Cattle
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Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/Nkbju|Nkbju]] to last version by Bongwarrior (using [[WP:HG|Huggle]])
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{{dablink|For general information about the genus, including other species of cattle, see [[Bos]].}}
{{redirect|Cow}}
{{Taxobox
| status = DOM
| image = CH cow 2.jpg
| image_width = 250px
| image_caption = A Swiss [[Braunvieh]] cow wearing a [[Trychel|cowbell]]
| regnum = [[Animal]]ia
| phylum = [[Chordate|Chordata]]
| classis = [[Mammal]]ia
| ordo = [[Artiodactyla]]
| familia = [[Bovidae]]
| subfamilia = [[Bovinae]]
| genus = ''[[Bos]]''
| species = '''''B. taurus'''''
| binomial = ''Bos taurus''
| binomial_authority = [[Carolus Linnaeus|Linnaeus]], 1758
}}
'''Cattle''', colloquially referred to as '''cows''', are [[domestication|domesticated]] [[ungulate]]s, a member of the [[subfamily]] [[Bovinae]] of the [[family (biology)|family]] [[Bovidae]]. They are raised as [[livestock]] for meat (called [[beef]] and [[veal]]), [[dairy product]]s ([[milk]]), [[leather]] and as [[draft animal]]s (pulling [[cart]]s, [[plow]]s and the like). In some countries, such as [[India]], they are honored in religious ceremonies and revered. It is estimated that there are 1.3 billion cattle in the world today.<ref>[http://cattle-today.com/ Breeds of Cattle at CATTLE TODAY<!-- Bot generated title -->]</ref>
==Species of cattle==
Cattle were originally identified by [[Carolus Linnaeus]] as three separate species. These were ''Bos taurus'', the European cattle, including similar types from Africa and Asia; ''Bos indicus'', the [[zebu]]; and the extinct ''Bos primigenius'', the [[aurochs]]. The aurochs is ancestral to both zebu and European cattle. More recently{{Verify source|date=September 2007}}<!-- didn't the ICZN make Bos taurus mandatory for domestic cattle in 2003? --> these three have increasingly been grouped as one species, with ''Bos primigenius taurus'', ''Bos primigenius indicus'' and ''Bos primigenius primigenius'' as the subspecies.
Complicating the matter is the ability of cattle to interbreed with other closely related species. Hybrid individuals and even breeds exist, not only between European cattle and [[zebu]] but also with [[yak]]s (called a [[dzo]]), [[banteng]], [[gaur]], and [[bison]] ("[[cattalo]]"), a cross-genera hybrid. For example, genetic testing of the Dwarf Lulu breed, the only humpless "''Bos taurus''-type" cattle in Nepal, found them to be a mix of European cattle, zebu and yak.<ref>{{cite journal | last = Takeda | first = Kumiko | coauthors = et al. | title = Mitochondrial DNA analysis of Nepalese domestic dwarf cattle Lulu | journal = Animal Science Journal | volume = 75 | issue = 2 | pages = 103–110 | publisher = Blackwell Publishing | date= April 2004 | url = http://www.blackwell-synergy.com/links/doi/10.1111%2Fj.1740-0929.2004.00163.x | doi = 10.1111/j.1740-0929.2004.00163.x | accessdate = 2006-11-07 }}</ref> Cattle cannot successfully be bred with [[Domestic buffalo|water buffalo]] or [[African buffalo]].
The aurochs originally ranged throughout Europe, [[North Africa]], and much of Asia. In historical times, their range was restricted to Europe, and the last animals were killed by [[poacher]]s in [[Masovia]], [[Poland]], in 1627. Breeders have attempted to recreate cattle of similar appearance to aurochs by crossing of domesticated cattle breeds, creating the [[Heck cattle]] breed. (See also [[aurochs]] and [[zebu]] articles.)
==Terminology==
===Word origin===
''Cattle'' did not originate as a name for [[bovine]] animals. It derives from the Latin ''caput'', head, and originally meant movable property, especially livestock of any kind.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.etymonline.com/index.php?term=cattle |title=Cattle |accessdate = 2007-06-13 |last=Harper |first=Douglas |year=2001 |work=Online Etymological Dictionary}}</ref> The word is closely related to "[[chattel]]" (a unit of personal property) and "[[capital (economics)|capital]]" in the economic sense.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.etymonline.com/index.php?term=chattel |title=Chattel |accessdate = 2007-06-13 |last=Harper |first=Douglas |year=2001 |work=Online Etymological Dictionary}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.etymonline.com/index.php?term=capital |title=Capital |accessdate = 2007-06-13 |last=Harper |first=Douglas |year=2001 |work=Online Etymological Dictionary}}</ref>
Older English sources like [[King James Version of the Bible|King James Version]] of the [[Bible]] refer to livestock in general as cattle (as opposed to the word [[deer]] which then was used for wild animals). Additionally other species of the genus ''[[Bos]]'' are sometimes called wild cattle. Today, the modern meaning of "cattle", without any other qualifier, is usually restricted to domesticated bovines.
===Terminology of cattle===
[[Image:Hereford bull large.jpg|thumb|250px|A [[Hereford cattle|Hereford]] bull]]
In general, the same words are used in different parts of the world but with minor differences in the definitions. The terminology described here contrasts the differences in definition between the [[United States]] and other [[British people|British]] influenced parts of world such as [[Canada]], [[Australia]], [[New Zealand]], [[Ireland]], and the [[United Kingdom]]<ref name="cterm">http://www.experiencefestival.com/a/Cattle_-_Terminology/id/1287270 Cattle Terminology</ref>.
An intact (i.e. not [[castration|castrated]]) adult male is called a ''[[bull]]''. An adult female who has had one or two calves (depending on regional usage) is called a ''cow''. Young cattle are called ''[[calf|calves]]'' until they are [[Weaning|weaned]], then ''weaners'' until they are a year old in some areas, in other areas, particularly with beef cattle, they may be known as ''feeder-calves'' or simply ''feeders''. After that, they are referred to as ''[[yearling]]s'' if between one and two years of age, or by gender. A young female before she has had a calf of her own is called a ''[[heifer]]''<ref>{{cite web
| url = http://webster.com/dictionary/heifer
| title = Definition of heifer
| accessdate = 2006-11-29
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}} </ref><ref>
{{cite web
| last = Warren
| first = Andrea
| title = Pioneer Girl: Growing Up on the Prairie
| publisher = Lexile
| format = PDF
| url = http://www.lexile.com/PowerV/Pioneer%20Girl%20Growng%20Up%20on%20the%20Prairie.pdf
| accessdate = 2006-11-29 }}
</ref> ({{pronEng|ˈhɛfɚ}}, "heffer"). A young female that has had only one calf is occasionally called a ''first-calf heifer''. A castrated male is called a ''[[steer]]'' in the [[United States]], and is called a ''bullock'' in other parts of the world; although in North America this term refers to a young bull. A castrated male (occasionally a female or in some areas a bull) kept for draft purposes is called an ''[[ox]]'' (plural ''oxen''). In North America, draft cattle under four years old are called ''working steers''. In the extremely uncommon situation where an adult bull is castrated, it becomes a ''stag''<ref>[http://www.smithfieldfoods.com/Understand/Glossary/#gloss_s Smithfield Foods::Understanding Smithfield::Glossary of Terms<!-- Bot generated title -->]</ref>. In all cattle species, a female who is the twin of a bull usually becomes an infertile partial [[intersex]], and is a ''[[freemartin]]''. Some Australian, Canadian, New Zealand and Scottish farmers use the term ''cattlebeast''. ''Neat'' (horned oxen, from which "neatsfoot oil" is derived), ''beef'' (young ox) and ''beefing'' (young animal fit for slaughtering) are obsolete terms, although ''poll'' or ''[[polled]] cattle'' is still a term in use for naturally hornless animals, or in some areas cattle that have been disbudded. Cattle raised for human consumption are called ''beef cattle''. Within the beef cattle industry in parts of the United States, the older term ''beef'' (plural ''beeves'') is still used to refer to an animal of either gender. Cows of certain breeds that are kept for the milk they give are called ''dairy cows''<ref name="cterm"/>. The adjective applying to cattle in general is usually ''bovine''.
The terms "bull", "cow" and "calf" are also used by extension to denote the gender of other large animals, including [[whale]]s, [[hippopotamus]]es, [[camel]]s, [[elk]] and [[elephant]]s.
=== Singular terminology dilemma ===
''Cattle'' is both a plural and a [[mass noun]], but there is no singular equivalent: it is a [[plurale tantum]]. Thus one may refer to "three cattle" or "some cattle", but not "one cattle". There is no universally used singular equivalent in modern English to "cattle", other than the gender and age-specific terms such as cow, bull, steer and heifer. Strictly speaking, the singular noun for the domestic bovine was "ox. However, "ox" today is rarely used in this general sense. An ox today generally denotes a [[working animal|draft beast]], most commonly a castrated male (but is not to be confused with the unrelated wild [[musk ox]]).
[[Image:Brahman Baby.jpg|thumb|A [[Brahman (cattle)|Brahman]] calf]]
"Cow" has been in general use as a singular for the collective "cattle" in spite of the objections of those who point out that it is a female-specific term, rendering phrases such as "that cow is a bull" absurd. However, it is easy to use when a singular is needed and the gender is not known, as in "There is a cow in the road". Further, any herd of fully mature cattle in or near a [[pasture]] is statistically likely to consist mostly of cows, so the term is probably accurate. Other than the few bulls needed for breeding, the vast majority of male cattle are castrated as calves and slaughtered for meat before the age of three years. Thus, in a pastured herd, any calves or herd bulls usually are clearly distinguishable from the cows due to distinctively different sizes and clear anatomical differences.
[[Colloquial]]ly, more general non-[[species|specific]] terms may denote cattle when a singular form is needed. [[Australia]]n, [[New Zealand]] and [[United Kingdom|British]] farmers use the term "beast" or "cattle beast". "Bovine" is also used in [[United Kingdom|Britain]]. The term "critter" is common in the western [[United States]] and [[Canada]], particularly when referring to young cattle. In some areas of the American South (particularly the Appalachian region), where both dairy and beef cattle are present, an individual animal was once called a "beef critter", though that term is becoming [[archaic]].
===Other terminology===
Cattle raised for human consumption are called "[[beef cattle]]". Within the beef cattle industry in parts of the United States, the term "beef" (plural "beeves") is still used in its archaic sense to refer to an animal of either gender. Cows of certain breeds that are kept for the milk they give are called "[[dairy cow]]s" or "milking cows" (formerly "milch cows" – "milch" was pronounced as "milk"). Most young male offspring of dairy cows are generally sold for [[veal]], and may be referred to as ''veal calves.''
The term "dogies" is sometimes used in the context of ranch work, as in "Keep them dogies moving". <ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.tahc.state.tx.us/news/pr/1999/1999.08_CattleMove.pdf |title=Keep Those Dogies Movin! |accessdate = 2008-06-28 |last=Beales |first=Terry |year=1999 |work=Texas Animal Health Commission News Release}}</ref> In some places, a cow kept to provide milk for one family is called a "house cow". Obsolete terms for cattle include "neat" (this use survives in "[[neatsfoot oil]]", extracted from the feet and legs of cattle), and "beefing" (young animal fit for [[slaughter (livestock)|slaughter]]).
An [[onomatopoeia]] imitating one of the commonest [[List of animal sounds|sound]]s made by cattle is "moo", and this sound is also called ''lowing''. There are a number of other sounds made by cattle, including calves ''bawling'' and bulls ''bellowing'' (a high-pitched [[yodeling]] call). The [[Bullroarer (music)|bullroarer]] makes a sound similar to a territorial call made by bulls.
==Anatomy==
Cattle have one [[stomach]], with four compartments. They are the [[rumen]], [[Reticulum (anatomy)|reticulum]], [[omasum]], and [[abomasum]], the rumen being the largest compartment. Cattle sometimes consume metal objects which are deposited in the reticulum, the smallest compartment, and this is where [[hardware disease]] occurs. The reticulum is known as the "Honeycomb." The omasum's main function is to absorb water and nutrients from the digestible feed. The omasum is known as the "Many Plies." The abomasum is like the human stomach; this is why it is known as the "true stomach".
[[Image:DSCN2923-milking 900x1200.jpg|thumb|Dairy farming and the milking of cattle - once performed largely by hand, but now usually replaced by machine - exploits the cow's unique ruminant biology.]]
Cattle are [[ruminant]]s, meaning that they have a [[digestive system]] that allows use of otherwise indigestible foods by repeatedly regurgitating and rechewing them as "cud." The [[cud]] is then reswallowed and further digested by specialised [[microorganism]]s in the [[rumen]]. These microbes are primarily responsible for decomposing [[cellulose]] and other [[carbohydrate]]s into [[volatile fatty acids]] that cattle use as their primary [[metabolic]] fuel. The microbes inside of the rumen are also able to synthesize [[amino acid]]s from non-protein [[nitrogen]]ous sources such as [[urea]] and [[ammonia]]. As these microbes reproduce in the rumen, older generations die and their carcasses continue on through the digestive tract. These carcasses are then partially digested by the cattle, allowing it to gain a high quality protein source. These features allow cattle to thrive on [[Poaceae|grasses]] and other [[vegetation]].
The gestation period for a cow is nine months. A newborn calf weighs 25 to 45 kg (55 to 100 lb). Large steers can weigh as much as 1,800 kg (4,000 pounds), 600 to 900 kg (1,300 to 1,900 lb) being more common for adults. Cattle usually live to about 15 years (occasionally as much as 25 years).
A common misconception about cattle (particularly bulls) is that they are enraged by the color red (something provocative is often said to be "like a red rag to a bull"). This is incorrect, as cattle are red-green [[color-blind]].<ref>[http://www.itla.net/index.cfm?sec=Longhorn_Information&con=handling ITLA - Longhorn_Information - handling<!-- Bot generated title -->]</ref><ref>http://iacuc.tennessee.edu/pdf/Policies-AnimalCare/Cattle-BasicCare.pdf</ref> The myth arose from the use of red capes in the sport of [[bullfighting]]; in fact, two different capes are used. The [[capote]] is a large, flowing cape that is magenta and yellow. The more famous [[muleta]] is the smaller, red cape, used exclusively for the final, fatal segment of the fight. It is not the color of the cape that angers the bull, but rather the movement of the fabric that irritates the bull and incites it to charge.
Although cattle cannot distinguish red from green, they do have two kinds of color receptors in their [[retina]]s ([[cone cells]]) and so are theoretically able to distinguish some colors, probably in a similar way to other red-green [[color-blind]] or [[dichromatic]] mammals (such as dogs, cats, horses and up to ten percent of male humans).<ref>Jacobs, G. H., J. F.Deegan, and J. Neitz. 1998. Photopigment basis for
dichromatic color vision in cows, goats and sheep. ''Vis. Neurosci.''
'''15''':581–584</ref><ref>Perception of Color by Cattle and its Influence on Behavior
C.J.C. Phillips* and C. A. Lomas†2 ''J. Dairy Sci.'' '''84''':807–813</ref>
==Domestication and husbandry==
[[Image:TexasLonghorn.jpeg|thumb|left|[[Texas longhorn (cattle)|Texas Longhorns]] are an iconic U.S. breed]]
Cattle occupy a unique role in human history, domesticated since at least the early [[Neolithic]]. They are raised for [[meat]] ([[beef cattle]]), [[dairy cattle|dairy products]] and [[hides]]. They are also used as [[draft animal]]s and in certain [[sport]]s. Some consider cattle the oldest form of wealth, and [[cattle raiding]] consequently one of the earliest forms of theft.
[[Image:Cattle inspected for ticks.jpg|thumb|250px|A hereford being inspected for [[tick]]s; cattle are often restrained or confined in [[Cattle crush]]es when given medical attention.]]
Cattle are often raised by allowing herds to [[Grass fed beef|graze on the grasses]] of large tracts of [[rangeland]]. Raising cattle in this manner allows the use of land that might be unsuitable for growing crops. The most common interactions with cattle involve daily [[Fodder|feeding]], cleaning and [[milking]]. Many routine husbandry practices involve [[ear tag]]ging, [[Horn (anatomy)|dehorning]], loading, [[Veterinary surgery|medical operations]], vaccinations and [[Cloven hoof|hoof]] care, as well as training for agricultural shows and preparations. There are also some cultural differences in working with cattle- the cattle husbandry of Fulani men rests on [[Ethology|behavioural techniques]], whereas in Europe cattle are controlled primarily by physical means like [[fence]]s.<ref>{{cite journal | last = Lott | first = Dale F. | coauthors = Hart, Benjamin L. | title = Applied ethology in a nomadic cattle culture | journal = Applied Animal Ethology | volume = 5 | issue = 4 | pages = 309–319 | publisher = Elsevier B.V. | date= October 1979 | doi = 10.1016/0304-3762(79)90102-0 }}</ref> Breeders utilise cattle husbandry to reduce [[Mycobacterium bovis|M. bovis infection]] susceptibility by [[selective breeding]] and maintaining herd health to avoid concurrent disease.<ref>{{cite paper | author = Krebs JR, Anderson T, Clutton-Brock WT, ''et al.'' | title = Bovine tuberculosis in cattle and badgers: an independent scientific review | publisher = Ministry of Agriculture, Fisheries and Food | date= 1997 | url = http://www.defra.gov.uk/animalh/tb/publications/hpanel.pdf | format = [[PDF]] | accessdate = 2006-09-04 }}</ref>
Cattle are farmed for beef, veal, dairy, leather and they are less commonly used simply to maintain grassland for wildlife- for example, in [[Epping Forest]], England. They are often used in some of the most wild places for livestock. Depending on the breed, cattle can survive on hill grazing, heaths, marshes, moors and semi desert. Modern cows are more commercial than older breeds and, having become more specialized, are less versatile. For this reason many smaller farmers still favor old breeds, like the dairy breed of cattle [[Jersey cattle|Jersey]].
In [[Portugal]], [[Spain]], [[Southern France]] and some [[Latin America]]n countries, bulls are used in the activity of [[bullfighting]]; a similar activity, [[Jallikattu]], is seen in [[South India]]; in many other countries this is illegal. Other activities such as [[bull riding]] are seen as part of a [[rodeo]], especially in North America. [[Bull-leaping]], a central ritual in [[Bronze Age]] [[Minoan]] culture (see [[Bull (mythology)]]), still exists in southwestern [[France]]. In modern times, cattle are also entered into [[Cattle judging|agricultural competitions]]. These competitions can involve live cattle or cattle [[carcass]]es.
In terms of food intake by humans, consumption of cattle is less efficient than of grain or vegetables with regard to land use, and hence cattle grazing consumes more area than such other agricultural production.<ref name="Wilson">Edward O. Wilson, ''The Future of Life'', 2003, Vintage Books, 256 pages ISBN 0679768114</ref> Nonetheless, cattle and other forms of domesticated animals can sometimes help to utilize plant resources in areas not easily amenable to other forms of [[agriculture]]. These factors were not as important in earlier times prior to the Earth's [[overpopulation|large human population]].<ref>Ron Nielsen, ''The Little Green Handbook: Seven Trends Shaping the Future of Our Planet'', Picador, New York (2006) ISBN 978-0312425814</ref>
==Environmental impact==
[[Image:Feedlot-1.jpg|thumb|250px|Cattle - especially when kept on enormous [[feedlot]]s such as this one - have been named as a contributing factor in the rise in greenhouse gas emissions.]]
A 400-page [[United Nations]] report from the [[Food and Agriculture Organization]] (FAO) states that cattle farming is "responsible for 18% of greenhouse gases."<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.fao.org/newsroom/en/news/2006/1000448/index.html| title=Livestock a major threat to environment| work=FAO Newsroom}}</ref> The production of cattle to feed and clothe humans stresses ecosystems around the world,<ref name="Wilson">Edward O. Wilson, ''The Future of Life'', 2003, Vintage Books, 256 pages ISBN 0679768114</ref> and is assessed to be one of the top three environmental problems in the world on a local to global scale.<ref name="livestock">[http://www.virtualcentre.org/en/library/key_pub/longshad/A0701E00.htm LEAD digital library: ''Livestock’s long shadow - Environmental issues and options'']</ref>
The report, entitled ''Livestock's Long Shadow'', also surveys the environmental damage from sheep, chickens, pigs and goats. But in almost every case, the world's 1.5 billion cattle are cited as the greatest adverse impact with respect to [[climate change]] as well as [[species]] [[extinction]]. The report concludes that, unless changes are made, the massive damage reckoned to be due to livestock may more than double by 2050, as demand for meat increases. One of the cited changes suggests that intensification of the livestock industry may be suggested, since intensification leads to less land for a given level of production.<ref name="livestock">[http://www.virtualcentre.org/en/library/key_pub/longshad/A0701E00.htm LEAD digital library: ''Livestock’s long shadow - Environmental issues and options'']</ref>
Some [[microbe]]s respire in the cattle gut by an [[anaerobic]] process known as [[methanogenesis]] (producing the gas [[methane]]). Cattle emit a large volume of [[methane]], 95% of it through [[eructation]] or [[burping]], not [[flatulence]].<ref>[http://www.mycattle.com/health/dsp_health_article.cfm?storyid=10045 "Bovine belching called udderly serious gas problem."] ''Los Angeles Times'', Sunday, [[July 13]], [[2003]]</ref> As the carbon in the methane comes from the digestion of vegetation produced by [[photosynthesis]], its release into the air by this process would normally be considered harmless, because there is no net increase in carbon in the atmosphere — it's removed as [[carbon dioxide]] from the air by [[photosynthesis]] and returned to it as methane. Methane is a more potent [[greenhouse gas]] than carbon dioxide, having a warming effect 23 to 50 times greater,<ref>[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:Greenhouse_Gas_by_Sector.png (pie charts)]</ref><ref name="Takahashi">Junichi Takahashi and Bruce A. Young, ''Greenhouse Gases and Animal Agriculture: Proceedings'' (2002) Elsevier Health Sciences, 372 pages ISBN 0444510125</ref> and according to Takahashi and Young "even a small increase in methane concentration in the atmosphere exerts a potentially significant contribution to global warming".<ref name="Takahashi">Junichi Takahashi and Bruce A. Young, ''Greenhouse Gases and Animal Agriculture: Proceedings'' (2002) Elsevier Health Sciences, 372 pages ISBN 0444510125</ref> Further analysis to the methane gas produced by livestock as a contributor to the increase in greenhouse gases is provided by Weart.<ref>[http://www.aip.org/history/climate/othergas.htm Spencer Weart: ''The Discovery of Global Warming'': "Other Greenhouse Gases".] June 2007.</ref> Research is underway on methods of reducing this source of methane, by the use of dietary supplements, or treatments to reduce the proportion of methanogenetic microbes, perhaps by [[vaccination]].<ref>{{cite web| url = http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/scotland/4582174.stm| title = Triad bid to stop belching | accessdate = 2006-01-04}}</ref><ref>[http://www.alternet.org/story/72339/ Research on use of bacteria from the stomach lining of kangaroos (who don't emit methane) to reduce methane in cattle<!-- Bot generated title -->]</ref>
Cattle are fed a concentrated high-corn diet which produces rapid weight gain, but this has side effects which include increased [[acid]]ity in the digestive system. When improperly handled, [[manure]] and other byproducts of concentrated agriculture also have environmental consequences.<ref>[http://www.uaex.edu/Other_Areas/publications/HTML/FSA-1037.asp Manure Management]</ref>
Grazing by cattle at low intensities can create a favourable environment for native [[herb]]s and [[forb]]s; however, in most world regions cattle are reducing [[biodiversity]] due to [[overgrazing]] driven by food demands by an [[overpopulation|expanding human population]].<ref>E.O. Wilson, ''The Future of Life'', 2003, Vintage Books, 256 pages ISBN 067976811</ref>
==Oxen== <!-- This section is linked from [[Babylonian law]] -->
{{Main|Ox}}
[[Image:India.Mumbai.04.jpg|right|thumb|250px|Draft [[Zebus]] in [[Mumbai]], [[India]].]]
'''Oxen''' (singular '''ox''') are large and heavyset breeds of ''Bos taurus'' cattle trained as [[draft animal]]s. Often they are adult, [[castration|castrated]] males. Usually an [[ox]] is over four years old due to the need for training and to allow it to grow to full size. Oxen are used for [[plowing]], [[transport]], hauling cargo, grain-grinding by trampling or by powering machines, [[irrigation]] by powering pumps, and [[wagon]] drawing. Oxen were commonly used to skid logs in forests, and sometimes still are, in low-impact select-cut logging. Oxen are most often used in teams of two, paired, for light work such as [[cart]]ing. In the past, teams might have been larger, with some teams exceeding twenty animals when used for logging.
An ox is nothing more than a mature bovine with an "education." The education consists of the animal's learning to respond appropriately to the [[teamster]]'s (ox driver's) signals. These signals are given by verbal commands or by noise (whip cracks) and many [[teamster]]s were known for their voices and language. In North America, the commands are (1) ''get up'', (2) ''whoa'', (3) ''back up'', (4) ''gee'' (turn right) and (5) ''haw'' (turn left). Oxen must be painstakingly trained from a young age. Their teamster must provide as many as a dozen yokes of different sizes as the animals grow. A wooden [[yoke]] is fastened about the neck of each pair so that the force of draft is distributed across their shoulders. From calves, oxen are chosen with horns since the horns hold the yoke in place when the oxen lower their heads, back up, or slow down (particularly with a wheeled vehicle going downhill). Yoked oxen cannot slow a load like harnessed horses can; the load has to be controlled downhill by other means. The gait of the ox is often important to ox trainers, since the speed the animal walks should roughly match the gait of the ox driver who must work with it.
U.S. ox trainers favored larger breeds for their ability to do more work and for their intelligence. Because they are larger animals, the typical ox is the male of a breed, rather than the smaller female. Females are potentially more useful producing calves and [[milk]].
[[Image:Sixten.jpg|right|thumb|250px|Riding an ox in [[Hova]], [[Sweden]].]]
Oxen can pull harder and longer than [[horse]]s, particularly on obstinate or almost un-movable loads. This is one of the reasons that teams drag logs from forests long after horses had taken over most other draft uses in Europe and North America. Though not as fast as horses, they are less prone to injury because they are more sure-footed and do not try to jerk the load.
An "ox" is not a unique breed of bovine, nor have any "blue" oxen lived outside the [[folk tale]]s surrounding [[Paul Bunyan (lumberjack)|Paul Bunyan]], the mythical American logger. A possible exception and antecedent to this legend is the [[Belgian Blue]] breed which is known primarily for its unusual musculature and at times exhibits unusual white/blue, blue roan, or blue coloration. The unusual musculature of the breed is believed to be due to a natural mutation of the gene that codes for the protein [[Myostatin]], which is responsible for normal muscle atrophy.
Many oxen are used worldwide, especially in [[Developing country|developing countries]].
In Australia the term "Japan ox" is used for grown steers in the weight range of 500 to 600kg that are destined for the Japanese meat trade.<ref>Meat & Livestock Australia, Feedback, June/July 2008</ref>
Ox is also used for various cattle products, irrespective of age, sex or training of the beast – for example, ox-blood, ox-liver, ox-kidney, ox-heart, ox-hide.
==Cattle in religion, traditions and folklore==
[[Image:UK Durham Dun-Cow.jpg|thumb|right|200px|Legend of the founding of [[Durham Cathedral]] is that monks carrying the body of [[Saint Cuthbert]] were led to the location by a milk maid who had lost her [[dun cow]], which was found resting on the spot.]]
{{For|the mythology and lore connected with the bull|Bull (mythology)}}
*The Evangelist [[St. Luke]] is depicted as an ox in Christian art.
*In [[Judaism]], as described in {{bibleverse||Numbers|19:2|HE}}, the ashes of a sacrificed unblemished [[red heifer]] that has never been yoked can be used for ritual purification of people who came into contact with a corpse.
*The ox is one of the 12-year cycle of animals which appear in the [[Chinese zodiac]] related to the [[Chinese calendar]]. See: [[Ox (Zodiac)]].
*The constellation [[Taurus (constellation)|Taurus]] represents a bull.
*An apocryphal story has it that a cow started the [[Great Chicago Fire]] by kicking over a [[kerosene]] lamp. Michael Ahern, the reporter who created the cow story, admitted in 1893 that he had made it up because he thought it would make colorful copy.
*On [[February 18]], [[1930]] [[Elm Farm Ollie]] became the first cow to fly in an [[fixed-wing aircraft|airplane]] and also the first cow to be milked in an airplane.
*The first known law requiring branding in North America was enacted on [[February 5]], [[1644]] by Connecticut. It said that all cattle and pigs have to have a registered brand or earmark by [[May 1]], 1644.<ref>{{cite book| last=Kane| first=J.| coauthors=Anzovin, S., & Podell, J.| year=1997| title=[[Famous First Facts]]| location=New York, NY| publisher= [[H. W. Wilson Company]]| id= ISBN 0-8242-0930-3| pages=5}}</ref>
*The {{nihongo|[[akabeko]]|赤べこ, ''red cow''}} is a traditional toy from the [[Aizu]] region of [[Japan]] that is thought to ward off illness.<ref>Madden, Thomas (May 1992). "[http://www6.plala.or.jp/awia/AizuGlossary.html Akabeko]". ''OUTLOOK''. Online copy accessed [[18 January]] [[2007]].</ref>
*The case of ''[[Sherwood v. Walker]]'' -- involving a supposedly barren heifer that was actually pregnant -- first enunciated the concept of [[Mutual mistake]] as a means of destroying the [[Meeting of the minds]] in [[Contract]] law. {{Fact|date=June 2007}}
*The Maasai tribe of East Africa traditionally believe that all cows on earth are the God-given property of the Maasai
===Cattle in Hindu tradition===
{{main|Sacred cow}}
[[Image:CowHA.jpg|200px|thumb|In [[Hinduism]], the cow is a symbol of wealth, strength, abundance, selfless giving and a full Earthly life.]]Cows are venerated within the [[Hinduism|Hindu]] religion of [[India]]. According to [[Historical Vedic religion|Vedic]] scripture they are to be treated with the same respect 'as one's mother' because of the milk they provide; "The cow is my mother. The bull is my sire."<ref>[http://www.sacred-texts.com/hin/m13/m13b041.htm Mahabharata, Book 13-Anusasana Parva, Section LXXVI]</ref> They appear in numerous stories from the [[Purana]]s and [[Veda]]s, for example the deity [[Krishna]] is brought up in a family of cowherders, and given the name [[Govinda]] (protector of the cows). Also [[Shiva]] is traditionally said to ride on the back of a bull named [[Nandi]]. Bulls in particular are seen as a symbolic emblem of selfless [[duty]] and [[religion]]. In ancient rural India every household had a few cows which provided a constant supply of milk and a few bulls that helped as draft animals. Many Hindus feel that at least it was economically wise to keep cattle for their milk rather than consume their flesh for one single meal.
[[Gandhi]] explains his feelings about cow protection as follows:
<blockquote>
"The cow to me means the entire sub-human world, extending man's sympathies beyond his own species. Man through the cow is enjoined to realize his identity with all that lives. Why the ancient [[rishi]]s selected the cow for apotheosis is obvious to me. The cow in India was the best comparison; she was the giver of plenty. Not only did she give milk, but she also made agriculture possible. The cow is a poem of pity; one reads pity in the gentle animal. She is the second mother to millions of mankind. Protection of the cow means protection of the whole dumb creation of God. The appeal of the lower order of creation is all the more forceful because it is speechless."
</blockquote>
== In heraldry ==
Cattle are represented in [[heraldry]] by the '''bull'''.
<gallery>
Image:Torino-Stemma.png|<center>Arms of [[Turin]], [[Italy]]
Image:KNS Coa.svg|<center>Arms of [[Kaunas]], [[Lithuania]]
Image:POL Bielsk Podlaski COA.svg|<center>Arms of [[Bielsk Podlaski]], [[Poland]]
Image:POL Turek COA PioM.svg|<center>Arms of [[Turek, Poland]]
</gallery>
==Present status==
[[Image:Bos taurus taurus relaxing.jpg|thumb|200px|[[Simmental Cattle|Simmental]] cattle resting on a Swiss pasture]]
The world cattle population is estimated to be about 1.3 billion head. [[India]] is the nation with the largest number of cattle, about 400 million, followed by [[Brazil]] and [[China]], with about 150 million each, and the [[United States]], with about 100 million. Africa has about 200 million head of cattle, many of which are herded in traditional ways and serve partly as tokens of their owner's wealth. Europe has about 130 million head of cattle (CT 2006, SC 2006).
Cattle today are the basis of a multi-billion dollar industry worldwide. The international trade in beef for 2000 was over $30 billion and represented only 23 percent of world beef production. (Clay 2004). The production of [[milk]], which is also made into [[cheese]], [[butter]], [[yogurt]], and other dairy products, is comparable in economic size to beef production and provides an important part of the food supply for many of the world's people. Cattle hides, used for [[leather]] to make [[shoe]]s and [[clothing]], are another widespread product. Cattle remain broadly used as draft animals in many [[Developing country|developing countries]], such as [[India]].
==See also==
<div style="-moz-column-count:4; column-count:4;">
* [[Aurochs]] ([[extinct]])
* [[Bull-baiting]]
* [[Cattle age determination]]
* [[Cattle judging]]
* [[Cowboy]]
* [[Factory farming]]
* [[List of breeds of cattle]]
* [[List of domesticated animals]]
* [[Dzo]]
* [[Cattle Health Initiative]] (British)
* [[1966 anti-cow slaughter agitation]]
</div>
==Notes==
{{reflist}}
==References==
{{refbegin}}
* Bhattacharya, S. 2003. [http://www.newscientist.com/article.ns?id=dn4220 Cattle ownership makes it a man's world]. ''Newscientist.com''. Retrieved [[December 26]], [[2006]].
* Cattle Today (CT). 2006. Website. [http://www.cattle-today.com Breeds of cattle]. ''Cattle Today''. Retrieved [[December 26]], [[2006]])
* Clay, J. 2004. ''World Agriculture and the Environment: A Commodity-by-Commodity Guide to Impacts and Practices''. Washington, D.C., USA: Island Press. ISBN 1559633700.
* Clutton-Brock, J. 1999. ''A Natural History of Domesticated Mammals''. Cambridge UK : Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0521634954.
*{{cite book|first=Herman R.|last=Purdy|coauthors=R. John Dawes; Dr. Robert Hough|url=http://www.breedsofcattle.net/|title=Breeds Of Cattle|edition=2nd Edition|year=2008}} - A visual textbook containing History/Origin, Phenotype & Statistics of 45 breeds.
* Huffman, B. 2006. [http://www.ultimateungulate.com ''The ultimate ungulate page'']. ''UltimateUngulate.com''. Retrieved [[December 26]], [[2006]].
* Invasive Species Specialist Group (ISSG). 2005. .[http://www.issg.org/database/species/ecology.asp?si=172&fr=1&sts=sss ''Bos taurus'']. ''Global Invasive Species Database''.
* Nowak, R.M. and Paradiso, J.L. 1983. ''Walker's Mammals of the World''. Baltimore, Maryland, USA: The Johns Hopkins University Press. ISBN 0801825253
* Oklahoma State University (OSU). 2006. [http://www.ansi.okstate.edu/breeds/cattle ''Breeds of Cattle'']. Retrieved [[January 5]], [[2007]].
* Public Broadcasting Service (PBS). 2004. [http://www.pbs.org/wnet/nature/holycow/index.html Holy cow]. ''PBS Nature''. Retrieved [[January 5]], [[2007]].
* Rath, S. 1998. ''The Complete Cow''. Stillwater, Minnesota, USA: Voyageur Press. ISBN 0896583759.
* Raudiansky, S. 1992. ''The Covenant of the Wild''. New York: William Morrow and Company, Inc. ISBN 0688096107.
* Spectrum Commodities (SC). 2006. [http://www.spectrumcommodities.com/education/commodity/lc.html Live cattle]. ''Spectrumcommodities.com''. Retrieved [[January 5]], [[2007]].
* Voelker, W. 1986. ''The Natural History of Living Mammals''. Medford, New Jersey, USA: Plexus Publishing, Inc. ISBN 0937548081.
* Yogananda, P. 1946. ''The Autobiography of a Yogi''. Los Angeles, California, USA: Self Realization Fellowship. ISBN 0876120834.
{{refend}}
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