Cavalry 6816 226125226 2008-07-16T22:45:05Z Troy 07 4840301 Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/24.32.168.198|24.32.168.198]] ([[User talk:24.32.168.198|talk]]) to last version by Emperor Genius {{seealso|Horses in warfare}} {{history of war}} '''Cavalry''' (from [[French language|French]] ''cavalerie'') were [[soldier]]s or [[warrior]]s who fought mounted on [[horseback]] in [[combat]]. The designation was not usually extended to any military force that used other animals, such as camels or mules. [[Infantry]] who moved on horseback but dismounted to fight on foot were in the seventeenth and early eighteenth centuries known as [[dragoon]]s, a class of mounted troops which later evolved into cavalry proper while retaining their historic title. From earliest times cavalry had the advantage of improved mobility, an <blockquote> instrument which multiplied the fighting value of even the smallest forces, allowing them to outflank and avoid, to surprise and overpower, to retreat and escape according to the requirements of the moment.<ref>p.4, Rodger</ref></blockquote> A man fighting from horseback also had the advantages of greater height, speed, and inertial mass over an opponent on foot. In many modern armies, the term cavalry is often used for units that fill the traditional horse-borne [[light cavalry]] roles of [[reconnaissance|scouting]], [[screening]], [[skirmishing]] and [[Raid (military)|raiding]]. The [[shock attack|shock]] role, traditionally filled by [[heavy cavalry]], is generally filled by units with the "[[armored]]" designation. ==History== [[Image:Assyriancavalry.JPG|thumb|right|Assyrian cavalry]] === Origins === Before the [[Iron Age]], the role of cavalry on the battlefield was largely performed by light [[chariot]]s. The chariot originated with the [[Sintashta-Petrovka]] culture in [[Central Asia]] and spread by nomadic or semi-nomadic [[Indo-Iranians]] <ref>p.1, Menon</ref>. The chariot was quickly adopted by settled peoples both as a military technology and an object of ceremonial status, especially by the [[Pharaoh]]s of the [[New Kingdom of Egypt]] as well as [[Assyrian people|Assyrian]] and [[Babylonian]] royalty. The power of mobility given by mounted units was recognized early on, but was offset by the difficulty of raising large forces and by the inability of horses (then mostly small) to carry heavy armor. Cavalry techniques were an innovation of [[equestrian nomad]]s of the Central Asian and [[Iranian peoples|Iranian]] steppe and [[pastoralist]] [[tribe]]s such as the [[Persian people|Persian]] [[Parthians]] and [[Sarmatians]]. The photograph above right shows Assyrian cavalry from reliefs of 865&ndash;860 BC. At this time, the men had no [[spur]]s, saddles, saddlecloths, or stirrups. Fighting from the back of a horse was much more difficult than mere riding. The cavalry acted in pairs; the reins of the mounted archer were controlled by his neighbour’s hand. Even at this early time, cavalry used swords, shields, and bows. The sculpture implies two types of cavalry, but this might be a simplification by the artist. Later images of Assyrian cavalry show saddlecloths as primitive saddles, allowing each archer to control his own horse. [[Image:French Republican Guard cavalry DSC03123.JPG|thumb|400px|left|[[French Republican Guard]] - May 8, 2005 celebrations]] As early as 490 BC a breed of large horses was bred in the Nisaean plain in Media to carry men with increasing amounts of armour (Herodotus 7,40 & 9,20). But large horses were still very exceptional at this time. Excepting a few ineffective trials of [[scythed chariot]]s, the use of chariots in battle was obsolete in civilized nations by the time of the Persian defeat at the hands of [[Alexander the Great]], but chariots remained in use for ceremonial purposes such as carrying the victorious general in a [[Roman triumph]], for chariot racing. The southern British met [[Julius Caesar]] with chariots in [[Caesar's invasions of Britain|55 and 54 BCE]], but a century later, in the [[Roman conquest of Britain]] chariots were obsolete even in Britannia. === Ancient Greece and Macedon === [[Image:Amphora Louvre F12.jpg|thumb|right|Warrior's departure; an [[Athens|Athenian]] [[amphora]] dated 550&ndash;540 BC.]] {{main|hippeis}} Cavalry have played a relatively minor role in [[Ancient Greece]], with conflicts decided by massed armored infantry. However, [[Thessaly]] was widely known for producing competent cavalrymen, and later experiences in wars both with and against the [[Persian Empire|Persian]]s taught the [[Greeks]] the value of cavalry in skirmishing and pursuit. The [[Athens|Athenian]] author and soldier [[Xenophon]] in particular advocated the creation of a small but well-trained cavalry force; to that end, he wrote several manuals on horsemanship and cavalry operations. The [[Macedon]]ian kingdom in the north, on the other hand, developed a strong cavalry force that culminated in the ''hetairoi'' ([[Companion cavalry]]) of [[Philip II of Macedon|Philip II]] and Alexander the Great. In addition to these heavy cavalry, the Macedonian combined arms army also employed lighter horsemen called [[prodromoi]] for scouting and screening, as well as the [[Macedonian phalanx|Macedonian pike phalanx]] and various kinds of [[light infantry]]. There were also the ''Ippiko'' (or "Horserider"), Greek "heavy" cavalry, armed with kontos (or cavalry lance), and sword. They wore leather armour or chainmail and hat. They were medium cavalry, rather as heavy cavalry. They were good scouts, skirmishers, and chasers. The effectiveness of this combined-arms system was most dramatically demonstrated in Alexander's conquest of [[Persia]], [[Bactria]], and northwestern [[India]]. === Roman Republic and Early Empire === The cavalry in the early Roman Republic remained the preserve of the wealthy [[landed class]] known as the [[Equites]] &mdash; men who could afford the expense of maintaining a horse in addition to arms and armor heavier than those of the common [[legion]]s. As the class grew to be more of a social elite instead of a functional property-based military grouping, the Romans began to employ Italian [[socii]] for filling the ranks of their cavalry. At about the same time the Romans began to recruit foreign auxiliary cavalry from among [[Gauls]], [[Iberians]], and [[Numidians]], the last being highly valued as mounted skirmishers and scouts. [[Julius Caesar]] himself was known for his admiration in his escort of Germanic mixed cavalry, giving rise to [[Cohorte Equitates]]. Early Emperors maintained an [[Auxiliaries (Roman military)|ala]] of [[Batavi]]and cavalry as their bodyguards until the unit was dismissed by [[Galba]]. For the most part, Roman cavalry during the Republic functioned as an adjunct to the legionary infantry and formed only one-fifth of the showing force. This does not mean that its utility could be underestimated, though, as its strategic role in scouting, skirmishing, and outpost duties was crucial to the Romans' capability to conduct operations over long distances in hostile or unfamiliar territory. In some occasions it also proved its ability to strike a decisive tactical blow against a weakened or unprepared [[Enemy (military)|enemy]]. Although it was not until the [[Late Imperial Period]] that Roman cavalry would play a major role in armed conflict. After the [[Battle of Carrhae]], the Romans learnt the importance of large cavalry formations from the [[Parthian Empire|Parthians]] and began to substantially increase both the numbers and the training standards of the cavalry in their employ, just as nearly a thousand years earlier the first Iranians to reach the [[Iranian Plateau]] introduced the [[Assyrians]] to a similar reform. [[Image:Roman cavalry lg.jpg|thumb|right|Reenactor showing Roman military equestrian.]] === Late Roman Empire and the Migration Period === In the army of the late [[Roman Empire]], cavalry played an increasingly important role. The [[Spatha]], the classical sword throughout most of the 1st millennium which had originated among the [[Germanic peoples]], was adopted as the standard model for the Empire's cavalry forces. The most widespread employment of heavy cavalry at this time was found in the forces of the [[Parthia]]ns and their [[Iran]]ian [[Sassanid Empire|Sassanid]] successors. Both, but especially the latter, were famed for the [[cataphract]] (fully-armored cavalry armed with lances) even though the majority of their forces consisted of lighter [[horse archer]]s. The West first encountered this eastern heavy cavalry during the [[Hellenistic]] period with further intensive contacts during the eight centuries of the [[Ancient Rome|Roman]]-[[Persian Empire|Persian]] [[wars]]. At first the Parthians' mobility greatly confounded the Romans, whose armoured close-order infantry proved unable to match the speed of the Parthians. However, later the Romans would successfully adapt such heavy armor and cavalry tactics by creating their own units of cataphracts and ''clibanarii''<ref>http://www.historynet.com/mhq/blromespersianmirage/</ref>. The decline of the Roman infrastructure made it more difficult to field large infantry forces, and during the [[4th century|fourth]] and [[5th century|fifth centuries]] cavalry began to take a more dominant role on the European battlefield, also in part made possible by the appearance of new, larger breeds of horses. The replacement of the Roman [[horse tack|saddle]] by variants on the Scythian model, with pommel and cantle, was also a significant factor as was the adoption of [[stirrup]]s and the concomitant increase in stability of the rider's seat. Armored Cataphracts began to be deployed in eastern [[Europe]] and the [[near East]], following the precedents established by [[Persian Empire|Persia]]n forces, as the main striking force of the armies in contrast to the earlier roles of cavalry as scouts, raiders, and outflankers. The late Roman cavalry tradition and the mounted nobility of the Germanic invaders both contributed to the development of mediaeval knightly cavalry. === Arabs === [[Image:Ikhwan 4-1.jpg|px100|right|thumb|Arab camel cavalry]] Early organized Arab cavalry under the [[Rashidun]] [[caliphate]] was a [[light cavalry]] armed with [[lance]] and [[sword]], its main role was to attack the enemy flanks and rear. Armor was relatively light.The Muslims' light cavalry during the later years of Islamic conquest of Levant became the most powerful section of army. The best use of this lightly armed fast moving cavalry was revealed at the '''[[Battle of Yarmouk]]''' (636 A.D) in which [[Khalid ibn Walid]], knowing the importance and ability of his cavalry, used them to turn the tables at every critical instance of the battle with their ability to engage and disengage and turn back and attack again from the flank or rear. A strong cavalry regiment was formed by Khalid ibn Walid which included the veterans of the campaign of Iraq and Syria. Early Muslim historians have given it the name ''Mutaharrik tulai'a''( متحرك طليعة ), or the [[Mobile guard]]. This was used as an advance guard and a strong striking force to route the opposing armies with its greater mobility that give it an upper hand when maneuvering against any [[Byzantine]] army. With this mobile striking force, the conquest of Syria was made easy.<ref>p.239, Muir</ref>[[Image:Mamluke.jpg|px100|right|thumb|A Mamluk cavalryman]] The [[Battle of Talas]] in 751 CE was a conflict between the Arab [[Abbasid]] Caliphate and the [[China|Chinese]] [[Tang Dynasty]] over the control of [[Central Asia]]. Chinese infantry were routed by [[Arab]] [[cavalry]] near the bank of the River Talas. Later [[Mamluk]]s were trained as cavalry soldiers. Mamluks were to follow the dictates of furusiyya, a code of conduct that included values like courage and generosity but also doctrine of cavalry tactics, horsemanship, archery and treatment of wounds. === Asia === {{main|Horse archer}} ====Central Asia==== The [[India]]n literature contains numerous references to the cavalry forces of the [[Central Asia]]n horse nomads like the [[Saka]]s, [[Kambojas]], [[Yona|Yavanas]], [[The Pahlavas|Pahlavas]] and [[Paradas]]. Numerous [[Puranas|Puranic]] texts refer to an ancient invasion of India (16th c. BC) <ref>p. 182&ndash;183, Pargiter.</ref> by the cavalry forces of five nations, called five hordes (''pañca.ganan'') or [[Kshatriya|Kśatriya]] hordes (''Kśatriya ganah''), which had captured the throne of Ayudhya by dethroning its [[Vedic]]<!-- is this [[Vedic period]] or [[Historical Vedic religion]]? Or both? Or something else? Please fix link. --> king Bahu <ref> Harivamsa 14.1&ndash;19; Vayu Purana 88.127&ndash;43; Brahma Purana (8.35&ndash;51); Brahamanda Purana (3.63.123&ndash;141); Shiva Purana (7.61.23); Vishnu Purana (5.3.15&ndash;21), Padama Purana (6.21.16&ndash;33) etc.</ref> [[Image:OttomanHorseArcher.jpg|thumb|right|[[Sipahi|Ottoman]] Horse Archer.]] The [[Mahabharata]], [[Ramayana]], numerous Puranas and some foreign sources numerously attest that ''"Kamboja cavalry-troopers were frequently requisitioned in ancient wars"''. All these sources also agree that the horses of the Sindhu and Kamboja regions were the finest breed. JAOS attests: ''"Most famous horses are said to come either from Sindhu or Kamboja; of the latter (i.e the Kamboja), the Indian [[Indian epic poetry|epic]] [[Mahabharata]] speaks among the finest [[horsemen]]" '' <ref>Journal of American Oriental society, 1889, p 257, American Oriental Society; The Social and Military Position of the Ruling Caste in Ancient India: As ... , 1972, p 201, Edward Washburn Hopkins - Caste; Mahabharata 10.18.13; cf: Ancient Indian Civilization , 1985, p 120, Grigoriĭ Maksimovich Bongard-Levin - History; Cf also: A History of Zoroastrianism, 1991, p 129, Mary Boyce, Frantz Grenet.</ref>. Mahabharata (950 c BC) <ref>p.182, Pargiter</ref> speaks of the esteemed cavalry of the Kambojas, Sakas, Yavanas and [[Tocharians|Tusharas]], all of whom had participated in the [[Kurukshetra War and the Kambojas|Kurukshetra war]] under the supreme commandership of [[Kamboja]] ruler [[Sudakshina Kamboja|Sudakshin Kamboj]] <ref> MBH 1.185.13; Felicitation Volume Presented to Professor Sripad Krishna Belvalkar, 1957, p 260, Dr Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan, Shripad Krishna Belvalkar .</ref>. Mahabharata and Vishnudharmotari Purana especially styles the Kambojas, Yavansa, Gandharas etc as "Ashva.yuddha.kushalah" (expert cavalrymen) <ref> Ashva.yuddha.kushalah: Mahabharata 7.7.14; See also: Vishnudharmotra Purana, Part II, Chapter 118; Post Gupta Polity (AD 500&ndash;700): A Study of the Growth of Feudal Elements and Rural Administration 1972, p 136, Ganesh Prasad Sinha; Wisdom in the Puranas 1969, p 64, prof Sen Sarma etc.</ref>. In the Mahabharata war, the Kamboja cavalry along with that of the Sakas, Yavanas is reported to have been enlisted by the [[Kuru (kingdom)|Kuru]] king [[Duryodhana]] of [[Hastinapur]]a <ref> Some Kṣatriya Tribes of Ancient India, 1924, p 238, Dr B. C. Law - Kshatriyas; The Battle of Kurukshetra, 1987, p 389, Maggi Lidchi-Grassi - Kurukshetra (India).</ref>. [[Herodotus]] (484 c BC &ndash; 425 c BC) ) attests that the [[Gandhara|Gandarian]] mercenaries (i.e. ''Gandharans/Kambojans'' of Gandari Strapy of [[Achaemenids]]) from the twentieth strapy of the [[Achaemenid Empire|Achaemenid]]s were recruited in the army of emperor [[Xerxes I of Persia|Xerxes I]] (486-465 BC), which he led against the [[Greeks|Hellas]].<ref>Herodotus, Book VII 65, 70, 86, 187.</ref>. Similarly, the ''men of the Mountain Land '' from north of [[Kabul|Kabol]]-River equivalent to medieval [[Kohistan]] (Pakistan), figure in the army of [[Darius III]] against [[Alexander the Great|Alexander]] at [[Arbela]] with a cavalry and fifteen elephants.<ref>History of Persian Empire, p 232, Dr A. M. Olmstead; Arrian's Anabasis III, 8.3-6; Political History of Ancient India, 1996, p 216, Dr Raychaudhury.</ref>. This obviously refers to Kamboja cavalry south of Hindukush. The Kambojas were famous for their horses, as well as cavalry-men (''asva-yuddha-Kushalah'') <ref> Ashva.yuddha.kushalah: Mahabharata 7.7.14 Kumbhakonam Edition; See also: Vishnudharmotra Purana, Part II, Chapter 118; Post Gupta Polity (AD 500&ndash;700): A Study of the Growth of Feudal Elements and Rural Administration 1972, p 136, Ganesh Prasad Sinha; Wisdom in the Puranas 1969, p 64, prof Sen Sarma; etc.; Kashmir Polity, C. 600-1200 A.D. 1986, p 237, V. N. Drabu - Political Science .</ref>. On account of their supreme position in horse (Ashva) culture, they were also popularly known as [[Ashvakas]], i.e. the "horsemen" <ref>Hindu Polity: A Constitutional History of India in Hundu Times , 1943, p 145, Dr K. P. Jayaswal.</ref> and their land was known as "Home of Horses" <ref>i.e: '''Kambojo assa.nam ayata.nam'''. See: Samangalavilasini, Vol I, p 124; See also: Historie du Bouddhisme Indien, p 110, E. Lamotte; Political History of Ancient India, 1996, p 133 fn 6, pp 216-20, Dr H. C. Raychaudhury, Dr B. N. Mukerjee; Some Kṣatriya Tribes of Ancient India, 1924, p 238, Dr B. C. - Kshatriyas; Studies in Indian History and Civilization, 1962, p 351, Dr Buddha Prakash - India.</ref>. They are the [[Assakenoi]] and [[Aspasioi]] of the [[Classical antiquity|Classical]] writings, and the [[Ashvakayana]]s and [[Ashvayana]]s in [[Panini]]'s [[Ashtadhyayi]]. The Assakenoi had faced [[Alexander the Great|Alexander]] with 30000 infantry, 20000 cavalry and 30 war elephants<ref>Age of the Nandas and Mauryas, 1967, p 49, Dr K. A. Nilakanta Sastri.</ref>. Scholars have identified the Assakenoi and Aspasioi clans of [[Kunar]] and [[Swat]] valleys as a section of the [[Kambojas]] <ref>''"Par ailleurs le Kamboja est régulièrement mentionné comme la "patrie des chevaux" ('''Asvanam ayatanam'''), et cette reputation bien etablie valnut peut-etre aux eleveurs de chevaux du Bajaur et du Swat l'appellation d'Aspasioi (du v.-p. aspa) et d’assakenoi (du skt asva “cheval”)"'' (See: Historie du Bouddhisme Indien, p 110, E. Lamotte; See also: Hindu Polity, A Contitutional History of India in Hindu Times, 1978, p 140, Dr K. P. Jayswal; Political History of Ancient India, 1996, p 133 fn 6, pp 216&ndash;20, (Also Commentary, op. cit., p 576, fn 22), Dr H. C. Raychaudhury, Dr B. N. Mukerjee;; History of Indian Buddhism: From the Origins to the Saka Era, 1988, p 100 - History; East and West, 1950, pp 28, 157&ndash;58, Istituto italiano per il Medio ed Estremo Oriente, Editor, Prof Giuseppe Tucci, Co-editors Prof Mario Bussagli, Prof Lionello Lanciotti; Panjab Past and Present, pp 9&ndash;10, Dr Buddha Parkash; Raja Poros, 1990, Publication Buareau, Punjabi University, Patiala; History of Panjab, Vol I, (Editors): Dr Fauja Singh, Dr L. M. Josh, Publication Bureau, Panjabi University, Patiala; History of Poros, 1967, p 89, Dr Buddha Prakash; Ancient Kamboja, People and country, 1981, pp 271&ndash;72, 278, Dr J. L. Kamboj; These Kamboj People, 1979, pp 119, 192; Kambojas, Through the Ages, 2005, pp 129, 218&ndash;19, S Kirpal Singh etc.</ref>. These hardy tribes had offered stubborn resistance to Alexander (326 c BC) during latter’s campaign of the Kabul, Kunar and Swat valleys and had even extracted the praise of the Alexander’s historians. These highlanders, designated as ''"parvatiya Ayudhajivinah"'' in Panini's Astadhyayi <ref> Ashtadhyayi 4.3.91; India as Known to Panini, 1953, pp 424, 436&ndash;39, 455&ndash;457, Dr V. S. Aggarwala.</ref>, were rebellious, fiercely independent and freedom-loving cavalrymen who never easily yielded to any overlord <ref>See: History of Punjab, Vol I, 1997, p 225, Dr Buddha Prakash; Raja Poros, 1990, p 9, Publication Bureau, Punjabi University Patiala.</ref>. The [[Sanskrit]] drama ''Mudra-rakashas'' by ''Visakha Dutta'' and the [[Jain]]a work ''Parisishtaparvan'' refer to [[Chandragupta]]'s (320 C BC &ndash; 298 c BC) alliance with [[Himalaya]]n king ''Parvataka''. The [[Himalaya]]n alliance gave Chandragupta a formidable composite army made up of the cavalry forces of the Shakas, Yavanas, Kambojas, Kiratas, Parasikas and Bahlikas as attested by Mudra-Rakashas (Mudra-Rakshasa 2) <ref> :'''Sanskrit''': :''asti tava Shaka-Yavana-Kirata-Kamboja-Parasika-Bahlika parbhutibhih'' :''Chankyamatipragrahittaishcha Chandergupta Parvateshvara'' :''balairudidhibhiriva parchalitsalilaih samantaad uprudham Kusumpurama'' : (Mudra-Rakshasa 2).</ref>. These hordes had helped [[Chandragupta Maurya]] defeat the ruler of [[Magadha]] and placed Vhandragupta on the throne, thus laying the foundations of [[Mauryan Dynasty]] in Northern India. The cavalry of [[Hunas]] and the Kambojas is also attested in the [[Raghuvamsa|Raghu Vamsa]] play of Sanskrit Poet [[Kalidasa]] <ref> Kālidāsa, 1960, p 141, Raghunath Damodar Karmarkar .</ref>. Raghu of Kalidasa is believed to be [[Chandragupta II]] (''Vikaramaditya'') (375&ndash;413/15 AD), of the well-known [[Gupta Dynasty]]. [[Image:Taniec tatarski.jpg|thumb|right|210px|[[Crimean Khanate|Crimean Tatar]] soldier fighting with the soldier of the [[Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth]]. Europe's [[Wild Fields|steppe frontier]] was in a state of semi-permanent warfare until the 18th century.]] As late as mediaeval era, the Kamboja cavalry had also formed part of the Gurjara-Pratihara armed forces in 8th/10th centuries AD. They had come to [[Bengal]] with the [[Pratihara]]s when the latter conquered part of the province.<ref>Indian Historical Quarterly, XV-4, Dec, 1939, p 511 Dr H. C. Ray.</ref><ref> History of Ancient Bengal, 1971, pp 182&ndash;83, Dr R. C. Majumdar.</ref><ref>Indian Historical Quarterly, 1963, p 625.</ref><ref>Dynastic History of Magadha, 1977, p 208.</ref><ref> Epigraphia Indiaca, XVIII, p 304ff.</ref> Ancient Kambojas were constituted into military ''Sanghas'' and Srenis (Corporations) to manage their political and military affairs, as [[Arthashastra]] of [[Kautiliya]] as well as the [[Mahabharata]] amply attest for us. They are attested to be living as ''Ayuddha-jivi'' or ''Shastr-opajivis'' (Nation-in-arms), which also means that the Kamboja cavalry offered its [[military]] services to other nations as well. There are numerous references to Kambojas having been requisitioned as cavalry [[trooper]]s in ancient wars by outside [[nation]]s. [[Xiongnu]] or [[Hun]], [[Tujue]], [[Eurasian Avars|Avars]], [[Kipchaks]], [[Mongol]]s, [[Cossack]]s and the various [[Turkic peoples]] are also examples of the horse-mounted peoples that managed to gain substantial successes in military conflicts with settled agrarian and urban societies, due to their strategic and tactical mobility. As European states began to assume the character of bureaucratic [[nation-states]] supporting professional standing armies, recruitment of these mounted warriors was undertaken in order to fill the strategic roles of scouts and raiders. The best known instance of the continued employment of mounted tribal auxiliaries were the Cossack cavalry regiments of [[Tsarist Russia]]. In eastern Europe, Russia, and out onto the [[steppes]], cavalry remained important much longer and dominated the scene of warfare until the early 1600s and even beyond, as the strategic mobility of cavalry was crucial for the semi-nomadic [[pastoralist]] lives that many steppe cultures led. <ref>This needs a re-write &mdash; the chronology is all over the place.</ref> [[Tibet]]ans also had a tradition of cavalry warfare, in several military engagements early on with the Chinese [[Tang Dynasty]] (618&ndash;907 AD), including [[Emperor Taizong's campaign against Tufan]] in 638. ====East Asia==== [[Image:Emperor Taizongs horses by Yan Liben.jpg|thumb|left|A bas-[[relief]] of a soldier and horse with saddle and [[stirrup]]s, from the tomb of Chinese [[Emperor Taizong of Tang]] (r. 626-649), c. 650]] Further east, the [[military history of China]], specifically [[northern China]], held a long tradition of intense military exchange between Chinese infantry forces of the settled dynastic empires and the mounted "barbarians" of the north. The [[naval history of China]] was centered more to the south, where mountains, rivers, and large lakes necessitated the employment of a large and well-kept [[Naval warfare|navy]]. In 307 BC, [[King Wuling of Zhao]], the ancient Chinese ruler of the former [[Jin (state)|State of Jin]] territory, ordered his military commanders and troops to adopt the [[trousers]] of the [[nomad]]s as well as practice the nomads' form of mounted archery to hone their new cavalry skills.<ref name="ebrey 29 30">Ebrey, 29-30.</ref> Soon afterwards the cavalry tactics employed by the [[Zhao (state)|State of Zhao]] forced their enemies in the other [[Warring States]] to adopt the same techniques in order to mount any effective attack against their swift movements on the battlefield.<ref name="ebrey 30">Ebrey, 30.</ref> The adoption of massed cavalry in China also broke the tradition of the [[chariot]]-riding [[Four occupations|Chinese aristocracy]] in battle, which had been in use since the ancient [[Shang Dynasty]] (c. 1600 BC-1050 BC).<ref name="ebrey 29">Ebrey, 29.</ref> By this time large Chinese infantry-based armies of 100,000 to 200,000 troops were now buttressed with several hundred mounted cavalry in support or as an effective striking force.<ref name="ebrey 30"/> The handheld pistol-and-trigger [[crossbow]] was invented in China in the 4th century BC;<ref name="ebrey cambridge 41">Ebrey, ''The Cambridge Illustrated History of China'', 41.</ref> it was written by the [[Song Dynasty]] scholars Zeng Gongliang, Ding Du, and Yang Weide in their book ''[[Wujing Zongyao]]'' (1044 AD) that massed missile fire of crossbowmen was the most effective defense against enemy cavalry charges.<ref name="peers 130">Peers, 130.</ref> [[Image:The Qianlong Emperor in Ceremonial Armour on Horseback.jpg|thumb|right|The [[Qianlong Emperor]] in ceremonial armor on horseback, painted by [[Giuseppe Castiglione]], dated 1739 or 1758.]] On many occasions the Chinese studied nomadic cavalry tactics and applied the lessons in creating their own potent cavalry forces, while in others they simply recruited the tribal horsemen wholesale into their armies; and in yet other cases nomadic empires have proved eager to enlist Chinese infantry and engineering, as in the case of the [[Mongol Empire]] and its sinicized part, the [[Yuan Dynasty]] (1279-1368). The Chinese recognized early on during the [[Han Dynasty]] (202 BC-220 AD) that they were at a disadvantage if lacking the amount of horses the northern nomadic peoples mustered in their armies. [[Emperor Wu of Han]] (r. 141 BC-87 BC) went to war with the [[Yuezhi]] for this exact reason, since the Yuezhi were hording a massive amount of tall, strong, Central Asian bred horses in the [[Hellenized]]-[[Greeks|Greek]] region of [[Fergana]] (established a bit earlier by [[Alexander the Great]]). Although experiencing some defeats early on in the campaign, Emperor Wu's war from 104 BC to 102 BC succeeded in gathering the prized tribute of horses from Fergana. Cavalry tactics in China were enhanced by the invention of the saddle-attached [[stirrup]] by at least the 4th century, as the oldest reliable depiction of a rider with paired stirrups was found in a [[Jin Dynasty (265-420)|Jin Dynasty]] tomb of the year 322 AD.<ref name="Dien">[http://www.silk-road.com/artl/stirrup.shtml Dien, Albert. "THE STIRRUP AND ITS EFFECT ON CHINESE MILITARY HISTORY"]</ref><ref>[http://www.findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_m1310/is_1988_Oct/ai_6955868 "The stirrup - history of Chinese science." ''UNESCO Courier, October, 1988]</ref><ref>[http://www.chinaculture.org/gb/en_madeinchina/2005-07/21/content_70825.htm "The invention and influences of stirrup"]</ref> The Chinese invention of the [[horse collar]] by the 5th century was also a great improvement from the breast harness, allowing the horse to haul greater weight without heavy burden on its skeletal structure.<ref name="needham volume 4 part 2 322">Needham, Volume 4, Part 2, 322.</ref><ref name="needham volume 4 part 2 305">Needham, Volume 4, Part 2, 305.</ref> The cavalry of [[History of Korea|Korea]] was first introduced during the ancient Korean kingdom [[Gojoseon]]. Since at least the 3rd century BC, there was influence of northern [[nomadic]] peoples and [[Yemaek]] peoples on Korean warfare. By roughly the 1st century BC, the ancient kingdom of [[Buyeo Kingdom|Buyeo]] also had mounted warriors.<ref name="ebrey 120">Ebrey, 120.</ref> With contacts, military intercession, and sailed ventures to Korea, cavalry of [[Goguryeo]] were called ''Gaemamusa'' (개마무사, 鎧馬武士) and were similar to tanks in the age of the [[Three Kingdoms of Korea]].{{fact|date=March 2008}} [[Gwanggaeto the Great of Goguryeo|King Gwanggaeto the Great]] often led expeditions into [[Baekje]], [[Gaya confederacy]], [[Buyeo Kingdom|Buyeo]] and against Japanese invaders with his calvalry. The [[History of Japan|ancient Japanese]] of the [[Kofun period]] also adopted [[Kofun period#Introduction of equine culture to Japan|cavalry and equine culture]] by the 5th century AD. ====South Asia==== In the Indian subcontinent, cavalry played a major role from the [[Gupta Dynasty]] (320-600) period onwards. Native Indian cavalry forces proved decisive in the defeat of nomadic invaders such as the [[White Huns]], and the [[Mughals|Mughal]] occupation met serious opposition from the excellent [[Maratha]] cavalry. India has also the oldest evidence for the introduction of toe-[[stirrup]]s. === European Middle Ages === {{seealso|Horses in the Middle Ages}} [[Image:Normans Bayeux.jpg|thumb|right|Horse-mounted [[Normans]] fighting in the [[Bayeux Tapestry]], 11th century.]] Although Roman cavalry had no stirrups, their horned saddle allowed the combination of a firm seat with substantial flexibility. But the introduction of the wraparound [[saddle]] during the Middle Ages provided greater efficiency in mounted shock combat and the invention of [[stirrup]] enabled a broader array of attacks to be delivered from the back of a horse. As a greater weight of man and armor could be supported in the saddle, the probability of being dismounted in combat was significantly reduced. In particular, a charge with the lance couched under the armpit would no longer turn into [[pole vaulting]]; this eventually led to an enormous increase in the impact of the charge. Last but not least, the introduction of [[spurs]] allowed better control of the mount during the "knightly charge" in full gallop. In western Europe there emerged what is considered the "ultimate" heavy cavalry, the [[knight]]. The knights and other similarly equipped mounted men-at-arms charged in close formation, exchanging flexibility for a massive, irresistible first charge. [[Image:BritLibAddMS35166ApocalypseUnkFolio3SealBlackHorse.jpg|left|thumb|right|A 13th century depiction of a riding horse. Note resemblance to the modern [[Paso Fino]].]] [[Image:Husitsky bojovy vuz replika.jpg|thumb|right| A Hussite war wagon: it enabled peasants to defeat knights]] The mounted men-at-arms quickly became an important force in Western European tactics, although it is worth noting that Medieval military doctrine actually employed them as part of a combined-arms force along with various kinds of foot troops. Still, Medieval chroniclers tended to pay undue attention to the knights at the expense of the rank and file, and this has led early students of military history to suppose that this heavy cavalry was the only force that mattered on Medieval European battlefields--a view with hardly any grounding in reality. Massed English longbowmen triumphed over French cavalry at [[Battle of Crécy|Crécy]], [[Battle of Poitiers (1356)|Poitiers]] and [[Battle of Agincourt|Agincourt]], while at [[Battle of Gisors|Gisors]] (1188), [[Battle of Bannockburn|Bannockburn]] (1314), and [[Battle of Laupen|Laupen]] (1339), foot-soldiers proved their invulnerability to cavalry charges as long as they held their formation. However, the rise of infantry as the principal arm had to wait for the [[Switzerland|Swiss]] to develop their [[pike square]]s into an offensive arm instead of a defensive one; this new aggressive doctrine brought the Swiss to victory over a range of adversaries, and their enemies found that the only reliable way to defeat them was by the use of an even more comprehensive [[combined arms]] doctrine as evidenced in the [[Battle of Marignano]]. The introduction of missile weapons that were simpler to use, such as the [[crossbow]] and the [[hand cannon]]s, also helped remove the focus somewhat from cavalry elites to masses of cheap infantry equipped with easy-to-learn weapons. These missile weapons were very successfully used in the [[Hussite Wars]], in combination with [[Wagenburg]] tactics. This gradual rise in the dominance of infantry led to the adoption of dismounted tactics. From the earliest times knights and mounted men-at-arms had frequently dismounted to handle enemies they could not overcome on horseback, such as in the [[Battle of the Dyle]] (891) and the [[Battle of Bremule]] (1119), but after 1350s this trend became more marked with the dismounted men-at-arms fighting as super-heavy infantry with two-handed [[sword]]s and [[poleaxe]]s. In any case, warfare in the Middle Ages tended to be dominated by raids and sieges rather than pitched battles, and mounted men-at-arms rarely had any choice other than dismounting when faced with the prospect of assaulting a fortified position. === Renaissance Europe === [[Image:Retable de l'Agneau mystique (8).jpg|thumb|right|Knighted cavalry and noblemen, painting by [[Jan van Eyck]] (ca. 1390-1441).]] Ironically, the rise of infantry in the early 16th century coincided with the "golden age" of heavy cavalry; a French or Spanish army at the beginning of the century could have up to 50 percent of its numbers filled with various kinds of light and heavy cavalry, whereas in medieval and 17th century armies the proportion of cavalry seldom rose beyond twenty-five percent. Knighthood largely lost its military functions and became more closely tied to social and economic prestige in an increasingly capitalistic Western society. With the rise of drilled and trained infantry, the mounted men-at-arms, now sometimes called ''[[gendarme (historical)|gendarmes]]'' and often part of the standing army themselves, adopted the same role as in the Hellenistic age - that of delivering a decisive blow once the battle was already engaged by either charging the enemy in the flank or attacking their commander-in-chief. [[Image:Polish winged hussar by TBenda .jpg|thumb|left|[[Polish Lithuanian Commonwealth|Polish Lithuanian]] hussar]] From the 1550s onwards, the use of [[Gunpowder warfare|gunpowder weapons]] solidified infantry's dominance of the battlefield and began to allow true mass armies to develop. This is closely related to the increase in the size of armies throughout the early modern period; heavily armored cavalrymen were expensive to raise and maintain and it took years to replace a skilled horseman or a trained horse, while [[arquebusier]]s and later [[musketeer]]s could be trained and kept in the field at a much lower expense in addition to being much easier to replace. The Spanish [[tercio]] and later formations relegated cavalry to a supporting role. The [[pistol]] was specifically developed to try and bring cavalry back into the conflict, together with manoeuvres such as the [[caracole]]. The caracole was not particularly successful, however, and the charge (whether with sword, pistol, or lance) was remained as the primary mode of employment for many types of European cavalry, although by this time it was delivered in much deeper formations and with greater discipline than before. The [[demi-lancer]]s and the heavily armored sword-and-pistol [[reiter]]s were among the types of cavalry that experienced their heyday in the 16th and 17th centuries. These centuries also witnessed the high-water mark of the [[Polish Hussars|Polish winged hussars]], a force of heavy cavalry that achieved great success against [[Sweden|Swedes]], [[Russia]]ns, and [[Ottoman Empire|Turks]] alike. === Eighteenth Century Europe and Napoleonic Warfare === [[Image:Baden Dragoons.jpg|thumb|Gardes Du Corps of the Kingdom of Hannover (Germany) in 1838.]] Cavalry retained an important role in this age of regularization and standardization across European armies. First and foremost they remained the primary choice for confronting enemy cavalry. Attacking an unbroken infantry force head-on usually resulted in failure, but the extended linear formations were vulnerable to flank or rear attacks. Cavalry was important at [[Battle of Blenheim|Blenheim]] (1704), [[Battle of Rossbach|Rossbach]] (1757), and [[Battle of Friedland|Friedland]] (1807), remaining a significant factor throughout the [[Napoleonic Wars]]. Massed infantry was deadly to cavalry but also offered an excellent target for [[artillery]]. Once the bombardment had disordered the infantry formation, cavalry were able to [[rout]] and pursue the scattered footmen. It was not until individual firearms gained accuracy and improved rates of fire that cavalry was diminished in this role as well. Even then light cavalry remained an indispensable tool for scouting, screening the army's movements, and harassing the enemy's supply lines until military aircraft supplanted them in this role in the early stages of World War I. === 19th century === By the 19th century, European cavalry fell into four main categories: * [[Cuirassier]]s, heavy cavalry * [[Dragoon]]s, originally mounted infantry but later regarded as medium cavalry * [[Hussar]]s, light cavalry * [[Lancer]]s or [[Uhlan]]s, light cavalry armed with [[lance]]s [[Image:Simpson charge.jpg|thumb|right|[[The Charge of the Light Brigade]] at [[Battle of Balaclava|Balaklava]] ''by William Simpson (1855)''.]] There were cavalry variations for individual nations as well: [[France]] had the ''chasseurs à cheval''; [[Germany]] had the ''Jäger zu Pferd''; [[Bavaria]] had the ''Chevaulegers''; and [[Russia]] had Cossacks. Britain had no [[cuirassier]]s (other than the [[Household Cavalry]]), but had Dragoon Guards regiments which were classed as heavy cavalry. In the [[United States Army]], the cavalry were almost always dragoons. The [[Imperial Japanese Army]] had its cavalry dressed as [[hussar]]s, but fought as dragoons. [[Image:Union cavalry charge culpepper.jpg|right|thumb|left|[[Union Cavalry]] capture [[Confederate States Army|Confederate]] guns at [[Culpepper]].]] In the early [[American Civil War]] the regular United States Army mounted rifle and dragoon regiments were reorganized and renamed cavalry regiments, of which there were six. Over a hundred other federal and state cavalry regiments were organized, but the infantry played a much larger role in many battles due to its larger numbers and much easier recruitment. However cavalry saw a role as part of screening forces and in foraging and scouting. The later phases of the war saw the [[Union Army|Federal army]] developing a truly effective cavalry force fighting as [[Reconnaissance|scouts]], raiders, and, with repeating rifles, as [[mounted infantry]]. Post Civil War, as the volunteer armies disbanded, the regular army cavalry regiments increased in number from six to ten, among them the [[U.S. 7th Cavalry Regiment]] of [[Little Big Horn]] fame, and the [[African-American]] [[U.S. 9th Cavalry Regiment]] and [[U.S. 10th Cavalry Regiment]]. These regiments, which rarely took the field as complete organizations, served throughout the [[Indian Wars]] through the close of the frontier in the 1890s. === 19th-century Imperial Expansion === Cavalry found new success in Imperial operations ([[irregular military|irregular warfare]]), where modern weapons were lacking and the slow moving infantry-artillery train or fixed fortifications were often ineffective against native insurgents (unless the natives offered a fight on an equal footing, as at [[Battle of Tel el-Kebir|Tel-el-Kebir]], [[Battle of Omdurman|Omdurman]], etc). Cavalry "[[flying column]]s" proved effective, or at least cost-effective, in many campaigns&mdash;although an astute native commander (like [[Samori]] in western Africa, [[Shamil]] in the [[Caucasus]], or any of the better [[Boer]] commanders) could turn the tables and use the greater mobility of their cavalry to offset their relative lack of firepower compared to European forces. The [[British Indian Army]] maintained about forty regiments of cavalry, officered by British and manned by Indian [[sowars]] (cavalrymen). The legendary exploits of this branch lives on in literature and early films. Among the more famous regiments in the lineages of modern Indian and Pakistani Armies are:[[Image:21lancers.JPG|right|thumb|right|The charge of the 21st Lancers at [[Battle of Omdurman|Omdurman]]]] * Governor General's Bodyguard (now [[President's Bodyguard (India)|President's Bodyguard]]) * Skinner's Horse (now India's [[1st Horse (Skinner's)]]) * Gardner's Lancers (now India's [[2nd Lancers (Gardner's)]]) * Hodson's Horse (now India's [[3rd Horse (Hodson's)]]) of the Bengal Lancers fame * [[6th Bengal Cavalry]] (later amalgamated with [[7th Hariana Lancers]] to form [[18th King Edward's Own Cavalry]]) now [[18th Cavalry]] of the [[Indian Army]] * Probyn's Horse (now Pakistani) * Royal Deccan Horse (now India's [[The Deccan Horse]]) * Poona Horse (now India's [[The Poona Horse]]) * [[Queen's Own Guides Cavalry]] (now partitioned between Pakistan and India). Several of these formations are still active, though they now are armoured formations, for example Guides Cavalry in Pakistan.<ref>http://defencejournal.com/jun99/guides-cavalry.htm</ref> The French Army maintained substantial cavalry forces in Algeria and Morocco from 1830 until the Second World War. Much of the Mediterranean coastal terrain was suitable for mounted action and there was a long established culture of horsemanship amongst the Arab and Berber inhabitants. The French forces included [[Spahis]], [[Chasseurs d' Afrique]], [[Foreign Legion]] cavalry and mounted [[Goumier]]s. === Cavalry's demise === [[Image:Italian cavalry drill.jpg|thumb|Italian cavalry officers practice their horsemanship in 1904 outside Rome.]] At the beginning of the 20th century all armies still maintained substantial cavalry forces although there was contention over whether their role should revert to that of mounted infantry (the historic dragoon function). Following their experience of the South African War of 1899 - 1902 (where mounted Boer citizen commandos fighting on foot from cover proved superior to regular cavalry) the British Army withdrew lances for all but ceremonial purposes and placed a new emphasis on training for dismounted action. In 1908 the lancer regiments resumed this impressive but obsolete weapon. Between 1881 and 1910 the Imperial Russian Army converted all its line hussar, lancer and cuirassier regiments to dragoons with an emphasis on mounted infantry training. In 1910 they reverted to their historic roles, designations and uniforms. In August 1914 all combatant armies still retained substantial numbers of cavalry and the mobile nature of the opening battles on both Eastern and Western Fronts provided a number of instances of traditional cavalry actions, though on a smaller and more scattered scale than those of previous wars. The Imperial German Cavalry, while as colourful and traditional as any in peacetime appearance, had adopted a practice of falling back on infantry support when any substantial opposition was encountered. These cautious tactics aroused derision amongst their more conservative French and Russian opponents but proved appropriate to the new nature of warfare. Once the front lines stabilised, a combination of barbed wire, machine guns and rapid fire rifles proved deadly to horse mounted troops. For the remainder of the War on the Western Front cavalry had virtually no role to play. The British and French armies dismounted many of their cavalry regiments and used them in infantry and other roles: the Life Guards for example as a machine gun corps; and the [[Australian Light Horse]] as light infantry during the Gallipoli campaign. The German Army dismounted nearly all their cavalry in the West. [[Image:KuK Kavallerie 1898.jpg|thumb|left|[[Austro-Hungarian Army|Austro-Hungarian]] cavalry, 1898.]] Some cavalry were retained as mounted troops behind the lines in anticipation of a breakthrough of the trenches that it seemed would never come. Unfortunately these cavalry forces looked upon the new tanks that began to appear late in the war with derision, thus they did not support tank attacks aggressively. This had unfortunate consequences as the tanks were able to achieve breakthroughs but did not have the reliable range to exploit them. Since the cavalry was not on hand to exploit the breakthroughs, history recorded no significant role for cavalry in mechanized warfare, and post war planning in the allied nations replaced horse cavalry with mechanized cavalry. In the wider spaces of the Eastern Front a more fluid form of warfare continued and there was some use for mounted troops, and some wide-ranging actions were fought, again mostly in the early months and years of the war.<ref name="Willmott">''First World War'' - Willmott, H.P., Dorling Kindersley, 2003</ref> However, even here the value of cavalry was over-rated and the maintenance of large mounted formations at the front by the Russian Army put a major strain on the railway system, to little strategic advantage.<ref>{{cite book | last = Stone | first = Norman | authorlink = | coauthors = | year = 1975 | title = "The Eastern Front 1914-17" | publisher = Charles Scribner's Sons | id = ISBN 0-684-14492-1 }}</ref>. In the Middle East mounted forces (British, Indian, Turkish, Australian, Arab and New Zealand) retained an important role, though of the mounted infantry variety. === Post World War I === In retrospect it was clear that by 1918 the advent of modern [[vehicle]]s with effective [[mobility]] and [[armor]] such as [[tank]]s and [[Armored car (military)|armored car]]s had spelled the end of horse troops as the key mobile element of an army. This change was made even more necessary by the development of the [[machine gun]] and other weapons which could easily destroy cavalry formations. Military aircraft had taken over the light cavalry roles of scouting, screening, and harassment at roughly the same time. As a result horses became relegated to [[logistical]] roles, with few exceptions (see [[tachanka]]), and cavalry traditions and insignia were often inherited by the emerging armored formations and air forces. A combination of military conservatism in almost all armies and post-war financial constraints prevented the lessons of 1914-18 being acted on immediately. There was a general reduction in the number of cavalry regiments in the British, French, Italian and other Western armies but it was still argued with conviction (for example in the 1922 edition of the [[Encyclopedia Britannia]]) that mounted troops had a major role to play in future warfare. The 1920s saw an interim period during which cavalry remained as a proud and conspicuous element of all major armies, though much less so than prior to 1914. The last major cavalry battle was the [[Battle of Komarów]] in 1920. Colonial warfare in Morocco, Syria, the Middle East and the [[North West Frontier]] of India provided some opportunities for mounted action against enemies lacking advanced weaponry. Interestingly the post-war German Army ([[Reichsheer]]) was permitted a large proportion of cavalry (18 regiments or 16.4% of total manpower) under the conditions of the [[Treaty of Versailles]]. The US Cavalry abandoned its sabres in 1934 and commenced the conversion of its horsed regiments to mechanised cavalry, starting with the First Regiment of Cavalry in January 1933. In the [[British Army]], all cavalry regiments were mechanised between 1929 and 1941, redefining their role from horse to armoured vehicles to form the [[Royal Armoured Corps]] together with the [[Royal Tank Regiment]]. The thirty-nine regiments of the [[Indian Army]] were reduced to twenty-one as the result of a series of amalgamations immediately following World War I. The new establishment remained unchanged until 1936 when three regiments were redesignated as permanent training units, each with six, still mounted, regiments linked to them. In 1938 the process of mechanism began with the conversion of a full cavalry brigade (two Indian regiments and one British) to armoured car and tank units. By the end of 1940 all of the Indian cavalry had been mechanised, receiving light tanks, armoured cars or 15cwt trucks. The last horsed regiment of the Indian Army (other than the Viceregal Bodyguard and some Indian States Forces regiments) was the 19th King George's Own Lancers which had its last mounted parade at Rawalpindi on 28 October 1939. This unit still exists (though in the Pakistan Army) with an armour TOE. During the 1930s the French Army experimented with integrating mounted and mechanised cavalry units into larger formations. Dragoon regiments were converted to motorised infantry (trucks and motor cycles), and cuirassiers to armoured units; while light cavalry (Chasseurs a' Cheval, Hussars and Spahis)remained as mounted sabre squadrons. The theory was that mixed forces comprising these diverse units could utilise the strengths of each according to circumstances. In practice mounted troops proved unable to keep up with fast moving mechanised units over any distance. === World War II === While most armies still maintained cavalry units at the outbreak of World War II in 1939, significant mounted action was largely restricted to the Polish and Soviet campaigns. A popular myth is that Polish cavalry armed with lances charged German tanks during the September 1939 campaign. This arose from misreporting of a single clash on 1 September near Krojanty, when two squadrons of the Polish 18th Lancers armed with sabres scattered German infantry before being caught in the open by German armoured cars<ref>{{cite book | last = Zaloga | first = S. J. | authorlink = | coauthors = | year = | title = "The Polish Army 1939-45" | publisher = | id = ISBN 0-85045-417-4 }}</ref>. See also [[Polish cavalry#Cavalry Charges and Propaganda|Polish cavalry]]. A more correct term should be "mounted infantry" instead of "cavalry", as horses were primarily used as a means of transportation, for which they were very suitable in view of the very poor road conditions in pre-war Poland. Another myth describes Polish cavalry as being armed with both sabres and lances; lances were used for peacetime ceremonial purposes only and the primary weapon of the Polish cavalryman in 1939 was a rifle. Individual equipment did include a sabre, probably because of well-established tradition, but in the case of a melee combat this secondary weapon would probably be more effective than a rifle and bayonet. Moreover, the [[Polish cavalry brigade order of battle]] of 1939 included, apart from the mounted soldiers themselves, light and heavy machine guns (wheeled), anti-tank and anti-aircraft weapon, artillery, light and scout tanks, etc. [[Image:Polish cavalry in Sochaczew(1939)a.jpg|thumb|left|Polish cavalry galloping through a bombed town during the [[Invasion of Poland (1939)|Polish Defensive War]] of 1939.]] By the final stages of the war only the Soviet Union was still fielding mounted units in substantial numbers, some in combined mechanised and horse units. The advantage of this approach was that in exploitation mounted infantry could easily keep pace with advancing tanks. This approach was also taken because of the high quality of Russian [[Cossacks]] as horse cavalry. Romanian, Hungarian and Italian cavalry had been dispersed or disbanded following the retreat of the Axis forces from Russia. Germany still maintained some mounted (mixed with bicycles) SS and Cossack units until the last days of the War. 18th Indian Cavalry Regiment (later 18 Cavalry of [[British Indian Army|Indian Army]]), fought in a dismounted role, in Tobruk as part of [[9th Australian Division]]. The US [[26th Cavalry Regiment (PS)]]; a small mounted regiment of [[Philippine Scouts]], fought the Japanese during the retreat down the Bataan peninsula, until it was effectively destroyed by January 1942. All British cavalry had been mechanised since 1942 and the last horsed US Cavalry (the [[2nd Cavalry Division (United States)|Second Cavalry Division]]) were dismounted in March 1944. The final cavalry charge by British Empire forces occurred on 21 March 1942 when a 60 strong patrol of the Burma Frontier Force encountered Japanese infantry near [[Toungoo]] airfield in central [[Burma]]. The [[Sikh]] [[sowar]]s of the Frontier Force cavalry, led by Captain Arthur Sandeman, charged in the old style with sabres and most were killed. The last substantive and successful classical cavalry charge of the war was probably that made by a cavalry unit of the [[Italian Expeditionary Corps in Russia]] (''Corpo di Spedizione Italiano in Russia'', or CSIR) on the [[Eastern Front (World War II)|Eastern Front]]. A charge by the 3rd Dragoons ''Savoia'' Cavalry Regiment of the Prince Amedeo Duke of Aosta Fast (''Celere'') Division was not only made, but it was successfully made. <ref>{{cite web|url=http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_qa3724/is_199810/ai_n8817479|title=Sabres for savoy|publisher=[[The Spectator]]|author=Nicholas Farrell|year=1998|month=Oct|day=31|accessdate=2008-02-02}}</ref> === Post World War II to present day=== [[Image:W-3 Sokół.jpg|thumb|right|Polish 66 Airforce Squadron of 25th Aeromobile Cavalry Brigade.]] The [[Soviet Army]] retained horse cavalry divisions until 1955, and even at the dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991, there was a separate horsed cavalry squadron in Kyrgyzstan.<ref>Carey Schofield, Inside the Soviet Army, Headline, 1991, p.133-134</ref> Several [[armour|armored]] divisions of the modern United States Army retain the designation of "cavalry". The [[United States]] also had "[[Air assault|air cavalry]]" units equipped with [[helicopter]]s, though that designation has fell out of use, with the term Air Assault coined for that mission and modern "cavalry" being retained for ground-based mobility. While most modern "cavalry" units have some historic connection with formerly mounted troops this is not always the case. The modern Irish Defence Force (IDF) includes a "Cavalry Corps" equipped with [[Panhard]] armoured cars and [[FV101 Scorpion|Scorpion tracked combat reconnaissance vehicles]]. The Irish Defense Force has never included horse cavalry since its establishment in 1922 (other than a small mounted escort drawn from the Artillery Corps when required for ceremonial occasions). However, the mystique of the cavalry is such that the name has been introduced for what was always a mechanised force. [[Image:US forces Operation Enduring Freedom.jpg|thumb|left|[[United States Army Special Forces]] on horseback with the [[Afghan Northern Alliance|Northern Alliance]] of [[Afghanistan]], which frequently used horses as military transport.]] Some engagements in late twentieth and early twenty first century [[guerrilla warfare|guerrilla]] wars involved mounted troops, particularly against partisan or guerrilla fighters in areas with poor transport infrastructure. Such units were not used as cavalry but rather as mounted infantry. Examples occurred in Afghanistan, Portuguese Africa and Rhodesia. The French Army used existing mounted squadrons of [[Spahis]] to a limited extent for patrol work during the Algerian War (1954-62) and the Swiss Army maintained a mounted dragoon regiment for combat purposes until 1973. There were reports of Chinese mounted troops in action during frontier clashes with Vietnam in the mid 1970s. The Portuguese Army used horse mounted cavalry with some success in the wars of independence in Angola and Mozambique in the 1960s and 1970s. During the 1964 - 79 [[Rhodesian Bush War]] the [[Rhodesian Army]] created an elite mounted infantry unit called [[Grey's Scouts]] to fight unconventional actions against the rebel forces of Robert Mugabe and Joseph Nkomo. The horse mounted infantry of the Scouts were very effective and feared by their their opponents in the rebel African forces. In the 1978 to present [[Afghan Civil War]] there have been several instances of horse mounted combat. South and Central American armies maintained mounted cavalry later than those of Europe, Asia or North America. The Mexican Army included a number of horse mounted cavalry regiments as late as the mid 1990s and the Chilean Army had five such regiments in 1983 as mounted mountain troops (see Jane's "Armed Forces of Latin America" by Adrian J. English). A number of armored regiments in the British Army retain the historic designations of Hussars, Dragoons, Dragoon Guards or Lancers. Only the Household Cavalry squadrons maintained for ceremonial duties in London are mounted. Cavalry or mounted gendarmerie units continue to be maintained for purely or primarily ceremonial purposes by the United States, British, French, Italian, Danish, Swedish, Dutch, Chilean, Portuguese, Moroccan, Nigerian, Venezuelan, Brazilian, Peruvian, Paraguayan, Polish, Argentine, Senegalese, Jordanian, Pakistani, Indian, Nepalese, Spanish and Bulgarian armed forces. The Army of the Russian Federation has recently reintroduced a ceremonial mounted squadron wearing historic uniforms. [[Image:20060302-9 d-0108-2-515h.jpg|thumb|The mounted [[President's Bodyguard (India)|President's Bodyguard]] of the [[Indian Army]] during a state visit by a foreign dignitary in [[New Delhi]], [[India]].]] In the United States, the Horse Cavalry Detachment of the U.S. Army's [[1st Cavalry Division (United States)|1st Cavalry Division]] is made up of active duty soldiers, still functions as an active unit, trained to approximate the weapons, tools, equipment and techniques used by the United States Cavalry in the 1880s.<ref>[http://pao.hood.army.mil/1stCavDiv/horseDet/default.html First Team! Horse Cavalry Detachment]</ref> <ref>Hubbell, Gary. "21st Century Horse Soldiers." ''Western Horseman,'' December 2006, pp. 45-50</ref> In addition, the Parsons' Mounted Cavalry is a Reserve Officer Training Corps unit which forms part of the [[Corps of Cadets]] at [[Texas A&M University]]. The [[French Army]] still has regiments with the historic designations of [[Cuirassiers]], [[Hussars]], [[Chasseurs]], [[Dragoons]] and [[Spahi]]s. Only the cavalry of the [[French Republican Guard|Republican Guard]] and a ceremonial fanfare (trumpeters) for the cavalry/armoured branch as a whole are now mounted. In the [[Canadian Army]], a number of regular and reserve units have cavalry roots, including [[The Royal Canadian Hussars (Montreal)]], [[the Governor General's Horse Guards]], [[Lord Strathcona's Horse]], the [[Royal Canadian Dragoons]], and the [[South Alberta Light Horse]]. Of these, only the Governor General's Horse Guards maintains an official ceremonial horse mounted cavalry squadron.<ref>The Honours, Flags, and Heritage Structure of the Canadian Forces</ref> Both the Australian and New Zealand Armies follow the British practice of maintaining traditional titles ([[Australian Light Horse|Light Horse]] or Mounted Rifles) for modern mechanised units. However, neither country retains a horse mounted unit. Today, the [[Indian Army]]'s 61st Cavalry is reported to be the only remaining non-ceremonial horse-mounted cavalry in the world.<ref>[http://www.indiapolo.com/Polopedia/Genesis/Indian_Army/61st_Cavalry/61st_cavalry.html India Polo Magazine]</ref>. It was raised in 1951 from the amalgamated state cavalry squadrons of Gwailior, Jodhpur, and Mysore. The 61st Cavalry together with the President's Body Guard parade in full dress uniform in New Delhi each year in what is probably the largest assembly of traditional cavalry still to be seen in the world. Both the Indian and Pakistan Armies maintain a number of armoured regiments with the titles of [[Lancer]]s or [[Horse]], dating back to the nineteenth century. As of 2007 the Chinese [[People's Liberation Army]] employs two battalions of horse cavalry in Xinjing Military District for border patrol work (see China-Defense.com website). ==Light and armoured cavalry== {{Seealso|Heavy cavalry|light cavalry}} [[Image:BattleofIssus333BC-mosaic-detail1.jpg|thumb|right|[[Alexander the Great]] using armoured cavalry, fighting Persian King [[Darius III]]]]Historically, cavalry was divided into light and [[heavy cavalry|armoured cavalry]] and [[Horse archer]]s. The differences were mainly the size of the mount, and how much armor was worn by the [[mount]] and [[rider]], and the active role they played in war. Early light cavalry (like the auxiliaries of the Roman army) were typically used to [[Reconnaissance|scout]] and [[skirmish]] and to cut down retreating infantry and for defeating enemy missile troops. Armoured cavalry like the [[Byzantine Empire|Byzantine]] [[Cataphract]] were used as shock troops &mdash; they would charge the main body of the enemy and in many cases, their actions decided the outcome of the battle, hance the later term "battle cavalry".<ref>p.490, Lynn</ref> During the [[Gunpowder warfare|Gunpowder Age]], armored cavalry began to approach obsolescence. However, many units retained [[cuirass]]es and helmets for their protective value against [[sword]] and [[bayonet]] strikes and the morale boost these provide to the wearers. By this time the main difference between light and battle cavalry was their training; the former was regarded as a tool for harassment and reconnaissance, while the latter was considered best for close-order charges. Since the development of armored warfare the distinction between light and heavy armor has persisted basically along the same lines. [[Armored car (military)|Armored car]]s and [[Tank classification#Light tanks|light tank]]s have adopted the [[reconnaissance]] role while medium and heavy tanks are regarded as the decisive [[shock troops]]. == Social status == From the beginning of civilization to the 20th century, ownership of heavy cavalry horses has been a mark of wealth amongst settled peoples. A cavalry horse involves considerable expense in breeding, training, feeding, and equipment, and has very little productive use except as a mode of transport. For this reason, and because of their often decisive military role, the cavalry has typically been associated with high [[social status]]. This was most clearly seen in the [[Feudalism|feudal system]], where a lord was expected to enter combat armored and on horseback and bring with him an entourage of [[peasants]] on foot. If landlords and peasants came into conflict, the peasants would be ill-equipped to defeat armored knights. In later national armies, service as an officer in the cavalry was generally a badge of high social status. For instance prior to 1914 most officers of British cavalry regiments came from a socially privileged background and the considerable expenses associated with their role generally required private means, even after it became possible for officers of the line infantry regiments to live on their pay. Options open to poorer cavalry officers in the various European armies included service with less fashionable (though often highly professional) frontier or colonial units. These included the British Indian cavalry, the Russian [[Cossacks]] or the French [[Chasseurs d' Afrique]]. During the nineteenth and early twentieth centuries most monarchies maintained a mounted cavalry element in their royal or imperial guards. These ranged from small units providing ceremonial escorts and palace guards through to large formations intended for active service. The mounted escort of the Spanish Royal Household provided an example of the former and the twelve cavalry regiments of the Prussian Imperial Guard an example of the latter. In either case the officers of such units were likely to be drawn from the aristocracies of their respective societies. ==On film== Some small sense of the noise and power of a cavalry charge can be gained from the 1970 film [[Waterloo (film)|''Waterloo'']], which featured some 2000 cavalrymen,{{Fact|date=February 2008}} some of them cossacks, in action. It includes beautiful displays of the horsemanship required to manage animal and weapon in a large company at the gallop (unlike the real [[battle of Waterloo]], where deep mud significantly slowed the horses)<ref>[http://www.channel4.com/history/microsites/H/history/t-z/waterloo.html ''Waterloo''] Film review by Major J G H Corrigan. Accessed 2008-02-07.</ref>. A smaller filmic cavalry charge can be seen in [[The Lord of the Rings: The Return of the King (film)|''The Lord of the Rings'']] (2003); although the finished scene has substantial [[computer-generated imagery]], raw footage and reactions of the riders are shown in the Extended Version DVD Appendices. ==Some cavalry forces== [[Image:blues.and.royals.closeup.london.arp.jpg|thumb|right|A Trooper of the [[Blues and Royals]] on mounted duty in [[Whitehall]], London]] *[[Bayreuth Dragoons]] *[[Blues and Royals]] ([[British Army]] now part of the [[Household Cavalry Regiment]]) *[[Cataphract]] *[[Chasseurs d'Afrique]] ([[French Army]] *[[Companion cavalry|Companions]] *[[Cossack]]s *[[Cuirassier]] *[[Dragoon]]s *[[Hakkapeliitta]] (Finnish cavalry of [[Thirty Years' War]] fame) *[[Garde Républicaine]] ([[Gendarmerie Nationale|French Gendarmerie]]) *[[The Governor General's Horse Guards|Governor General's Horse Guards]] (Canada) *[[Grey's Scouts]] ([[Rhodesian Army]] 1975 - 80) *[[Hussars]] *[[Polish Hussars|Polish winged hussars]] *[[Kalmyks]] *[[Lancer]]s *[[Life Guards]] ([[British Army]] now part of the [[Household Cavalry Regiment]]) *[[Australian Light Horse|Light Horse]] ([[Australian Army]]) *[[Mamluk]]s *[[Polish cavalry]] *[[Savari]] (Italian North African) *[[Savoia Cavalry]] *[[Sipahi]] (Ottoman) *[[South Alberta Light Horse]] ([[Canadian Army]]) *[[Spahi]] (French North African) *[[Uhlan]]s *[[United States Cavalry]] ==Some contemporary horse cavalry officers== * [[Brazilian Army|Brazil]]: [http://www.osorio.org.br/cci_osorio.htm Ataìde Barcelos Pereira, Regimento Osorio] * [[Canadian Forces Land Force Command|Canada]]: [http://www.maharaj.org/cavalry.shtml Akaash Maharaj, Governor General's Horse Guards] * [[French Army|France]]: [[Didier Courrèges|Didier Courrèges, Cadre Noir]] * [[Italian Army|Italy]]: [http://www.cism-milsport.org/eng/b1_sport/06_equestrian/02_tc.asp Giulio Serafini, COMFOD 1] * [[British Army|UK]]: [[Prince Harry of Wales|Harry Wales, Blues and Royals]] * [[United States Cavalry|USA]]: [http://www.edwinpriceramsey.com/ Edwin Ramsey, 26th Cavalry regiment] ==See also== * [[Cavalry tactics]] * [[Heavy Cavalry]] * [[Light Cavalry]] * [[Horses in warfare]] * [[War elephant]] * [[Tent pegging]] * [[Ski warfare]] * [[Cheval de frise]] * [[Rohirrim]] * See Lists of British Army cavalry regiments: ** [[List of British Army regiments (1881)|1881]] ** [[List of British Army regiments (1962)|1962]] ** [[List of British Army regiments (1994)|1994]] * [[Cavalry in the American Civil War]] * [[Casimir Pulaski]] * [[Order of the spur]] * [[Charge of the Light Brigade]] * [[Camel cavalry]] * [[London lobsters]] - English Civil War armoured cavalry unit ==Citations and notes== {{reflist}} ==References== * Ebrey, Walthall, Palais (2006). ''East Asia: A Cultural, Social, and Political History''. Boston: Houghton Mifflin Company. * Ebrey, Patricia Buckley (1999). The Cambridge Illustrated History of China. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-43519-6 (hardback); ISBN 0-521-66991-X (paperback). * Needham, Joseph (1986). ''Science and Civilization in China: Volume 4, Physics and Physical Technology, Part 2, Mechanical Engineering''. Taipei: Caves Books, Ltd. * Peers, C.J. (2006). ''Soldiers of the Dragon: Chinese Armies 1500 BC-AD 1840''. Oxford: Osprey Publishing. * Menon, Shanti, Chariot racers of the Steppes, ''Discover'', April, 1995 [http://www.findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_m1511/is_n4_v16/ai_16720826] * Rodger, N. A. M., ''The Safeguard of the Sea: A Naval History of Britain 660-1649'', W W Norton & Co Ltd., 1999 ISBN 039304579X * Muir, William, Annals of the Early Caliphate: From Original Sources, Smith, Elder & co., London, 1883 * Pargiter, Frederick Eden, Dr., Chronology based on: Ancient Indian Historical Tradition, Oxford University Press, H. Milford, 1924, Reprint 1997 * Lynn, John Albert, ''Giant of the Grand Siècle: The French Army, 1610-1715'', Cambridge University Press, 1997 ==Further reading== ==External links== * [http://napoleonistyka.atspace.com/French_Cavalry.html Napoleonic Cavalry] * [http://www.usregulars.com/Lippitt6.html Cavalry tactics from Francis J. Lippitt's, ''A Treatise on the Tactical Use of the Three Arms - Infantry, Artillery and Cavalry'' (1865)] * [http://www.lonesentry.com/articles/cavalry/index.html Cavalry in Mass (U.S. report on Russian cavalry organization and operations in World War II)] * [http://www.thehistorynet.com/wwii/blhorsewarriors/index2.html Italian Savoia Cavalry during World War 2] * [http://www.militaryhorse.org/ Society of the Military Horse] * [http://kavallerie.8ung.at/ Gesellschaft der Freunde der Kavallerie (German)] *http://www.bharat-rakshak.com/LAND-FORCES/Army/Reg-Arm.html * [http://www.counterpunch.org/hribal01182007.html ''A Horse is Worth More than Riches''] by Jason Hribal [[Category:Cavalry|*]] [[Category:Warfare of the Medieval era]] [[Category:Military occupations]] {{Link FA|he}} [[bar:Kavallerie]] [[bs:Konjica]] [[bg:Кавалерия]] [[ca:Cavalleria]] [[ceb:Cavalerie]] [[cs:Jezdectvo]] [[da:Kavaleri]] [[de:Kavallerie]] [[es:Caballería]] [[eo:Kavalerio]] [[fr:Cavalerie]] [[ko:기병]] [[hr:Konjica]] [[id:Kavaleri]] [[is:Riddaralið]] [[it:Cavalleria]] [[he:חיל פרשים]] [[lv:Kavalērija]] [[lt:Kavalerija]] [[hu:Lovasság]] [[mk:Коњаница]] [[mr:घोडदळ]] [[ms:Pasukan berkuda]] [[mn:Морин цэрэг]] [[nl:Cavalerie]] [[ja:騎兵]] [[no:Kavaleri]] [[pl:Jazda]] [[pt:Cavalaria]] [[ro:Cavalerie]] [[qu:Kawallu awqaq]] [[ru:Кавалерия]] [[simple:Cavalry]] [[sk:Jazdectvo (druh pozemných vojsk)]] [[sl:Konjenica]] [[sr:Konjica]] [[sh:Konjica]] [[fi:Ratsuväki]] [[sv:Kavalleri]] [[th:ทหารม้า]] [[vi:Kỵ binh]] [[tr:Süvari]] [[uk:Кіннота]] [[zh:骑兵]]