so that few organisms other than [[Basidiomycetes]] fungi can degrade it. It can not be oxidized in an atmosphere of less than 5% oxygen. It can linger in soil for thousands of years and inhibits decay of other substances.<ref>Robinson JM 1990 Lignin, land plants, and fungi: Biological evolution affecting Phanerozoic oxygen balance. Geology 10; 607-610, on p608.</ref> Probably the reason for its high percentages is protection from insect herbivory in a world containing very effective insect herbivores, but nothing remotely as effective as modern [[insectivores]] and probably much fewer poisons than currently. In any case coal measures could easily have made thick deposits on well drained soils as well as swamps. The extensive burial of biologically-produced [[carbon]] led to a buildup of surplus [[oxygen]] in the atmosphere; estimates place the peak oxygen content as high as 35%, compared to 21% today.[http://www.highbeam.com/library/docfree.asp?DOCID=1G1:16907261&ctrlInfo=Round20%3AMode20b%3ADocG%3AResult&ao=] This oxygen level probably increased [[wildfire]] activity, as well as resulted in [[insect]] and [[amphibian]] gigantism--creatures whose size is constrained by [[Respiration (physiology)|respiratory]] systems that are limited in their ability to diffuse oxygen.
In eastern North America, marine beds are more common in the older part of the period than the later part and are almost entirely absent by the late Carboniferous. More diverse geology existed elsewhere, of course. Marine life is especially rich in [[crinoids]] and other [[echinodermata|echinoderms]]. [[Brachiopoda|Brachiopods]] were abundant. [[Trilobites]] became quite uncommon. On land, large and diverse [[plant]] populations existed. Land [[vertebrata|vertebrates]] included large amphibians.
==Life==
===Marine Invertebrates===
In the oceans the most important [[marine invertebrate]] groups are the [[foraminifera]], [[Anthozoa|corals]], [[bryozoa]], [[brachiopod]]s, [[ammonoid]]s, and [[echinoderm]]s (especially [[crinoid]]s).
For the first time foraminifera take a prominent part in the marine faunas. The large spindle-shaped genus ''[[Fusulina]]'' and its relatives were abundant in what is now Russia, China, Japan, North America; other important genera include ''[[Valvulina]]'', ''[[Endothyra]]'', ''[[Archaediscus]]'', and ''[[Saccammina]]'' (the latter common in Britain and Belgium). Some Carboniferous genera are still extant.
The microscopic shells of [[Radiolaria]] are found in [[chert]]s of this age in [[River Culm|the Culm]] of [[Devon]]shire and [[Cornwall]], and in Russia, Germany and elsewhere.
[[Porifera|Sponges]] are known from [[spicule]]s and anchor ropes, and include various forms such as the [[Calcispongea]] ''[[Cotyliscus]]'' and ''[[Girtycoelia]]'', and the genus of unusual colonial [[Hyalospongea|glass sponges]] ''[[Titusvillia]]''.
Both [[reef]]-building and solitary corals diversify and flourish; these include both [[Rugosa|rugose]] (e.g. ''[[Canina]]'', ''[[Corwenia]]'', ''[[Neozaphrentis]]''), [[Heterocorallia|heterocorals]], and [[Tabulata|tabulate]] (e.g. ''[[Chaetetes]]'', ''[[Chladochonus]]'', ''[[Michelinia]]'') forms.
[[Conularids]] were well represented by ''[[Conularia]]''
[[Bryozoa]] are abundant in some regions; the [[Fenestellida|Fenestellids]] including ''[[Fenestella (bryozoan)|Fenestella]]'', ''[[Polypora]]'', and the remarkable ''[[Archimedes (bryozoan)|Archimedes]]'', so named because it is in the shape of an [[Archimedean screw]].
[[Brachiopod]]s are also abundant; they include [[Productida|Productids]], some of which (e.g. ''[[Gigantoproductus]]'') reached very large (for brachiopods) size and had very thick shells, while others like ''[[Chonetes]]'' were more conservative in form. [[Athyridida|Athyridids]], [[Spiriferida|Spiriferids]], [[Rhynchonellida|Rhynchonellids]], are [[Terebratulida|Terebratulids]] are also very common. Inarticulate forms include ''[[Discina]]'' and ''[[Crania]]''. Some species and genera had a very wide distribution with only minor variations.
[[Annelid]]s such as ''[[Spirorbis]]'' and ''[[Serpulites]]'' are common fossils in some horizons.
Among the mollusca, the [[bivalve]]s continue to increase in numbers and importance. Typical genera include ''[[Aviculopecten]]'', ''[[Posidonomya]]'', ''[[Nucula]]'', ''[[Carbonicola]]'', ''[[Edmondia]]'', and ''[[Modiola]]''
''[[Conocardium]]'' is a common [[Rostroconchia|rostroconch]].
[[Gastropod]]s are also numerous, including the genera ''[[Murchisonia]]'', ''[[Euomphalus]]'', ''[[Naticopsis]]''.
[[Nautiloid]] [[cephalopod]]s are represented by tightly coiled [[Nautilida|nautilids]], with straight-shelled and curved-shelled forms becoming increasingly rare. [[Goniatite]] [[Ammonoidea|Ammonoids]] are common.
[[Trilobite]]s are rarer than in previous periods, represented only by the proetid group. A class of [[Crustacean]] [[Zooplankton]] known as [[Ostracod]]s such as ''[[Cythere]]'', ''[[Kirkbya]]'', and ''[[Beyrichia]]'' was abundant.
Amongst the [[echinoderm]]s, the [[crinoid]]s were the most numerous. Dense submarine thickets of long-stemmed crinoids appear to have flourished in shallow seas, and their remains were consolidated into thick beds of rock. Prominent genera include ''[[Cyathocrinus]]'', ''[[Woodocrinus]]'', and ''[[Actinocrinus]]''. Echinoids such as ''[[Archaeocidaris]]'' and ''[[Palaeechinus]]'' were also present. The [[Blastoid]]s, which included the [[Pentreinitidae]] and [[Codasteridae]] and superficially resembled crinoids in the possession of long stalks attached to the sea-bed, attain their maximum development at this time.
<gallery>
Image:Aviculopecten_subcardiformis01.JPG|''Aviculopecten subcardiformis''; a [[bivalve]] from the Logan Formation (Lower Carboniferous) of [[Wooster, Ohio]] (external mold).
Image:Schizodus_medinaensis.JPG|''Schizodus medinaensis''; a [[bivalve]] from the Logan Formation (Lower Carboniferous) of [[Wooster, Ohio]] (internal mold).
Image:Syringothyris01.JPG|''Syringothyris'' sp.; a spiriferid [[brachiopod]] from the Logan Formation (Lower Carboniferous) of [[Wooster, Ohio]] (internal mold).
Image:Palaeophycus01.JPG|''[[Palaeophycus]]'' ichnosp.; a [[trace fossil]] from the Logan Formation (Lower Carboniferous) of [[Wooster, Ohio]].
Image:Helminthopsis01.JPG|''[[Helminthopsis]]'' ichnosp.; a [[trace fossil]] from the Logan Formation (Lower Carboniferous) of [[Wooster, Ohio]].
Image:Crinoids01.JPG|[[Crinoid]] columnals from the Logan Formation (Lower Carboniferous) of [[Wooster, Ohio]] (external molds).
</gallery>
===Fish===
Many fish inhabited the Carboniferous seas; predominantly [[Elasmobranch]]s (sharks and their relatives). These included some, like ''[[Psammodus]]'', with crushing pavement-like teeth adapted for grinding the shells of brachiopods, crustaceans, and other marine organisms. Other sharks had piercing teeth, such as the [[Symmoriida]]; some, the [[petalodont]]s, had peculiar cycloid cutting teeth. Most of the sharks were marine, but the [[Xenacanthida]] invaded fresh waters of the coal swamps. Among the [[Osteichthyes|bony fish]], the [[Palaeonisciformes]] found in coastal waters also appear to have migrated to rivers. [[Sarcopterygii|Sarcopterygia]]n fish were also prominent, and one group, the [[Rhizodont]]s, reached very large size.
Most species of Carboniferous marine fish have been described largely from teeth, fin spines and dermal ossicles, with smaller freshwater fish preserved whole.
Freshwater fish were abundant, and include the genera ''[[Ctenodus]]'', ''[[Uronemus]]'', ''[[Acanthodes]]'', ''[[Cheirodus]]'', and ''[[Gyracanthus]]''.
[[Sharks]] (especially the ''Stethacanthids'') underwent a major [[evolutionary radiation]] during the Carboniferous.<ref name=goldsharks>{{cite web |url=http://www.elasmo-research.org/education/evolution/golden_age.htm |title=A Golden Age of Sharks |accessdate=2008-06-23 |work=Biology of Sharks and Rays |author=R. Aidan Martin}}</ref> It is believed that this evolutionary radiation occurred because the decline of the placoderms at the end of the Devonian period caused many [[Niche (ecology)|environmental niches]] to become unoccupied and allowed new organisms to evolve and fill these niches.<ref name=goldsharks>{{cite web |url=http://www.elasmo-research.org/education/evolution/golden_age.htm |title=A Golden Age of Sharks |accessdate=2008-06-23 |work=Biology of Sharks and Rays |author=R. Aidan Martin}}</ref> As a result of the evolutionary radiation carboniferous sharks assumed a wide variety of bizarre shapes including ''[[Stethacanthus]]'' who possessed a flat brush-like dorsal fin with a patch of [[denticles]] on its top.<ref name=goldsharks>{{cite web |url=http://www.elasmo-research.org/education/evolution/golden_age.htm |title=A Golden Age of Sharks |accessdate=2008-06-23 |work=Biology of Sharks and Rays |author=R. Aidan Martin}}</ref> ''[[Stethacanthus]]'' unusual fin may have been used in mating rituals.<ref name=goldsharks>{{cite web |url=http://www.elasmo-research.org/education/evolution/golden_age.htm |title=A Golden Age of Sharks |accessdate=2008-06-23 |work=Biology of Sharks and Rays |author=R. Aidan Martin}}</ref>
===Plants===
[[Image:Meyers b15 s0272b.jpg|thumb|250px|Painting depicting some of the most significant plants of the Carboniferous.]]
[[Mississippian|Early Carboniferous]] land plants were very similar to those of the preceding Late [[Devonian]], but new groups also appeared at this time.
The main Early Carboniferous plants were the [[Equisetales]] (Horse-tails), [[Sphenophyllum|Sphenophyllales]] (vine-like plants), [[Lycopodiales]] (Club mosses), [[Lepidodendrales]] (scale trees), [[Filicales]] (Ferns), [[Medullosales]] (informally included in the "[[Pteridospermatophyta|seed ferns]]", an artificial assemblage of a number of early [[gymnosperm]] groups) and the [[Cordaitales]]. These continued to dominate throughout the period, but during [[Pennsylvanian|late Carboniferous]], several other groups, [[Cycadophyta]] (cycads), the [[Callistophytales]] (another group of "seed ferns"), and the [[Voltziales]] (related to and sometimes included under the [[conifers]]), appeared.
The Carboniferous lycophytes of the order Lepidodendrales, which are cousins (but not ancestors) of the tiny club-moss of today, were huge trees with trunks 30 meters high and up to 1.5 meters in diameter. These included ''[[Lepidodendron]]'' (with its fruit cone called ''[[Lepidostrobus]]''), ''[[Halonia]]'', ''[[Lepidophloios]]'' and ''[[Sigillaria]]''. The roots of several of these forms are known as ''[[Stigmaria]]''.
The fronds of some Carboniferous ferns are almost identical with those of living species. Probably many species were epiphytic. Fossil ferns and "seed ferns" include ''[[Pecopteris]]'', ''[[Cyclopteris]]'', ''[[Neuropteris]]'', ''[[Alethopteris]]'', and ''[[Sphenopteris]]''; ''[[Megaphyton]]'' and ''[[Caulopteris]]'' were tree ferns.
The Equisetales included the common giant form ''[[Calamites]]'', with a trunk diameter of 30 to 60 cm and a height of up to 20 meters. ''[[Sphenophyllum]]'' was a slender climbing plant with whorls of leaves, which was probably related both to the calamites and the lycopods.
''[[Cordaites]]'', a tall plant (6 to over 30 meters) with strap-like leaves, was related to the cycads and conifers; the [[catkin]]-like inflorescence, which bore yew-like berries, is called ''[[Cardiocarpus]]''. These plants were thought to live in swamps and mangroves. True coniferous trees (''[[Walchia]]'', of the order Voltziales) appear later in the Carboniferous, and preferred higher drier ground.
===Freshwater and Lagoonal Invertebrates===
Freshwater Carboniferous invertebrates include various [[bivalve]] [[mollusc]]s that lived in brackish or fresh water, such as ''[[Anthracomya]]'', ''[[Naiadiles]]'', and ''[[Carbonicola]]''; diverse [[crustacean]]s such as ''[[Bairdia]]'', ''[[Carbonia]]'', ''[[Estheria]]'', ''[[Acanthocaris]]'', ''[[Dithyrocaris]]'', and ''[[Anthrapalaemon]]''.
The [[Eurypterid]]s were also diverse, and are represented by such genera as ''[[Eurypterus]]'', ''[[Glyptoscorpius]]'', ''[[Anthraconectes]]'', ''[[Megarachne]]'' (originally misinterpreted as a giant spider) and the specialised very large ''[[Hibbertopterus]]''. Many of these were amphibious.
Frequently a temporary return of marine conditions resulted in marine or brackish water genera such as ''[[Lingula]]'', [[Orbiculoidea]], and ''[[Productus]]'' being found in the thin beds known as marine bands.
===Terrestrial Invertebrates===
[[Image:Meganeura.jpg|thumb|200px|right|''Meganeura''.]]
Fossil remains of air-breathing [[insect]]s, [[myriapod]]s and [[arachnid]]s are known from the late Carboniferous, but so far not from the early Carboniferous. Their diversity when they do appear, however, shows that these arthropods were both well developed and numerous. Their large size can be attributed to the moistness of the environment (mostly swampy fern forests) and the fact that the oxygen concentration in the earth's atmosphere in the Carboniferous was much higher than today. (The oxygen concentration in the earth's atmosphere during the Carboniferous was 35% whereas the oxygen concentration in earth's current atmosphere is 21%.) This required less effort for respiration and allowed [[Arthropoda|arthropods]] to grow larger. Among the insect groups are the huge predatory [[Protodonata]] (griffinflies), among which was [[Meganeura]], a giant [[dragonfly]]-like insect and with a wingspan of ca. 75 cm the largest flying insect ever to roam the planet. Further groups are the [[Syntonopterodea]] (relatives of present-day [[Ephemeroptera|mayflies]]), the abundant and often large sap-sucking [[Palaeodictyopteroidea]], the diverse herbivorous "[[Protorthoptera]]", and numerous [[Basal (phylogenetics)|basal]] [[Dictyoptera]] (ancestors of [[Blattaria|cockroaches]]). Many insects have been obtained from the coalfields of [[Saarbruck]] and [[Commentry]], and from the hollow trunks of fossil trees in Nova Scotia. Some British coalfields have yielded good specimens: ''[[Archaeoptitus]]'', from the Derbyshire coalfield, had a spread of wing extending to more than 35 cm; some specimens (''[[Brodia]]'') still exhibit traces of brilliant wing colors. In the Nova Scotian tree trunks land snails (''[[Archaeozonites]]'', ''[[Dendropupa]]'') have been found.
===Tetrapods===
[[Image:Pederpes22small.jpg|thumb|left|''[[Pederpes]]'', the most primitive Mississippian tetrapod]]
Carboniferous [[amphibian]]s were diverse and common by the middle of the period, more so than they are today; some were as long as 6 meters, and those fully terrestrial as adults had scaly skin.<ref>Stanley, 411-12.</ref> They included a number of basal tetrapod groups classified in early books under the [[Labyrinthodont]]ia. These had long bodies, a head covered with bony plates and generally weak or undeveloped limbs. The largest were over 2 meters long. They were accompanied by an assemblage of smaller amphibians included under the [[Lepospondyli]], often only about 15 cm long. Some Carboniferous amphibians were aquatic and lived in rivers (''[[Loxomma]]'', ''[[Eogyrinus]]'', ''[[Proterogyrinus]]''); others may have been semi-aquatic (''[[Ophiderpeton]]'', ''[[Amphibamus]]'') or terrestrial (''[[Dendrerpeton]]'', ''[[Hyloplesion]]'', ''[[Tuditanus]]'', ''[[Anthracosaurus]]'').
[[Image:Hylonomus_BW.jpg|thumb|200px|right|''Hylonomus''.]]
One of the greatest evolutionary innovations of the Carboniferous was the [[amniote]] egg, which allowed for the further exploitation of the land by certain [[tetrapod]]s. These included the earliest [[Sauropsida|Sauropsid]] reptiles (''[[Hylonomus]]''), and the earliest known [[synapsid]] (''[[Archaeothyris]]''). These small lizard-like animals quickly gave rise to many descendants. The amniote egg allowed these ancestors of all later [[bird]]s, [[mammal]]s, and [[reptile]]s to reproduce on land by preventing the desiccation, or drying-out, of the [[embryo]] inside. By the end of the Carboniferous period, the [[amniotes]] had already diversified into a number of groups, including [[Protorothyrididae|protorothyridids]], [[captorhinidae|captorhinids]], [[Araeoscelidia|aeroscelid]]s, and several [[Family (biology)|families]] of [[pelycosaur]]s.
During the final [[epoch]] of the Carboniferous the [[Gzhelian]] Age reptiles underwent a major evolutionary radiation possibly in response to an increasingly drier climate.<ref name=Kazlev> M. Alan Kazlev (1998) [http://www.palaeos.com/Paleozoic/Carboniferous/Carboniferous.htm The Carboniferous Period of the Paleozoic Era: 299 to 359 million years ago], [[Palaeos]].org, Retrevied on 2008-06-23 </ref>
===Fungal life===
Because plants and animals were growing in size and abundance in this time (e.g., ''[[Lepidodendron]]''), land [[fungi]] diversified further. Marine [[fungi]] still occupied the oceans. All modern [[class (biology)|classes]] of fungi were present in the Late Carboniferous ([[Pennsylvanian]] Epoch).<ref>Blackwell, Meredith, Vilgalys, Rytas, James, Timothy Y., and Taylor, John W. 2008. Fungi. Eumycota: mushrooms, sac fungi, yeast, molds, rusts, smuts, etc.. Version 21 February 2008. http://tolweb.org/Fungi/2377/2008.02.21 in The Tree of Life Web Project, http://tolweb.org/ </ref>
{{Expand-section|date=June 2008}}
===Other life forms===
{{Expand-section|date=June 2008}}
==Extinction events==
{{annotated image/Extinction|caption=Extinction of marine genera as a function of time. The Middle Carboniferous extinction event is marked by an ×.|annotation={{annotation|142|125|×}}}}
In the middle Carboniferous, an [[extinction event]] occurred that was probably caused by [[climate change]]. A less intense extinction event also occurred at the end of Carboniferous.
{{Expand-section|date=June 2008}}
== See also ==
* [[Carboniferous tetrapods]]
* Important Carboniferous [[Lagerstätten]]
** [[Hamilton Quarry]]; 320 mya; [[Kansas]], US
** [[Mazon Creek]]; 300 mya; [[Illinois]], US
* [[List of fossil sites]] ''(with link directory)''
==Footnotes==
<references/>
== References ==
*[http://www.eeb.uconn.edu/Courses/Eeb477/Dudley_98.pdf Dudley, Robert. "Atmospheric Oxygen, Giant Paleozoic Insects and the Evolution of Aerial Locomotor Performance." ''Journal of Experimental Biology'' 201, 1043-50 (1998) (PDF)]
* Ogg, Jim; June, 2004, ''Overview of Global Boundary Stratotype Sections and Points (GSSP's)'' http://www.stratigraphy.org/gssp.htm Accessed [[April 30]], [[2006]].
*Stanley, Steven M. ''Earth System History.'' New York: W.H. Freeman and Company, 1999. ISBN 0-7167-2882-6
{{1911}}
== External links ==
{{Commonscat|Carboniferous}}
* {{cite web
| publisher = International Commission on Stratigraphy (ICS)
| title = Geologic Time Scale 2004
| url = http://www.stratigraphy.org/gts.htm
| accessmonthday = September 19
| accessyear = 2005
}}
* [http://www.geo-lieven.com/erdzeitalter/karbon/karbon.htm Examples of Carboniferous Fossils]
{{Carboniferous Footer}}
{{Paleozoic Footer}}
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