Central Asia
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[[Image:Central Asia Physical.jpg|thumb|460px|[[Physical map]] of Central Asia from the Caucasus in the northwest, to Mongolia in the northeast.]]
'''Central Asia''' is a region of [[Asia]] from the Caspian Sea in the west to central China in the east, and from southern Russia in the north to northern Pakistan in the south. It is also sometimes known as '''Middle Asia''' or '''Inner Asia''', and is within the scope of the wider [[Eurasia]]n continent. Though various definitions of its exact composition exist, no one definition is universally accepted. Despite this uncertainty in defining borders, it does have some important overall characteristics. For one, Central Asia has historically been closely tied to its [[nomad]]ic peoples and the [[Silk Road]].<ref>[http://www.allempires.com/article/index.php?q=Central_Asia Steppe Nomads and Central Asia]</ref> As a result, it has acted as a crossroads for the movement of people, goods, and ideas between [[Europe]], [[Western Asia]], [[South Asia]], and [[East Asia]].<ref>[http://www.silk-road.com/artl/srtravelmain.shtml Travelers on the Silk Road]</ref>
Central Asia is largely coextensive with [[Turkestan]]. In modern context, Central Asia consists of the five former [[Soviet]] republics of [[Kazakhstan]], [[Kyrgyzstan]], [[Tajikistan]], [[Turkmenistan]], and [[Uzbekistan]]. The nations of [[Afghanistan]] and [[Mongolia]] may also be included in Central Asia, in addition to the western Chinese provinces of [[Inner Mongolia]], [[Xinjiang]], [[Qinghai]] and [[Tibet]].
== Definitions ==
[[Image:Central Asia borders4.png|260px|thumb|Three sets of possible boundaries for the region]]
[[Image:Central Asia world region2.png|326px|thumb|Central Asia's location as a region of the world]]
In ancient [[Chinese history]] records, the term [[Western Regions]] was used to describe the lands to the west of [[China]].
The idea of Central Asia as a distinct region of the world was introduced in 1843 by the geographer [[Alexander von Humboldt]]. The borders of Central Asia are subject to multiple definitions. Many text books still refer to this area as [[Turkestan]], which was the name used prior to Stalin's rule.
The most limited definition was the official one of the [[Soviet Union]] that defined the "Middle Asia" as consisting solely of [[Uzbekistan]], [[Turkmenistan]], [[Tajikistan]], and [[Kyrgyzstan]], but did not include [[Kazakhstan]] and [[Mongolia]]. This definition was also often used outside the USSR in this period. However, the [[Russian language]] has two distinct terms: Средняя Азия (''Srednyaya Aziya'' or "Middle Asia", the narrower definition which includes only those traditionally non-Slavic, "Central Asian" lands that were incorporated within those borders of historical Russia) and Центральная Азия (''Tsentral'naya Azia'' or "Central Asia", the wider definition which includes "Central Asian" lands that have never been part of historical Russia). However, there lacks a meaningful distinction between the two in the [[English language]]; and so "Central Asia" is used for both Russian usages, thus creating some confusion.
Soon after independence, the leaders of the five former [[Soviet Union|Soviet]] [[Central Asian Republics]] met in [[Tashkent]] and declared that the definition of Central Asia should include Kazakhstan as well as the original four included by the Soviets. Since then, this has become the most common definition of Central Asia.
The [[UNESCO]] general history of Central Asia, written just before the collapse of the USSR, defines the region based on climate and uses far larger borders. According to it, Central Asia includes [[Mongolia]], Western [[People's Republic of China|China]] (including [[Tibet]]), northern [[India]] ([[Himachal Pradesh]], [[Jammu & Kashmir]], and [[Punjab (India)|Punjab]] states), northeast [[Iran]] ([[Golestān Province|Golestan]], [[North Khorasan Province|North Khorasan]], and [[Razavi Khorasan Province|Razavi]] provinces), Afghanistan, northern [[Pakistan]] ([[Punjab (Pakistan)|Punjab]], [[Northern Areas]], and [[N.W.F.P.]] provinces), central-east Russia south of the [[Taiga]], and the former Central Asian [[Soviet]] Republics (the five "Stans" of the former [[Soviet Union]]).
An alternative method is to define the region based on ethnicity, and in particular, areas populated by Eastern [[Turkic]], Eastern [[Iranian peoples|Iranian]], or [[Mongols|Mongolian]] peoples. These areas include [[Xinjiang]], the Turkic/[[Muslim]] regions of southern [[Siberia]], the five republics, and [[Afghan Turkestan]], northern [[Pakistan]] and [[Demography of Afghanistan|Afghans]]. The [[Tibetans]] are also included. Insofar, the mentioned peoples are considered the "indigenous" peoples of the vast region.
The Republic of [[Tuva]] (now part of the Russian Federation) is claimed to be located at the geographical center of Asia that has a location 200 miles (320 km) North of [[Urumqi]] <ref>[http://www.confluence.org/confluence.php?visitid=12710 43°40'52"N 87°19'52"E] Degree Confluence Project.</ref>
== Geography ==
[[Image:Central Asia climate.jpg|thumb|375px|[[Climate]] map of Central Asia. This map clearly illustrates the boundaries of Central Asia. From the northwest, the mountain climate (purple) extends from the [[Caucasus]], through [[Iran]]ian [[Azerbaijan]], along the Iranian border, through [[Afghanistan]], and into [[Tibet]] in the southeast. The steppe climate (peach) extends from the North Caucasus in the northwest, over the [[Caspian Sea]], through [[Kazakhstan]], and around [[Mongolia]] in the northeast. The arid climates of the [[Fergana|Ferghana Valley]], [[Takla Makan]] and [[Gobi]] deserts are also prominently visible. The labels refer to the [[Trewartha climate classification scheme]].
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<!-- FAIR USE of Central_Asia_climate.jpg: see image description page at http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:Central_Asia_climate.jpg for rationale -->Central Asia is an extremely large region of varied geography, including high passes and [[mountain ranges|mountains]] ([[Tian Shan]]), vast [[desert]]s ([[Kara Kum]], [[Kyzyl Kum]], [[Taklamakan]]), and especially treeless, grassy [[steppe]]s. The vast steppe areas of Central Asia are considered together with the steppes of [[Eastern Europe]] as a homogenous geographical zone known as the [[Euro-Asian Steppe]].
Much of the land of Central Asia is too dry or too rugged for farming. The [[Gobi desert]] extends from the foot of the [[Pamir Mountains|Pamir]]s, 77° east, to the [[Great Khingan]] (Da Hinggan) Mountains, 116°–118° east.
Central Asia has the following geographic extremes:
*The world's northernmost [[desert]] ([[dune|sand dunes]]), at Buurug Deliin Els, [[Mongolia]], 50°18' north.
*The [[Northern Hemisphere|Northern Hemisphere's]] southernmost [[permafrost]], at Erdenetsogt sum, [[Mongolia]], 46°17' north.
*The world's shortest distance between non-frozen [[desert]] and [[permafrost]]: 770 km (440 mi).
A majority of the people earn a living by herding livestock. Industrial activity centers in the region's cities.
Major rivers of the region include the [[Amu Darya]], the [[Syr Darya]] and the [[Hari River, Afghanistan|Hari River]]. Major bodies of water include the [[Aral Sea]] and [[Lake Balkhash]], both of which are part of the huge west/central Asian [[endorheic]] basin that also includes the [[Caspian Sea]]. Both of these bodies of water have shrunk significantly in recent decades due to diversion of water from rivers that feed them for irrigation and industrial purposes. Water is an extremely valuable resource in arid Central Asia, and can lead to rather significant international disputes.
===Climate===
Since Central Asia is not buffered by a large body of water, temperature fluctuations are more severe.
According to the [[Köppen climate classification]] system, Central Asia is part of the [[Palearctic]] [[ecozone]]. The largest [[biome]] in Central Asia is the [[Temperate grasslands, savannas, and shrublands]] biome. Central Asia also contains the [[Montane grasslands and shrublands]], [[Deserts and xeric shrublands]] and [[Temperate coniferous forests]] biomes.
== History ==
{{main|History of Central Asia}}
[[Image:PazyrikHorseman.JPG|thumb|130px|A [[Scythian]] horseman from the general area of the [[Ili river]], [[Pazyryk]], c.[[300 BCE]].]]
The history of Central Asia is defined by the area's climate and geography. The aridness of the region made agriculture difficult and its distance from the sea cut it off from much trade. Thus few major cities developed in the region, instead the area was for millennia dominated by the nomadic horse peoples of the [[steppe]].
Relations between the steppe [[nomads]] and the settled people in and around Central Asia were long marked by conflict. The nomadic lifestyle was well suited to [[war]]fare and the steppe [[Horses in warfare|horse riders]] became some of the most militarily potent peoples in the world, only limited by their lack of internal unity. Any internal unity that was achieved, was most probably due to the influence of the [[Silk Road]], which traveled along Central Asia. Periodically great leaders or changing conditions would organize several tribes into to one force, and create an almost unstoppable power. These included the [[Huns|Hun]] invasion of Europe, the [[Wu Hu]] attacks on China and most notably the [[Timeline of Mongol conquests|Mongol conquest]] of much of [[Eurasia]].<ref>[http://www.sfusd.k12.ca.us/schwww/sch618/Ibn_Battuta/Battuta's_Trip_Three.html A Land Conquered by the Mongols]</ref>
The dominance of the nomads ended in the [[16th century]], as [[firearm]]s allowed settled peoples to gain control of the region. [[Russia]], [[China]], and other powers expanded into the region and had captured the bulk of Central Asia by the end of the nineteenth century. After the [[Russian Revolution of 1917|Russian Revolution]] the Central Asian regions were incorporated into the Soviet Union. Mongolia remained independent but became a Soviet [[satellite state]]. The Soviet areas of Central Asia saw much industrialization and construction of infrastructure, but also the suppression of local cultures, hundreds of thousands of deaths from failed collectivization programs, and a lasting legacy of ethnic tensions and environmental problems.
With the collapse of the [[Soviet Union]] five countries gained independence. In nearly all the new states former Communist Party officials retained power as local strongmen. None of the new republics could be considered functional democracies, although it appears [[Kyrgyzstan]] may achieve this. Other parts of Central Asia remain part of China or Russia.
==Culture==
[[Image:Central Asian Buddhist Monks.jpeg|thumb|170px|Blue-eyed Central Asian ([[Tocharian]]?) and East-Asian Buddhist monks, [[Bezeklik]], Eastern [[Tarim Basin]], 9th-10th century.<ref>[http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/nova/transcripts/2502chinamum.html Mysterious Mummies of China]</ref>]]
===Religions===<!-- This section is linked from [[Kashgar]] -->
[[Islam]] is the religion most common in the [[Central Asian Republics]], Afghanistan, Xinjiang and the peripheral western regions, such as [[Bashkiria]]. Most Central Asian Muslims are [[Sunni]], although there are sizeable [[Shia Islam|Shia]] minorities in Afghanistan and Pakistan. [[Hinduism]] is the religion most prevalent in northwest India although there is a considerable presence of [[Islam]]. There are also sizeable minorities of Hindus in Pakistan and Afghanistan. [[Tibetan Buddhism]] is most common in Tibet, Mongolia, and the southern Russian regions of Siberia, where [[Shamanism]] is also popular. Increasing [[Han Chinese]] migration westward since the establishment of the PRC has brought [[Confucianism]] and other beliefs into the region. [[Nestorianism]] was the form of Christianity most practiced in the region in previous centuries, but now the largest denomination is the [[Russian Orthodox Church]], with many members in Kazakhstan. The [[Bukharian Jews]] were once a sizable community in Uzbekistan and Tajikistan, but nearly all have emigrated since the [[Collapse of the Soviet Union]] and the revival of [[Islam]] in the region.
===Arts===
[[Image:Yama the Lord of Death.jpg|thumb|right|100px|[[Yama (Buddhism and Chinese mythology)|Yama]], the [[Tibet|Tibetan]]Lord of Death.]]
At the crossroads of Asia, shamanist practices live alongside [[Buddhism]]. Thus [[Yama (Buddhism and Chinese mythology)|Yama]], Lord of Death, was revered in Tibet as a spiritual guardian and judge. Mongolian Buddhism in particular influenced Tibetan Buddhism. The [[Qianlong]] Emperor of China in the 18th century was Tibetan Buddhist, and would sometimes travel from [[Beijing]] to other cities for personal religious worship.
Note the human skulls and severed heads that festoon Yama's crown and necklace, which give some concept of the size that Yama was expected to be when one faced him at one's death.
This particular [[Dharmapala]] is painted wood, four feet high in total.
Central Asia also has an indigenous form of improvisational [[oral poetry]] which is over 1000 years old. It is principally practiced in Kyrgyzstan and Kazakhstan by ''akyns'', lyrical improvisationists. They will engage in [[Freestyle battle|lyrical battles]], the ''aitysh'' or the ''alym sabak''. The tradition arose out of early bardic [[Oral history|oral historians]]. They are usually accompanied by a [[String instrument|stringed instrument]]—in Kyrgyzstan, a three-stringed ''[[komuz]]'' and in Kazakhstan a similar two-stringed instrument. Some also learn to sing the ''[[Manas (epic)|Manas]]'', Kyrgyzstan's epic poem (those who learn the ''Manas'' exclusively but do not improvise are called ''manaschis''). During Soviet rule, ''akyn'' performance was co-opted by the authorities and subsequently declined in popularity. With the fall of the Soviet Union it has enjoyed a resurgence, although ''akyns'' still do use their art to campaign for political candidates. A 2005 [[Washington Post]] article proposed a similarity between the improvisational art of akyns and modern [[freestyle rap]] performed in the West.<ref>[http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/articles/A10646-2005Mar5.html «In Central Asia, a Revival of an Ancient Form of Rap - Art of Ad-Libbing Oral History Draws New Devotees in Post-Communist Era» by Peter Finn, Washington Post Foreign Service, Sunday, [[March 6]], [[2005]], p. A20.]</ref>
== Demographics ==
[[Image:Central Asia Ethnic.jpg|thumb|400px|The Ethnolinguistic patchwork of '''Central Asia''']]
By the most inclusive definition, more than 80 million people live in Central Asia, about 2% of Asia's total population. Of the regions of Asia, only [[North Asia]] has fewer people. It has a population density of 9 people per km², vastly less than the 80.5 people per km² of the continent as a whole.
{|style="margin: 0 0 0.5em 0.5em; float: right; clear: right; border: 1px #aaa solid; border-collapse: collapse;"
!style="padding: 5px; background-color: yellow;"|Major languages<br>of Central Asia
|-
|style="padding: 0 0 0 10px;"|[[Turkic languages]]
*[[Turkmen language|Turkmen]]
*[[Kazakh language|Kazakh]]
*[[Kyrgyz language|Kyrgyz]]
*[[Tatar language|Tatar]]
*[[Uzbek language|Uzbek]]
*[[Uyghur language|Uyghur]]
|-
|style="padding: 0 0 0 10px;"|[[Iranian languages]]
*[[Persian language|Persian]]
:*[[Dari (of Afghanistan)|Dari]]
:*[[Tajik language|Tajik]]
:*[[Bukhori]]
*[[Pushtu language|Pashto]]
*[[Baluchi language| Baluchi]]
*[[Kurdish language|Kurdish]]
*[[Pamiri language|Pamiri]]
|-
|style="padding: 0 0 0 10px;"|Other major languages
*[[Mongolian language|Mongolian]]
*[[Tibetan language|Tibetan]]
|-
|style="padding: 0 0 0 10px;"|[[lingua franca|Linguae francae]]
*[[Russian language|Russian]]
*[[Chinese language|Chinese]]
*[[Persian language|Persian]]
|}
===Languages===
<!-- ''[[Central Asian Languages|Main Article]]'' -->
The languages of the majority of the inhabitants of the former [[Soviet]] [[Central Asian Republics]] come from the [[Turkic languages|Turkic language group]].<ref>[http://www.hunmagyar.org/turan/ethno.html Ethnographic maps]</ref> [[Turkmen language|Turkmen]], closely related to [[Turkish language|Turkish]] (they are both members of the [[Oghuz Turks|Oghuz]] group of Turkic), is mainly spoken in [[Turkmenistan]] and into [[Afghanistan]], [[Pakistan]], [[Iran]] and [[Turkey]]. [[Kazakh language|Kazakh]], [[Kyrgyz language|Kyrgyz]] and [[Tatar language|Tatar]] are related languages of the [[Kipchaks|Kypchak]] group of Turkic languages, and are spoken throughout [[Kazakhstan]], [[Kyrgyzstan]] and [[Tajikistan]], and into [[Afghanistan]], [[Xinjiang]] and [[Qinghai]]. [[Uzbek language|Uzbek]] and [[Uyghur language|Uyghur]] are spoken in [[Uzbekistan]], [[Tajikistan]] and [[Xinjiang]].
[[Russian language|Russian]], as well as being spoken by around six million ethnic [[Russians]] and [[Ukrainians]] of Central Asia<ref>Robert Greenall, [http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/asia-pacific/4420922.stm Russians left behind in Central Asia], [[BBC News]], [[23 November]] [[2005]].</ref>, is a [[lingua franca]] throughout the former [[Soviet]] [[Central Asian Republics]]. [[Chinese language|Mandarin Chinese]] has an equally dominant presence in [[Inner Mongolia]], [[Qinghai]] and [[Xinjiang]].
The [[Turkic languages]] belong to the much larger [[Altaic languages|Altaic]] language family, which includes [[Mongolian language|Mongolian]]. Mongolian is spoken throughout the region of [[Mongolia]] and into Inner Mongolia, [[Qinghai]] and [[Xinjiang]].
[[Iranian languages]] were once spoken throughout Central Asia, but the once prominent [[Sogdian language|Sogdian]],[[Chorasmian]], [[Bactrian language|Bactrian]] and [[Scythian language|Scythian]] languages are now extinct. However, the [[Persian language]] is still spoken in the region, locally known as [[Dari (of Afghanistan)|Dari]] or [[Tajik language|Tajik]]. [[Pushtu language|Pashto]] is spoken in [[Afghanistan]] and [[Pakistan]].[[Bukhori]] is a [[Persian language| Persian]] dialect spoken by the Bukharian Jews.
The [[Tibetan language]] is spoken by around six million people across the [[Tibetan Plateau]] and into [[Qinghai]] and [[Sichuan]].
== Geostrategy ==
{{Main|Geostrategy in Central Asia}}
Central Asia has long been a strategic location merely because of its proximity to several great powers on the Eurasian landmass. The region itself never held a dominant stationary population, nor was able to make use of natural resources. Thus it has rarely throughout history become the seat of power for an empire or influential state. Central Asia has been divided, redivided, conquered out of existence, and fragmented time and time again. Central Asia has served more as the battleground for outside powers, than as a power in its own right.
Central Asia had both the advantage and disadvantage of a central location between four historical seats of power. From its central location, it has access to trade routes to and from all the regional powers. On the other hand, it has been continuously vulnerable to attack from all sides throughout its history, resulting in political fragmentation or outright power vacuum, as it is successively dominated.
[[Image:Great Game cartoon from 1878.jpg|thumb|right|200px|Political cartoon from the period of the [[The Great Game|Great Game]] showing the Afghan Amir Sher Ali with his "friends" Imperial Russia and the United Kingdom (1878)]]
*To the North, the steppe allowed for rapid mobility, first for nomadic horseback warriors like the Huns and Mongols, and later for Russian traders, eventually supported by railroads. As the Russian empire expanded to the East, it would also push down into Central Asia towards the sea, in a search for warm water ports. The Soviet bloc would reinforce dominance from the North, and attempt to project power as far south as Afghanistan.
*To the East, the demographic and cultural weight of Chinese empires continually pushed outward into Central Asia. Manchu Qing dynasty would conquer [[Uyghurstan]]/[[East Turkistan]] and Tibet. As part of the Sino-Soviet bloc, China would swallow Tibet. However, with the Sino-Soviet split, China would project power into Central Asia, most notably in the case of Afghanistan, to counter Russian dominance of the region.
*To the Southeast, the demographic and cultural influence of India was felt in Central Asia, notably in Tibet, the Hindu Kush, and slightly beyond. Several historical Indian dynasties, especially those seated along the Indus river would expand into Central Asia. India's ability to project power into Central Asia has been limited due to the mountain ranges in Pakistan, and the cultural differences between Hindu India, and what would become a mostly Muslim Central Asia.
*To the Southwest, Western Asian powers have expanded into the Southern areas of Central Asia (usually, Uzbekistan, Afghanistan, and Pakistan). Several Persian empires would conquer and reconquer parts of Central Asia; Alexander the Great's Hellenic empire would extend into Central Asia; two Islamic empires would exert substantial influence throughout the region; and the modern state of Iran has projected influence throughout the region as well.
In the post-Cold War era, Central Asia is an ethnic cauldron, prone to instability and conflicts, without a sense of national identity, but rather a mess of historical cultural influences, tribal and clan loyalties, and religious fervor. Projecting influence into the area is no longer just Russia, but also Turkey, Iran, China, Pakistan, India and the United States:
*Russia continues to dominate political decision-making throughout the former SSRs, although as these countries shed their post-Soviet authoritarian systems, Russia's influence is slowly waning.
*China, already controlling Xinjiang and Tibet, projects significant power in the region, especially in energy/oil politics (for example, through the [[Shanghai Cooperation Organization]]).
*India, as a nuclear-armed rising power, exercises some influence in the region, especially in Tibet with which it has cultural affinities. India is also perceived as a potential counterweight to China's regional power. The [[Indian Air Force]] operates the [[Farkhor Air Base]] in [[Tajikistan]].
*Turkey exerts considerable influence in the region on account of its ethnic and linguistic ties with the Turkic peoples of Central Asia and its involvement in the [[Baku-Tbilisi-Ceyhan pipeline|Baku-Tbilisi-Ceyhan oil pipeline]]. Political and economic relations are growing rapidly (e.g. Turkey recently eliminated visa requirements for citizens of the Central Asian Turkic republics).
*Iran, the seat of historical empires which controlled parts of Central Asia, has historical and cultural links to the region, and is vying to construct an oil pipeline from the Caspian Sea to the Persian Gulf.
*Pakistan, a large and nuclear-armed state, helped to sustain Taliban rule in Afghanistan, and is capable of exercising some influence. For some Central Asian nations, the shortest route to the ocean lies through Pakistan. Pakistan seeks [[Natural Gas]] from Central Asia, and supports the development of pipelines from its countries.
*And the United States with its military involvement in the region, and oil diplomacy, is also significantly involved in the region's politics.
===Oil politics===
{{further|[[Oil geostrategy]], [[Pipeline transport]], [[Caspian Sea]], and [[Petroleum politics]]}}
===War on Terror===
In the context of the United States' [[War on Terror]], Central Asia has once again become the center of geostrategic calculations. Pakistan's status has been upgraded by the U.S.-government to [[Major non-NATO ally]] because of its central role in serving as a staging point for the invasion of Afghanistan, providing intelligence on Al-Qaeda operations in the region, and leading the hunt on Osama bin Laden, believed to still be in the region. Afghanistan, which had served as a haven and source of support for Al-Qaeda, under the protection of Mullah Omar and the [[Taliban]], was the target of a U.S. invasion in 2001, and ongoing reconstruction and drug-eradication efforts. U.S. military bases have also been established in Uzbekistan and Kyrgyzstan, causing both Russia and the People's Republic of China to voice their concern over a permanent U.S. military presence in the region.
It is argued that the Russia, China and former SSRs have taken advantage of the War on Terror to increase oppression of separatist ethnic minorities. Washington, which considers Russia and China as strategic partners in the War on Terror, has largely turned a blind eye to these actions. The ethnically diverse former SSRs, especially Uzbekistan have reclassified ethnic separatist attacks as terrorist attacks and pursued more oppressive policies.{{Fact|date=May 2008}}
==See also==
*[[Agriculture in Central Asia]]
*[[Central Asian studies]]
*[[Central Asian Union]]
*[[Eurasian nomads]]
*[[Euro-Asian Steppe]]
*[[Central Asia Health Review]]
*[[Great Game]] (the rivalry between the [[British Empire]] and [[Tsarist Russia]] in the 19th century for control of Central Asia)
*[[Hindutash]]
*[[Khotan]]
*[[Music of Central Asia]]
*[[Soviet Central Asia]] (1924-1991)
*[[Survey of India]]
*[[Turkistan]]
*[[Afghan Turkestan]]
*[[University of Central Asia]]
==References==
{{reflist}}
* Dani, A.H. and V.M. Masson eds. ''UNESCO History of Civilizations of Central Asia''. Paris: [[UNESCO]], 1992.
* [[Michael Mandelbaum|Mandelbaum, Michael]]. ed. ''Central Asia and the World: Kazakhstan, Uzbekistan, Tajikistan, Kyrgyzstan, and Turkmenistan'' [[New York]]: [[Council on Foreign Relations]] Press, 1994.
* [[Martha Brill Olcott|Olcott, Martha Brill]]. ''Central Asia's New States: Independence, Foreign policy, and Regional security.'' [[Washington, D.C.]]: [[United States Institute of Peace Press]], 1996.
* [[Svat Soucek|Soucek, Svatopluk]]. ''A History of Inner Asia.'' [[Cambridge]]: [[Cambridge University Press]], 2000.
* Marcinkowski, M. Ismail. ''Persian Historiography and Geography: Bertold Spuler on Major Works Produced in Iran, the Caucasus, Central Asia, Pakistan and Early Ottoman Turkey'', [[Singapore]]: [[Pustaka Nasional]], 2003.
* [[Ted Rall|Rall, Ted]]. "Silk Road to Ruin: Is Central Asia the New Middle East?" New York: [[NBM Publishing]], 2006.
* Stone, L. A' 'The International Politics of Central Eurasia', (272 pp). Central Eurasian Studies On Line: Accessible via the Web Page of the International Eurasian Institute for Economic and Political Research: http://www.iicas.org/forumen.htm
* Weston, David. [http://www.ericdigests.org/pre-9211/asia.htm ''Teaching about Inner Asia''], Bloomington, Indiana: ERIC Clearinghouse for Social Studies, 1989.
== External links ==
* [http://www.cahr.info Central Asia Health Review]
* [http://www.cambridge-centralasia.org/ University of Cambridge Central Asia Forum]
* [http://www.visitcentral.asia Central Asia Gateway]
* [http://www.fas.harvard.edu/~casww/index.html/ Central Eurasian Studies World Wide]
* [http://www.getcited.org/mbrx/PT/2/MBR/10819625 Publications on the history of Central Asia Prior to 1917]
* [http://www.ucentralasia.org/ University of Central Asia]
* [http://www.silkpress.com/ Discovery Central Asia magazine: Publications on the travel, history and culture of Central Asia]
* [http://www.neurope.eu/ New Europe News] Extensive news coverage and analysis of Central Asia.
* [http://www.pubmedcentral.nih.gov/articlerender.fcgi?tool=pubmed&pubmedid=15077202 Where West Meets East: The Complex mtDNA Landscape of the Southwest and Central Asian Corridor]
* [http://aton.ttu.edu Texas Tech University, full-text examples of Central Asian literature]
* [http://www.iicas.org/forumen.htm] The International Politics of Central Eurasia], (272 pp). Central Eurasian Studies On Line: The International Eurasian Institute for Economic and Political Research, 2001.
*[http://www.letrs.indiana.edu/web/r/rifiasbib/ Research Institute for Inner Asian Studies (RIFIAS) Library Online Catalog Text Collection] is one of North America's premier resources for teaching and research in the history, languages, literatures, geography, religions, and cultures of Inner Asia and is located at Indiana University
*[http://www.oac.unito.it/english/index.html University of Turin-Observatory on Central Asia]
*[http://www.sras.org/library_central_asia The Library: Central Asia] Info on politics, universities, culture, languages, etc.
{{Countries of Central Asia}}
{{Regions of the world}}
[[Category:Central Asia| ]]
[[Category:Regions of Asia]]
[[Category:Biodiversity hotspots]]
[[ar:آسيا الوسطى]]
[[an:Asia Zentral]]
[[frp:Asia centrâla]]
[[az:Mərkəzi Asiya]]
[[bn:মধ্য এশিয়া]]
[[zh-min-nan:Tiong-a]]
[[be-x-old:Цэнтральная Азія]]
[[bs:Srednja Azija]]
[[bg:Централна Азия]]
[[ca:Àsia Central]]
[[cs:Střední Asie]]
[[cy:Canolbarth Asia]]
[[de:Zentralasien]]
[[et:Kesk-Aasia]]
[[es:Asia Central]]
[[eo:Mez-Azio]]
[[eu:Erdialdeko Asia]]
[[fa:آسیای میانه]]
[[fr:Asie centrale]]
[[fy:Sintraal-Aazje]]
[[gl:Asia Central]]
[[ko:중앙아시아]]
[[hr:Srednja Azija]]
[[id:Asia Tengah]]
[[is:Mið-Asía]]
[[it:Asia centrale]]
[[he:מרכז אסיה]]
[[kn:ಮಧ್ಯ ಏಶಿಯಾ]]
[[kk:Орталық Азия]]
[[kw:Asi Gres]]
[[lv:Centrālāzija]]
[[lt:Vidurinė Azija]]
[[hu:Közép-Ázsia]]
[[mr:मध्य आशिया]]
[[ms:Asia Tengah]]
[[nl:Centraal-Azië]]
[[ja:中央アジア]]
[[no:Sentral-Asia]]
[[nrm:Âsie du Mitan]]
[[uz:O'rta Osiyo]]
[[pl:Azja Środkowa]]
[[pt:Ásia Central]]
[[ro:Asia Centrală]]
[[ru:Центральная Азия]]
[[scn:Asia cintrali]]
[[simple:Central Asia]]
[[sl:Srednja Azija]]
[[sr:Централна Азија]]
[[sh:Srednja Azija]]
[[fi:Keski-Aasia]]
[[sv:Centralasien]]
[[tl:Gitnang Asya]]
[[ta:நடு ஆசியா]]
[[th:เอเชียกลาง]]
[[vi:Trung Á]]
[[tg:Осиёи миёна]]
[[tr:Orta Asya]]
[[uk:Центральна Азія]]
[[ur:وسط ایشیا]]
[[wo:Diggu Asi]]
[[zh:中亚]]