Cassava 56465 224139367 2008-07-07T14:21:14Z 71.223.122.191 /* Caribbean */ {{for|the Gibraltar company|Cassava Enterprises}} {{redirect|Yuca|other uses|Yuca (disambiguation)}} {{Taxobox | name = Cassava | image = Koeh-090.jpg | image_width = 210px | regnum = [[Plantae]] | divisio = [[Flowering plant|Magnoliophyta]] | classis = [[Magnoliopsida]] | ordo = [[Malpighiales]] | familia = [[Euphorbiaceae]] | subfamilia = [[Crotonoideae]] | tribus = [[Manihoteae]] | genus = ''[[Manihot]]'' | species = '''''M. esculenta''''' | binomial = ''Manihot esculenta'' | binomial_authority = Crantz }} {{wiktionary|Cassava}} The '''cassava''', '''yuca''', '''manioc''', or '''tapioca''' (''Manihot esculenta'') is a woody [[shrub]] of the [[Euphorbiaceae]] (spurge family) native to [[South America]] that is extensively cultivated as an annual [[agriculture|crop]] in [[tropical]] and [[subtropical]] regions for its edible [[starch]]y [[tuberous root]], a major source of [[carbohydrate]]s. Indeed, cassava is the third largest source of carbohydrates for human food in the world, with Africa its largest center of production.<ref>Claude Fauquet and Denis Fargette, (1990) "African Cassava Mosaic Virus: Etiology, Epidemiology, and Control" ''Plant Disease'' Vol. 74(6): 404-11. [http://www.apsnet.org/pd/PDFS/1990/PlantDisease74n06_404.pdf]</ref> ==Description== [[Image:Manihot esculenta dsc07325.jpg|left|thumb|Unprocessed cassava root]] The cassava root is long and tapered, with a firm homogeneous flesh encased in a detachable rind, about 1 [[1 E-3 m|mm]] thick, rough and brown on the outside, just like a potato. Commercial [[Variety (biology)|varieties]] can be 5 to 10 [[centimetre|cm]] in [[diameter]] at the top, and 50 to 80 cm long. A woody cordon runs along the root's [[Coordinate axis|axis]]. The flesh can be chalk-white or yellowish. The cassava plant gives the highest yield of [[food energy]] per cultivated area per day among crop plants, except possibly for [[sugarcane]]. Cassava roots are very rich in [[starch]], and contain significant amounts of calcium (50 mg/100g), phosphorus (40 mg/100g) and vitamin C (25 mg/100g). However, they are poor in [[protein]] and other [[nutrient]]s. In contrast, cassava leaves are a good source of protein if supplemented with the [[amino acid]] [[methionine]] despite containing [[cyanide]]. ==History and economic impact== [[Image:Casava.jpg|right|thumb|150px|Cassava in cultivation in Democratic Republic of Congo]] [[Image:2005cassava.PNG|thumb|left|Cassava output in 2005]] [[Image:Yuca2LarcoMuseum.jpg|thumb|right|150px|Yuca. Moche Culture. 100 A.D. [[Larco Museum|Larco Museum Collection.]]]] Wild populations of ''M. esculenta subspecies flabellifolia'', shown to be the progenitor of domesticated cassava, are centered in west-central Brazil where it was likely first domesticated no more than 10,000 years [[Before present|BP]].<ref>Olsen, Kenneth M.; Schaal, Barbara A. (1999) "Evidence on the origin of cassava: Phylogeography of ''Manihot esculenta''" in ''Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America (PNAS), Vol. 96, Issue 10, p. 5587 & 5590.</ref> By 6,600 BP, manioc pollen appears in the [[Gulf of Mexico]] lowlands, at the [[San Andres (Mesoamerican site)|San Andres]] archaeological site.<ref>Pope, Kevin; Pohl, Mary E. D.; Jones, John G.; Lentz, David L.; von Nagy, Christopher; Vega, Francisco J.; Quitmyer Irvy R.; "[http://www.sciencemag.org/cgi/content/full/292/5520/1370 Origin and Environmental Setting of Ancient Agriculture in the Lowlands of Mesoamerica]", ''[[Science (journal)|Science]]'', 18 May 2001:Vol. 292. no. 5520, pp. 1370 - 1373.</ref> The oldest direct evidence of cassava cultivation comes from a 1,400 year old [[Maya civilization|Maya]] site, [[Joya de Ceren]], in [[El Salvador]].<ref>University of Colorado at Boulder, (2007) [http://www.colorado.edu/news/releases/2007/305.html "CU-Boulder Archaeology Team Discovers First Ancient Manioc Fields In Americas"], press release August 20, 2007, accessed August 29, 2007.</ref> although the species ''Manihot esculenta'' likely originated further south in [[Brazil]] and [[Paraguay]]. With its high food potential, it had become a [[staple food]] of the native populations of northern South America, southern Mesoamerica, and the West Indies by the time of the Spanish conquest, and its cultivation was continued by the colonial Portuguese and Spanish. Forms of the modern domesticated species can be found growing in the wild in the south of [[Brazil]]. While there are several wild ''Manihot'' species, all varieties of ''M. esculenta'' are [[cultigen]]s. World production of cassava root was estimated to be 184 million [[tonne]]s in [[2002]], the majority of production is in [[Africa]] where 99.1 million tonnes were grown, 51.5 million tonnes were grown in [[Asia]] and 33.2 million tonnes in [[Latin America]] and the [[Caribbean]]. In many places in the Americas, yuca was the [[staple food]]. This translated into many images of yuca being used in [[pre-Colombian]] art. The [[Moche]] people often depicted yuca in their ceramics.<ref>Berrin, Katherine & Larco Museum. ''The Spirit of Ancient Peru:Treasures from the [[Larco Museum|Museo Arqueológico Rafael Larco Herrera]].'' New York: [[Thames and Hudson]], 1997.</ref> ==Farming== Cassava is harvested by hand by raising the lower part of stem and pulling the roots out of the ground, then removing them from the base of the plant . The upper parts of the stems with the leaves are plucked off before harvest. Cassava is propagated by cutting the stem into sections of approximately 30 cm (1 foot), these being planted prior to the wet season. ==Processing and toxicity== [[Image:PeeledCassava.jpg|left|thumb|Cassava root peeled]] The leaves cannot be consumed raw since they contain free and bound [[cyanogenic]] [[glucoside]]s. These are converted to [[cyanide]] in the presence of [[linamarase]], a naturally occurring [[enzyme]] in cassava. The roots, however, are eaten raw everywhere in Africa. Cassava varieties are often categorized as either "sweet" or "bitter", signifying the absence or presence of toxic levels of cyanogenic glucosides. The so-called "sweet" (actually "not bitter") cultivars can produce as little as 20 milligrams of cyanide (CN) per kilogram of fresh roots, while "bitter" ones may produce more than 50 times as much (1 g/kg). Cassavas grown during [[drought]] are especially high in these toxins.<ref> {{cite journal | author=Aregheore E. M, Agunbiade O. O. | title=The toxic effects of cassava (manihot esculenta grantz) diets on humans: a review. | journal=Vet. Hum. Toxicol.| year=1991 | volume=33 | pages=274–275 }}</ref> <ref> {{cite journal | author= White W. L. B., Arias-Garzon D. I., McMahon J. M., Sayre R. T. | title=Cyanogenesis in Cassava, The Role of Hydroxynitrile Lyase in Root Cyanide Production | journal=Plant Physiol. | year= 1998 | volume=116 | pages=1219–1225 | doi = 10.1104/pp.116.4.1219 <!--Retrieved from CrossRef by DOI bot--> }}</ref> One dose of pure cassava cyanogenic glucoside (40mg) is sufficient to kill a cow. Societies which traditionally eat cassava generally understand that soaking and/or cooking is necessary to avoid getting sick.{{Fact|date=May 2008}} However, problems do occur - [[konzo]] (also called mantakassa) is a paralytic neurological disease associated with several weeks of almost exclusive consumption of insufficiently processed bitter cassava. Dr [[Jasson Ospina]], an Australian plant chemist, has developed a simple method to reduce the cyanide content of cassava flour.<ref>{{cite journal | author = J. Howard Bradbury | journal = Journal of food composition and analysis | volume = 19 | issue = 4 | pages = 388–393 | publisher = Elsevier, New York | date = 2006 | title = Simple wetting method to reduce cyanogen content of cassava flour | doi = 10.1016/j.jfca.2005.04.012}}</ref> The method involves mixing the flour with water into a thick paste and then letting it stand in the shade for five hours in a thin layer spread over a basket, allowing an enzyme in the flour to break down the cyanide compound. The cyanide compound produces [[hydrogen cyanide]] gas, which escapes into the atmosphere, reducing the amount of poison by up to five-sixths and making the flour safe for consumption the same evening. This method is currently being promoted in rural African communities that are dependent on cassava.<ref>{{cite press release | title = New method of cyanide removal to help millions | publisher = The Australian National University | date = 2007-02-07 | url = http://info.anu.edu.au/mac/Media/Media_Releases/_2007/_February/_070207_Bradbury_cassava.asp | accessdate = 2007-05-04}}</ref> For some smaller-rooted "sweet" varieties, cooking is sufficient to eliminate all toxicity. The larger-rooted "bitter" varieties used for production of flour or starch must be processed to remove the cyanogenic glucosides. The large roots are peeled and then ground into flour, which is then soaked in water, squeezed dry several times, and toasted. The starch grains that float to the surface during the soaking process are also used in cooking.<ref> {{cite journal | author=G. Padmaja | title=Cyanide detoxification in cassava for food and feed uses. | journal=Crit. Rev. Food Sci. Nutr. | year=1995 | volume= | pages=299–339 }}</ref> The flour is used throughout the [[Caribbean]]. The traditional method used in West Africa is to peel the roots and put them into water for 3 days to ferment. The roots then are dried or cooked. In Nigeria and several other west African countries, including Ghana, Benin, Togo, Ivory Coast and Burkina Faso, they are usually grated and lightly fried in palm oil to preserve them. The result is a foodstuff called 'Gari'. Fermentation is also used in other places such as Indonesia. The reliance on cassava as a food source and the resulting exposure to the [[goitrogen]]ic effects of [[thiocyanate]] has been responsible for the endemic [[goitre]]s seen in the Akoko area of southwestern Nigeria.<ref name="pmid10497657">{{cite journal |author=Akindahunsi AA, Grissom FE, Adewusi SR, Afolabi OA, Torimiro SE, Oke OL |title=Parameters of thyroid function in the endemic goitre of Akungba and Oke-Agbe villages of Akoko area of southwestern Nigeria |journal=African journal of medicine and medical sciences |volume=27 |issue=3-4 |pages=239–42 |year=1998 |pmid=10497657 |doi=}}</ref> ==Ethnomedical uses== *The bitter variety of ''Manihot'' root is used to treat diarrhea and [[malaria]]. *The leaves are used to treat [[hypertension]], headache, and pain. *Cubans commonly use cassava to treat [[irritable bowel syndrome]], the paste is eaten in excess during treatment. ==Uses== {{Unreferencedsection|date=May 2008}} Cooked in various ways, cassava is used in a great variety of dishes. The soft-boiled root has a delicate flavor and can replace boiled potatoes in many uses: as an accompaniment for meat dishes, or made into [[purée]]s, [[dumpling]]s, [[soup]]s, stews, gravies, etc.. Deep fried (after boiling or steaming), it can replace fried potatoes, with a distinctive flavor. [[Tapioca]] and [[foufou]] are made from the starchy cassava root flour. Tapioca is an essentially flavourless starchy ingredient, or fecula, produced from treated and dried cassava (manioc) root and used in cooking. It is similar to sago and is commonly used to make a milky pudding similar to rice pudding. Cassava flour, also called [[tapioca]] flour or tapioca starch, can also replace [[wheat]] flour, and is so-used by some people with wheat [[allergy|allergies]] such as [[coeliac disease]]. [[Bubble tea|Boba]] tapioca pearls are made from cassava root. It is also used in cereals for which several tribes in South America have used it extensively. It is also used in making cassava cake, a popular pastry. The juice of the bitter cassava, boiled to the consistence of thick syrup and flavored with spices is called '''Cassareep'''. It is used as a basis for various sauces and as a culinary flavoring, principally in tropical countries. It is exported chiefly from [[Guyana]]. The leaves are pounded to a fine chaff and cooked as a [[palaver sauce]] in [[Sierra Leone]], usually with palm oil but vegetable oil can also be used. Palaver sauces contain meat and fish as well. It is necessary to wash the leaf chaff several times to remove the bitterness. In many countries significant research has begun to evaluate the use of cassava as an [[ethanol]] [[biofuel]]. ==Caribbean== ===Cuba=== Yuca, as cassava is called in [[Cuba]], is a staple of [[Cuban]] cuisine. As in other Caribbean islands it is ground up and made into a round shaped flat bread called [[casabe]]. As a side dish it can be boiled, covered with raw onion rings and sizzling garlic infused olive oil. It is also boiled then cut into strips and fried to make "yuca frita" (similar to french fries). Yuca is also one of the main ingredients in a traditional Cuban vegetarian stew called "[[Ajiaco]]", along with potatoes, [[malanga]], [[boniato]] (sweet potato), [[plantain]], [[Ñame]], corn and other vegetables. Cuban [[Buñuelos]], a local variation of a traditional Spanish fritter (similar to the French [[beignet]]) is made with yuca and boniato (sweet potato) instead of flour. These are fried and topped off with anisette infused sugar syrup. ===Haiti=== Cassava (''kassav'') is a popular starch and common staple in [[Haiti]] where it is often eaten as part of a meal or by itself occasionally. It is usually eaten in bread form, often with peanut butter spread on the top or with milk. Cassava flour, known as ''Musa'' or ''Moussa'' is boiled to create a meal of the same name. Cassava can also be eaten with various stews and soups, such as squash soup (referred to as [[Soup Joumou|soup joumou]]). ===The Dominican Republic=== Cassava bread (''casabe'') is an often used complement in meals, much in the same way as wheat bread is used in Spanish, French and Italian lunches. Also, as an alternative to side-dishes like french fries, ''arepitas de yuca'' are consumed, which are deep-fried buttered lumps of shredded cassava. ''Bollitos'', similar to the Colombian ones are also made. The root, in its boiled and peeled form, is also present in the typical Dominican stew, the ''Sancocho'', together with [[plantains]], potatoes, ''yautía'', among other vegetables (it can also be eaten singly as an alternative to boiled potatoes or plantains). Also, a type of ''[[empanada]]'' called ''catibía'' has its dough made out of cassava flour. Also it is used for Cassava bread (casabe), just peeled and boiled then eaten with olive oil and vinegar and served with other root vegetables like potatoes, ñame, yams, batata (sweet potatoes) and yautía (dasheen); or grounded and used as a paste (masa) to make a Dominican Christmas favorite dish called "Pasteles". It is somewhat similar to Mexican tamales in appearance, but is made with root vegetables, plantains or yuca, instead of corn. Pasteles are rectangular and have a meat filling in the center, chicken or pork. They are wrapped in a plantain leaf. Yuca, as it is widely known in the Dominican Republic, is also used to make (''chulos''), mainly in the Cibao region. The Yuca is grated, ingredients are added, and it is shaped into a cylindrical form, much like a croquette, and are finally fried. ===Jamaica=== In [[Jamaica]], cassava is traditionally made into "bammy," a small fried cassava cake inherited from the native [[Arawak]] Indians. The cassava root is grated, rinsed well, dried, salted, and pressed to form flat cakes about 4 inches in diameter and 1/2-inch thick. The cakes are lightly fried, then dipped in coconut milk and fried again. Bammies are usually served as a starchy side dish with breakfast, with fish dishes or alone as a snack. ===The Bahamas=== In the Bahamas Cassava ===Eastern Caribbean=== In the islands of the Eastern Caribbean, cassava is traditionally peeled and boiled and served with flour dumplings and other root vegetables like potatoes, yams, sweet potatoes and dasheen. ===Bermuda=== Cassava pie is a traditional Christmas dish. The cassava is peeled and chopped finely, then mixed with egg, butter and sugar. It is layered in a baking dish in alternate layers with chicken or pork. It is then baked in the oven, and leftovers may be fried. It is eaten as a savoury dish, either on the side or as a main meal. <!--SOME OF THE INFORMATION IN THIS SECTION MAY BE SPECIFIC TO BRAZIL. WHAT WAS THE GEOGRAPHIC DISTRIBUTION OF CASSAVA CULTIVATON? WHERE THERE REGIONAL DIFFERENCES IN CASSAVA PROCESSING?--> Using the traditional method of frying potato chips, cassava has also made an impact by being fried and put into bags for consumers around the world. cassava chips. ==Central America== ===El Salvador=== In El Salvador,''yuca'' is used in soups, or fried. Yuca Frita con Chicharrón is when the yuca is deep fried and served with curtido (a pickled cabbage, onion and carrot topping) and pork rinds or pepesquitas (fried baby sardines). The Yuca is sometimes served boiled instead of fried. Pan con pavo, translated to turkey with bread, is a warm turkey submarine sandwich similar to a hoagie. The turkey is marinated and then roasted with Pipil spices and handpulled. This sandwich is traditionally served with turkey, tomato, and watercress. ===Costa Rica=== In Costa Rica, ''yuca'' is widely used, both boiled in soups or fried and served with fried pieces of pork and lime. This is sold as a snack in most places you travel. When travelling by bus, the bus is often boarded by a local, trying to sell "sandwich bagged" snacks of yuca, pork and lime. Two main sources of food for locals in rural areas, living off resources within their own land, are yuca and plantain. ===Panama=== In Panama, ''yuca'' is sometimes used to make ''carimanolas.'' The boiled cassava is mashed into a dough and then filled with spiced meat. The meat-filled dumplings are deep fried to a golden brown. It is also used in brothy soups together with chicken, potatoes, and other vegetables. ===Nicaragua=== In [[Nicaragua]], ''yuca'' is used in soups and in the Nicaraguan typical dish [[vigoron]], which basically consists of boiled yuca, [[chicharron]], and cabbage salad. Yuca is also used to make [[buñuelos]] and is one of the main ingredients in the national dish [[Vaho]]. ==South America== ===Bolivia=== Cassava is very popular in [[Bolivia]] with the name of ''[[yuca]]'' and consumed in a variety of dishes. It is common, after boiling it, to fry it with oil and eat it with a special hot sauce known as ''[[llajwa]]'' or along with [[cheese]] and ''[[choclo]]'' (dried [[maize|corn]]). In warm and rural areas, ''yuca'' is used as a substitute of bread in everyday meals. The capacity of cassava to be stored for a long time makes it suitable as an ideal and cheap reserve of nutrients. Recently, more restaurants, hotels and common people are including cassava into their original recipes and everyday meals as a substitute for [[potato]] and bread. ===Brazil=== Cassava is heavily featured in the [[cuisine of Brazil]]. The dish ''vaca atolada'' ("mud-stranded cow") is a meat and cassava stew, cooked until the root has turned into a paste; and ''pirão'' is a thick gravy-like gruel prepared by cooking fish bits (such as heads and bones) with cassava flour, or ''farinha de mandioca''. In the guise of ''[[farofa]]'' (lightly roasted [[flour]]), cassava combines with rice and beans to make the basic meal of the average Brazilians. [[Farofa]] is also one of the most common side dishes to many Brazilian foods including ''[[feijoada]]'', the famous salt-pork-and-black-beans stew. Boiled cassava is also made into a popular sweet [[pudding]]. Another popular sweet is cassava cake. After boiling, Cassava may also be deep-fried to form a snack or side dish. In the north and northeast of Brazil Cassava is known as "macaxeira". In the southeast, as "mandioca" and in the South as "aipim". ===Colombia=== In [[Colombia]], cassava is widely known as ''yuca'' among its people. In the Colombian interior, it is used mainly in the preparation of [[Sancocho]] (a kind of rich soup) and other soups. In the [[Valle del Cauca Department|Valle department]] it is famous, the [[Pandebono]] bread made of the yuca [[dough]]. In the coastal region, is known especially in the form of "Bollo de yuca" (a kind of bread) or "enyucados". "Bollo de yuca" is a dough made of ground yuca that is wrapped in aluminum foil and then boiled, and is served with butter and cheese. "Enyucado" is a dessert made of ground boiled yuca, anise, sugar, and sometimes guava jam. In the caribbean region of Colombia it is also eaten roasted, fried or boiled with soft homemade cheese or [[cream cheese]] and mainly as guarnition of fish dishes. ===Ecuador=== In [[Ecuador]], cassava is referred to as "yuca" and included in a number of dishes. In the highlands, it is found boiled in soups and stews, as a side in place of [[potato]]es, and reprocessed yuca is made into laminar fried chips called "yuquitos" which are a substitute for potato chips. Ecuadorians also make [[bread]] from yuca flour and mashed yuca rood, including the extremely popular Bolitos de Yuca or Yuquitas which range from balls of yuca dough formed around a heart of fresh cheese and deep-fried (found primarily in the north), to the simpler variety typical to Colombia which are merely baked balls of yuca dough. Yuca flour is sold in most markets. In the [[Amazon Basin]], yuca is a main ingredient in [[chicha]] - a traditional fermented drink produced by the indigenous [[Quichua]] population. Yuca leaves, steamed, are part of the [[staple diet]] of the indigenous population in all areas where it is grown. ===Paraguay=== Cassava, or mandioca in Spanish, or mandi´o in Guarani, is a staple dish of [[Paraguay]]. It grows extremely well in the soil conditions throughout the country, and it is eaten at practically every meal. It is generally boiled and served as a side dish. It is also ground into a flour and used to make [[chipa]], a bagel-shaped cheesy bread popular during holidays. ===Peru=== Cassava is also popular in [[Peru]] by the name of yuca, where it is used both boiled and fried. Boiled yuca is usually served as a side dish or in soup, while fried yuca is usually served together with [[onion]]s and [[capsicum|pepper]]s as an apperitif or accompanying [[chicha]]. ===Venezuela=== As in the Dominican Republic, Cassava bread (''casabe'') is also a popular complement in traditional meals, as common as the [[arepas]]. Venezuelan Casabe is made by roasting ground cassava spread out as meter wide pancake over a hot surface (''plancha''). The result has the consistency of a cracker, and is broken in small pieces for consumption. There is also a sweet variety, called [[Naiboa]], made as a sandwich of two casabe pancakes with a spread of [[Rapadura|Papelón]] in between. Naiboa also has a softer consistency. In general terms, Mandioc is an essential ingredient in Venezuelan food, and can be found stewed, roasted or fried as sides or complements. In Venezuela cassava is also known as "yuca". Yuca is actually the root of the cassava plant. Yuca is boiled, fried or grilled to serve aside of main meals or to eat with cheese, butter, or margarine. ==Countries in Africa== [[Image:Gozo.jpg|left|thumb|Woman pounding the cassava root into [[fufu]] in the Central African Republic.]] In the humid and sub-humid areas of tropical [[Africa]], cassava is either a primary [[staple food]] or a secondary co-staple. [[Nigeria]] is the world's largest producer of cassava. In [[West Africa]], particularly in [[Nigeria]] and [[Sierra Leone]], cassava is commonly prepared as [[eba]] or [[garri]]. The cassava is grated, pressed, fermented and fried then mixed with boiling water to form a thick paste. In [[West Africa]] the cassava root is pounded, mixed with boiling water to form a thick paste and cooked as eba. Historically, people economically forced to depend on cassava risk chronic poisoning diseases, such as [[tropical ataxic neuropathy]] (TAN), or such [[malnutrition]] diseases as [[kwashiorkor]] and [[endemic goitre]]. However, the price of cassava has risen significantly in the last half decade and lower-income people have turned to other carbohydrate-rich foods like rice and spaghetti. In [[Central Africa]], cassava is traditionally processed by boiling and mashing. The resulting mush can be mixed with spices and then cooked further or stored. A popular snack is made by marinating cassava in salted water for a few days and then grilling it in small portions. In [[Tanzania]], cassava is known as mihogo in [[Swahili]]. Though the methods of cooking cassava vary from region to region, the main method is simply frying it. The skin of the root is removed and the remains are sectioned into small bit-size chunks that can then be soaked in water to aid in frying. Thereafter, the chunks are fried and then served, sometimes with a chili-salt mixture. This fried cassava is a very common street food as it is relatively cheap to buy, easy to prepare and good to eat. Cassava flour can also be made into a a staple food with a consistency like polenta or mashed potatoes. The Swahili name for it is [[ugali]] while the [[Kikuyu]] name for it is [[mwanga]]). It's also called fufu in [[Lingala]], whereas in [[Zambia]] it is known as [[nshima]]. Residents in the Sub-Saharan nation of the [[Central African Republic]] have developed multiple, unique ways of utilizing the abundant cassava plant. In addition to the methods described above, local residents fry thin slices of the cassava root, resulting in a crunchy snack similar in look and taste to potato chips. The root can be pounded into flour and made into bread or cookies. This flour can also be mixed with precise amounts of salt and water to create a heavy liquid used as white paint in construction. The cassava leaf is also soaked and boiled for extended periods of time to remove toxins and then eaten. Known as gozo in [[Sango]] and pondu in Lingala, the taste is similar to spinach. ==Asia== ===China=== The Chinese name for cassava is Mushu (木薯), literally meaning tree potato. In the subtropical region of southern China, cassava if the fifth largest crop in term of production, after [[rice]], [[sweet potato]], [[sugar cane]], and [[maize]]. China is also the largest export market of cassava produced in [[Vietnam]]. Over 60% of cassava production in China is concentrated in a single province, [[Guangxi]], averaging over seven million tons annually. Cassava in China is being increasingly used for [[ethanol fuel]] production. On [[December 22]], [[2007]], the largest cassava [[ethanol fuel]] production facility is completed in [[Beihai]] with annual output of two hundred thousand tons,which would need average of one and half million tons of cassava. ===India=== [[Image:Tapioca with fish.jpg|thumb|right|275px|Boiled cassava served with fish and [[chutney]]]] In the state of [[Kerala]], [[India]], cassava is a secondary [[staple food]]. Boiled cassava is normally eaten with fish [[curry]] (''kappayum meenum'' in [[Malayalam]] which literally means casava with fish) or meat, and is a traditional favorite of many Keralites. ''Kappa biriyani'' &mdash; cassava mixed with meat is a popular dish in central Kerala. In [[Tamil Nadu]], the National Highway 68 between [[Thalaivasal]] and [[Attur]] has many cassava processing factories (local name Sago Factory) alongside it - indicating an abundance of it in the neighborhood. Cassava is widely cultivated and eaten as a staple food in [[Andhra Pradesh]]. The household name for processed cassava is ''saggu biyyam''. Cassava Pearls {''Sabu-Daana'') is cassava-root starch and is used for making sweet milk puddings. ===Indonesia=== Cassava is widely eaten in [[Indonesia]], where it is known as ''singkong'', and used as a [[staple food]] during hard times but has lower status than rice. It is boiled or fried (after steaming), baked under hot coals, or added to [[kolak]] dessert. It is also fermented to make ''[[peuyeum]]'' and ''[[tape (Indonesian cuisine)|tape]]'', a sweet paste which can be mixed with sugar and made into a drink, the alcoholic (and green) ''es tape''. It is available as an alternative to potato crisps. [[Gaplek]], a dried form of cassava, is an important source of calories in the off-season in the limestone hills of southern [[Java]]. Their young leaves also eaten as ''gulai daun singkong'' (cassava leaves in coconut milk), ''urap'' (javanese salad) and as main ingredient in ''buntil'' (javanese vegetable rolls). ===Philippines=== Tagalog speakers call cassava kamoteng kahoy (literal English means wooden yam). Visayans call cassava balinghoy. Cassava is mainly prepared as a dessert. It is also steamed and eaten plain. Sometimes it is steamed and eaten with grated coconut. The most popular dessert is the cassava cake/pie, which uses grated cassava, sugar, coconut milk, and coconut cream. A few years ago, the deaths of several school children in the Philippines were attributed to improperly prepared cassava snacks the children had purchased on a street corner; however the cause was later found to be pesticide containers used to prepare the food rather than the cassava.{{Fact|date=May 2008}} The leaves are also cooked and eaten. ===Sri Lanka=== Cassava, known as "Manyokka" (manioc) in Sri Lanka, is a staple among both the lower and upper socio-economic classes. This tradition migrates to the country from Tamil Nadu, and is popularly used in different forms of cooking throughout the country. It is also mixed, in small quantities, into feed for pastoral animals and horses. ===Vietnam=== Cassava's name in Vietnamese is "Sắn" (Northern) or "Khoai Mì" (Southern). It is planted almost everywhere in Vietnam and its root is amongst the cheapest source of food there. The fresh roots are sliced into thin pieces and then dried in the sun for easy storage. Tapioca is the most valuable product from processed cassava roots there. ==Animal feed== Cassava is used as animal feed extensively in Asia, South America, Africa, and Europe, especially in places such as Thailand, China, Nigeria, Brazil, etc. ==Cassava hay== '''Cassava hay''', is hay which is produced at a young growth stage, 3-4 months and being harvested about 30-45 cm above ground, sun-dried for 1-2 days until having final dry matter of at least 85%. The cassava hay contains high protein content, 20-27% CP and condensed tannins, 1.5-4%. It is used as a good roughage source for dairy, beef, buffalo, goats, and sheep by either direct feeding or as a protein source in the concentrate mixtures. More details can be searched from [[Metha Wanapat]] [[AJAS]],Asian-Australasian Journal of Animal Sciences. ==Cassava pests== {{Main|List of cassava diseases}} In [[Africa]] the cassava [[mealybug]] (''Phenacoccus manihoti'') and [[cassava green mite]] (''Mononychellus tanajoa'') can cause up to 80% crop loss, which is extremely detrimental to the production of [[subsistence]] farmers. These pests were rampant in the 1970s and 1980s but were brought under control following the establishment of the [[Biological Control Centre for Africa]] of the [[International Institute of Tropical Agriculture]] [[IITA]]. The Centre investigated [[biological control]] for cassava pests; two [[South American]] natural enemies ''[[Apoanagyrus lopezi]]'' (a [[parasitoid]] wasp) and ''[[Typhlodromalus aripo]]'' (a predatory mite) were found to effectively control the cassava mealybug and the cassava green mite respectively. The cassava mosaic virus causes the leaves of the cassava plant to wither, limiting the growth of the root. The virus is spread by the [[whitefly]] and by the transplanting of diseased plants into new fields. Sometime in the late 1980s, a mutation occurred in Uganda that made the virus even more harmful, causing the complete loss of leaves. This mutated virus has been spreading at a rate of 50 miles per year, and as of 2005 may be found throughout [[Uganda]], [[Rwanda]], [[Burundi]], the [[Democratic Republic of the Congo]] and the [[Republic of the Congo]]. [http://www.stltoday.com/stltoday/news/stories.nsf/sciencemedicine/story/0E96D8B196362C0A8625723F0022D403?OpenDocument] ==References== {{reflist|2}} *FAO, [http://www.fao.org/es/esc/en/20953/21029/highlight_28829en.html June 2003 cassava market assessment], 2003 *{{cite journal | author=Cereda, M.P. and Mattos, M.C.Y. | title=Linamarin - The Toxic Compound of Cassava | journal=Journal of Venomous Animals and Toxins (online)| year=1996 | volume=2 | pages=6–12 |issn= 0104-7930 |doi= 10.1590/S0104-79301996000100002 |url=http://www.scielo.br/scielo.php?script=sci_arttext&pid=S0104-79301996000100002&lng=en&nrm=iso }} *{{Grocers}} ==External links== {{commons|Manihot esculenta}} *[http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/Crops/CropFactSheets/cassava.html Cassava - Purdue University Horticulture] *[http://www.iita.org/cms/details/cassava_project_details.aspx?zoneid=63&articleid=267 Cassave Research at the International Institute of Tropical Agriculture (IITA)] *[http://www.cassavabiz.org/ Cassava Biz] - information service provided by the Integrated Cassava Project (ICP) of the International Institute of Tropical Agriculture (IITA), to encourage, promote, and expand agribusiness development in the cassava subsector in Nigeria. *[http://www.new-agri.co.uk/98-6/focuson/focuson9.html Cassava Pests: From Crisis to Control] *[http://researchnews.osu.edu/archive/cassava.htm GE cassava plants that have reduced cyanogens] *[http://researchnews.osu.edu/archive/suprtubr.htm GE cassava plants whose roots are over 2.5 times normal size] *[http://www.inoculatedmind.com/?p=121 The Inoculated Mind - Interview with Dr. Richard Sayre, credited with lowering cyanogen content and engineering giant cassava] *[http://www.fao.org/ag/AGP/AGPC/gcds/GCS.htm Global Cassava Development Strategy] *[http://www.unu.edu/unupress/food/8F024e/8F024E01.htm The Case for Cassava] *[http://www.knowingfood.com/tapioca/tapiocarecipe.html Asian Cassava (Tapioca) Dessert Recipes] *[http://news.yahoo.com/s/nm/20070820/sc_nm/volcano_manioc_dc Mayans grew Manoic] [[Category:Crops originating from the Americas]] [[Category:Euphorbiaceae]] [[Category:Flora of South America]] [[Category:Root vegetables]] [[Category:Tropical agriculture]] [[Category:Underutilized crops]] [[Category:Staple foods]] {{Link FA|he}} [[ar:كاسافا]] [[gn:Mandi'o]] [[zh-min-nan:Chhiū-chî]] [[bg:Маниока]] [[ca:Tapioca]] [[de:Maniok]] [[es:Manihot esculenta]] [[eo:Manioko]] [[fr:Manioc]] [[hsb:Brazilski maniok]] [[ilo:Balinghoy]] [[id:Singkong]] [[it:Manihot esculenta]] [[he:מניהוט מצוי]] [[rw:Inyumbati]] [[ht:Manyòk dous]] [[la:Mandioca]] [[lt:Valgomasis manijokas]] [[ln:Manyɔ́kɔ]] [[nah:Cuauhcamohtli]] [[nl:Cassave]] [[ja:キャッサバ]] [[no:Maniok]] [[pl:Maniok jadalny]] [[pt:Mandioca]] [[qu:Rumu]] [[ru:Маниок]] [[simple:Manioc]] [[fi:Maniokki]] [[sv:Maniok]] [[th:มันสำปะหลัง]] [[vi:Sắn]] [[to:Mānioke]] [[uk:Кассава]] [[zh:木薯]]